Home Physical Sciences Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Atalantia monophylla: A potential eco-friendly agent for controlling blood-sucking vectors
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Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Atalantia monophylla: A potential eco-friendly agent for controlling blood-sucking vectors

  • Kuppusamy Elumalai , M. R. Kavipriya EMAIL logo , A. Lakshmi Prabha , Kaliyamoorthy Krishnappa , Jeganathan Pandiyan , Marcello Nicoletti , Naiyf S. Alharbi , Shine Kadaikunnan , Jamal M. Khaled and Marimuthu Govindarajan EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: September 23, 2022
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Green Processing and Synthesis
From the journal Green Processing and Synthesis Volume 11 Issue 1

Abstract

Developing floral-based replacement molecules might manage blood-sucking vectors in an eco-friendly way. Atalantia monophylla (Am) aqueous leaf extract (ALE) and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) were evaluated against mosquitoes (Aedes vittatus, Anopheles subpictus, and Culex vishnui) and ticks (Haemaphysalis bispinosa, Rhipicephalus microplus, and R. sanguineus) at different concentrations. Phytochemical screening and AgNPs’ synthesis were performed on ALE of A. monophylla. UV-visible spectroscopy, Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, scanning electron microscope, and transmission electron microscope were used to examine the synthesized Am-AgNPs. A. monophylla’s ALE included alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, tannins, triterpenes, coumarins, anthraquinones, and phenolics. Am-AgNPs had a higher LC50 (22.19, 23.92, 26.09, 40.25, 51.87, and 60.53 μg·mL−1, respectively) than leaf aqueous extract (LAE) against Ae. vittatus, An. subpictus, Cx. vishnui, H. bispinosa, R. microplus, and R. sanguineus larvae. A. monophylla ALE and Am-AgNPs’ bio-toxicity was investigated against aquatic and terrestrial non-target species (Acilius sulcatus, Anisops bouvieri, Araneus mitificus, and Cyrtophora moluccensis) with LC50 values ranging from 2,094.5 to 10,532.8 μg·mL−1, respectively. A. monophylla ALE and Am-AgNPs had little negative impacts on the chosen non-target fauna. Environmental protection is important nowadays. Green AgNPs are low-cost, readily accessible, environmentally safe, and effective pesticides. Am-AgNPs are effective alternative insecticides, requiring a considerable study on this plant to control blood-sucking vectors for worldwide human/animal health importance.

Graphical abstract

Keywords: greener nanoparticles; blood-sucking vectors; larval toxicity; environmental safety; non-target fauna

1 Introduction

Blood-sucking vectors (BSVs) generating an abundance of newly developing illnesses substantially affect livestock and public health [1]. As a vector, ticks disperse pathogens responsible for causing cardinal diseases among cattle and human beings [2]. Around 900 tick species were recently identified [3]. The life-threatening pathogenic viruses are conveyed to animals by infected ticks’ bites, especially in the family Ixodidae [4]. Ticks are notorious vectors for around 38 pathogenic viral species transmitted in the animal kingdom [5]. Worldwide, US$ 7 billion is lost annually, and nearly 80% of farm animals are in high-risk because of ticks and tick-borne diseases (TTBDs). They are very serious BSVs that spread several arboviruses above 80% in lives-stock and have a positive infection of TTBDs [6]. India alone estimated annually US$ 498.7 million in economic loss and around 1.1 million cattle deaths caused by TTBDs. They are significant ectoparasites and taste various vertebrates’ blood [7,8]. Adult females taken more than 1 week to complete their feeding, consequently transmitting several pathogens to the host [9]. Nearly 7,000 eggs can be laid by a fully blood-fed female tick, an average of 4,000. The eggs’ laying capacity depends on their size and the quantity of blood they ingest [10]. Tick bites highly injure the skin, cause severe weight losses in farm animals, lower quality/quantity of milk and meat production, and lead to poor markets of infected animal skin in the leather industry [11].

Dipterans are very dangerous and deadly vectors of vertebrates that may highly cause vector-borne epidemics and pandemics in the animal kingdom [12]. Mosquitoes transmit disease and cause death in both animals and humans [13]. Across the world, millions of human societies suffer from diseases spread by human vector mosquitos [14]. Vector-borne diseases (VBDs) are incredibly challenging and cause social-economic defeat worldwide [15]. In India alone, synthetic chemical pesticides (SCPs) are consumed above two million tons annually and unadvisable SCPs are common strategies for controlling diverse BSVs. Indiscriminate application of unadvisable SCPs increased worldwide as the results extremely irreversibly inhibit different bio-activities defects of enzymatic, hormonal, neural, metabolic, respiratory, reproductive, and genomic on faunal and floral communities [16]. These problems have been co-existing for several years in environmental compartments; around 355,000 human deaths associated with SCP poisoning have been recorded annually [17].

In this scenario, bio-relative eco-weapons are urgently needed as alternate remedies for SCPs. Biodegradable phytochemicals (PCs) are the most excellent alternate tool for BSVs’ eradication and zero toxicity harm to the natural ecosystem [18]. Several countries turn towards PCs to kick the variety of VBDs and it has the potential entomotoxicity, which can be extracted from different plants. Atalantia monophylla Linn. (Rutaceae), commonly called wild lime, has been used as folk medicine in many countries. It has a wide variety of biotic potentials: antispasmodic, paralysis, chronic rheumatism, hemiplegia, leaf decoction applied for itching skin, pesticide/mosquitocidal activity, etc., [19]. The plant accumulates various PCs: alkaloids, benzoyltyramines, coumarins, flavonoids, furoquinoline, limonoids, steroids, triterpenoids, etc., [20]. A. monophylla woody climbers are abundant in wild tropic terrains with a versatile therapeutic usage and can cure hemiplegia, arthritis, skin diseases, and bacterial infections. Earlier, many works have been done on different pesticidal activities [21,22], mosquitocidal activities [23], antibacterial [24], antifungal [25], medicinal properties [26], antiproliferative [27], and stored product pests [19]. The nanomaterials were synthesized by plenty of methods. However, green synthesis has been a widely used prime method because it has fewer chemicals, negligible price, eco-safety, nontoxic, natural preparation, etc. Recently, nanoscience and nanotechnology are play vital roles in various fields: medicinal properties, bio-catalytic activities, antioxidant, antibacterial, anticancer, antibiotic, antileishmanial, antifungal, mosquitocidal, and pesticidal agents [28,29]. Pistacia khinjuk nanoparticles exhibited many outstanding bioactivities, including catalytic, antioxidant, antibacterial, and anticancer agents [30]. It has been found that Crataegus monogyna leaf extract is antibacterial and anticancer against human cancer cells and pathogenic microorganisms [31]. The leaf extract of Convolvulus fruticosus has catalytic and antibacterial properties [32]. Leaf extract of Scrophularia striata; antileishmanial and antibacterial properties [33]. Medicago sativa AgNPs revealed strong antioxidant activity [34]. Extract of Sophora pachycarpa has antibacterial, antioxidant, antifungal, and catalytic properties against tumor cell lines [35]. Jujube core extract showed remarkable industrial toxicant removal properties, in vitro antibacterial and anticanceros activities [36]. In this investigation, we evaluated the aqueous leaf extract (ALE) and Am-AgNPs for their potential to be toxic to BSV larvae (specifically, Ae. vittatus, An. subpictus, and Cx. vishnui, as well as H. bispinosa, R. microplus, and R. sanguineus), as well as non-target fauna (NTF) bio-toxicity potential at varying concentrations. Several spectroscopic and microscopic examinations were carried out to analyze Am-AgNPs.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Materials

Silver nitrate (AgNO3) of 99.9% pure analytical grade of was bought from Merck (Germany). All the glassware was cleaned with double distilled water and autoclaved.

2.2 Atalantia monophylla collection and processing

The clean, matured, and uninfected A. monophylla leaves were collected during the growing season (January–March) from in and around Cauvery Deltaic Zone, Koothur Village (11.7794°N, 78.2034°E), Nagapattinam District, Tamilnadu, India (Figure 1a). Leaves were taken to the laboratory, washed, shade dried for a minimum of 10–15 days (27 ± 3°C), powdered using an electric blender, and extracted with different solvents using Soxhlet apparatus adapting a standard protocol [37]. A rotary evaporator (Sigma Scientific Glass Pvt. Ltd, India) was used for excess solvent evaporation at 40–45°C and the extract was stored in aluminum foiled glass vials in a cooled chamber maintained below 5°C (Figure 1b).

Figure 1 Phytochemical screening of LAE of A. monophylla. (a) Atalantia monophylla plant, (b) air-dried condensed LAE, (c) TLC, and (d) CC analysis.
Figure 1

Phytochemical screening of LAE of A. monophylla. (a) Atalantia monophylla plant, (b) air-dried condensed LAE, (c) TLC, and (d) CC analysis.

2.3 Phytochemical screening

The A. monophylla leaf extracts were analyzed for the presence of alkaloids, anthroquinnones, carbohydrates, coumarins, flavonoids, phenolics, resins, saponins, tannins, and triterpenes. Test for alkaloids: 5 mL of extract was added with 2 mL of HCL in which 1 mL of Drangendroff’s reagent was evenly mixed and orange/red precipitation was immediately formed. Test for anthraquinones: 5 mL of extract was hydrolyzed with concentrated H2SO4 in which 1 mL of dilute NH3 was added to create rose pink coloration. Test for carbohydrates: 1 mL of extract and 1 mL of Barfoed’s reagent were added in a test tube and heated in a water bath for about 2 min to form red precipitation. Test for coumarin: To 10 mg extract a few drops of 10% NaOH was added to form yellow color. Test for flavonoids: 1 mL of extract was added with 1–2 drops of diluted NaOH; intense yellow color was produced in the plant extract, which became colorless with a few drops of dilute acid. Test for phenolics: 1 mL of extract was evenly mixed with 4 mL H2O and 1 mL of 10% FeCl3 solution was added to form a bluish black color. Test for resins: With the extract 1 mL of C4H6O3 solution was added followed by 1 mL concentrated H2SO4 to create orange to yellow colour. Test for saponins: Extract was diluted with 20 mL of distilled H2O, agitated in a measuring cylinder for 15 min, and formed a 1 cm layer of foam. Test for tannins: 5 mL of extract and a few drops of 1% Pb(C2H3O2)2 were added to form a yellow precipitate. Test for triterpenoids: 10 mg extract was dissolved with 1 mL of CHCl3 in which 1 mL of C4H6O3 has been added and subsequently 2 mL of concentrated H2SO4 of reddish-violet color was formed. The prescribed methodology screened the quality and effective crude extracts of PCs [38,39].

2.3.1 Thin layer chromatography (TLC), column chromatography (CC), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analysis

The ALE bio-effectiveness of phyto-compounds was analyzed through a run on a pre-coated (TLC) plate (Aluchrosep Silica Gel, 0.2 mm thick, Merck, India) and CC packed with silica gel (230–400 mesh, Merck, India) with the maximum height of 50 cm. It eluted successively with 50 mL of different aqueous solvent systems and ethyl acetate of 9:1 ratio. NMR spectroscopy can provide principles of additional information about peptides in solution. 1H-NMR and 13C NMR for A. monophylla spectra were recorded using Bruker DRX 300 spectrometers and CDCl3 as the solvent.

2.4 Synthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs)

The AgNO3 solution of 90 and 10 mL of composite mixture (AgNO3 + ALE) was prepared in 100 mL of Erlenmeyer flasks for reduction into Ag+ ions and then kept at optimum temperature (28 ± 2°C) on the turntable of the microwave oven for 1 h for complete bio-reduction. Meanwhile, the initial finding of synthesized AgNPs composite mixture was examined, and the color change (transparent yellow to brown), the processing time, and periodic color change were recorded. At room temperature, the reactions were carried out in darkness (to avoid photoactivation of AgNO3). All tests were carried out with appropriate controls in place. Complete reduction of AgNO3 to Ag+ ions was confirmed by the change in color from colorless to colloidal brown. After irradiation, the dilute colloidal solution was cooled to room temperature and kept aside for 24 h for complete bioreduction and saturation indicated by UV-visible (UV-Vis) spectrophotometric scanning. Then, the colloidal mixture was sealed and stored correctly for future use. The formation of AgNPs was furthermore confirmed by spectrophotometric analysis. AgNPs were purified by ultra-centrifugation and maintained above 4,000 rpm for 25 min. Ag+ ions’ bio-reduction was monitored by using UV-Vis spectroscopy. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy was used for examining the presence of bio-molecules in purified AgNPs. Crystalline pellet of AgNPs was dried at sixty degree Celsius and analyzed using X-ray diffraction (XRD) to recognize its accurate structure [40]. AgNP’s morphometric parameters were examined through scanning electron microscope (SEM), energy dispersive X-ray (EDX), transmission electron microscope (TEM), and selected areas electron diffraction (SAED) analysis [41].

2.5 BSVs collection and rearing

The BSVs’ (mosquito) eggs/larvae (Ae. vittatus, An. subpictus, and Cx. vishnui) were collected from Kodaikanal Wildlife Sanctuary (10.28°N, 77.46°E), Theni District, Tamilnadu, India and continuously reared in the laboratory. The collected mosquitoes were identified by ICMR, Madurai, Tamilnadu-625002. The larval feed was 3:1 ratio pedigree dog biscuits and yeast powder, and adults feed was 1:1% sucrose solution with natural honey. Mosquitoes were maintained at room temperature of 27 ± 2°C, relative humidity of 75 ± 5%, with a photoperiod of 12 h light:dark cycle. Adult BSVs (ticks) (H. bispinosa, R. microplus, and R. sanguineus) were directly collected from infested farm animals (cattle, horses, sheep, goats, and dogs), Cauvery Deltaic Zone, Koothur Village (11.7794°N, 78.2034°E), Mayiladuthurai District, Tamilnadu, India and BSVs were identified by Dr. A. Rathinakumar, Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Tamilnadu, India. Engorged female ticks were brought to the laboratory and carefully transferred to a glass sealed, fully aerated container, allowing the Memmert oven to maintain above said temperature and relative humidity for egg-laying and hatching of larvae for assessing larval toxicity.

2.6 Mosquito larval toxicity

The standard method was followed to assess the larval toxicity of ALE and Am-AgNPs [42]. Five batches of 3rd instar larvae (0–6 h old, 20 number, well active, uniform size, and hale and healthy) of Ae. vittatus, An. subpictus, and Cx. vishnui were transferred to small transparent beakers with 250 mL capacity, each containing 200 mL of water, and an appropriate volume of A. monophylla ALE/Am-AgNPs was added to target BSVs. The toxic bioassay was tested on both a narrow and broad range of concentrations. Appropriate concentrations of ALE (25–150 μg·mL−1)/AgNPs (10–60 μg·mL−1) were added, and the mortality was counted every 6 h for 24 h, which was calculated by the prescribed method [43,44], probit analysis, for calculating LC50/LC90 values after 24 h. Each concentration setup maintained five replications and the control setup was without PCs.

2.7 Tick larval toxicity

Larvicidal potentiality of BSVs were assessed against A. onophylla ALE (40–250 μg·mL−1)/Am-AgNPs (20–150 μg·mL−1) by standard protocol [45], a slight modification to improve the accuracy of practicality followed the method [46]. Different concentrations of A. monophylla ALE and Am-AgNPs were treated with Whatman filter paper envelopes (2 cm × 2 cm), uniformly treated with 3 mL of ALE and Am-AgNPs by using a pipette for internal surfaces. The even-sized, 24 h old, hale and healthy larvae of 25 numbers were allowed into the treated envelope for 24 h and then released into the transparent glass cage (45 cm × 45 cm × 45 cm) with the closed opening. BSVs were identified by glass marking on the cage and envelopes were held in the biological oxygen demand incubator. Finally, the envelopes were opened at the end of their exposure period. The number of BSVs alive/dead were recorded with the help of fine brush and hand-lens. The technique [47] was used to determine mortality rates, and the precise replication and control procedures were followed in comparison to prior studies.

2.8 Bio-toxicity analysis on NTF

The acute toxic effect of A. monophylla ALE (1,200–15,000 μg·mL−1)/Am-AgNPs (600–7,500 μg·mL−1) was examined on certain aquatic and terrestrial NTF (A. sulcatus, A. bouvieri, A. mitificus, and C. moluccensis) and evaluated by the procedure reported in refs [23,48]. The effect of ALE and Am-AgNPs potentiality tested against NTF reared as described [49]. The BSVs LC50 dose of ALE and Am-AgNPs was multiplied fifty times concentrations were evaluated against selected NTF. Each test was constantly replicated ten times, and the treated test without phytoconstituents was considered a control. The NTF mortality, as well as abnormalities activity, were observed after 2 days of exposure of phytoconstituents. The bio-toxic (survival and swimming) effects of NTF were monitored for 10 days to understand the post-treatment effect.

2.9 Statistical analysis

The BSV mosquito, larval tick toxicity, and bio-toxicity of NTF, as well as the suitability index (SI), were computed using the technique reported in ref. [50], and the data were entered into IBM-SPSS Statistics version 25.0. Different statistics were used to evaluate the larval toxicity of BSVs, including LC50/LC90, UCL, LCL, and Chi-Square.

3 Results

3.1 Phytochemical screening

A preliminary phytochemical analysis of A. monophylla ALE revealed that a high polar solvent, particularly aqueous extract, had the greatest PCs (Table A1 in Appendix). Alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, tannins, triterpenes, coumarins, anthraquinones, and phenolics were observed from the ALE. Qualitative analysis of phytochemical screening in A. monophylla leaf extracts “+” denoted the presence of phytochemical group and “–” denoted the absence of phytochemical group.

3.1.1 TLC, CC, 1H NMR, and 13C NMR analysis

The ALE bio-effectiveness of phytocompounds was analyzed by TLC, which found a maximum of five fractions. (Figure 1c). The ALE of an active phytochemical group of A. monophylla was further separated by CC packed with silica gel and eluted successively with 50 mL of respective solvent systems. Five fractions were achieved and collected (Figure 1d). 1H NMR and 13C NMR spectral analysis of ALE of A. monophylla was executed and the spectral peaks that appeared are shown in Figure 2a and b. The following phytochemical compounds have been identified from the spectra in NIST chemical library. All the identified compounds showed more than 50% similarities with the available ones. They are as follows: benzofuran, 2,3-dihydro; 2-furancarboxaldehyde, 5-(hydroxymethyl)-; 2-methoxy-4-vinyl phenol; benzaldehyde, 2-hydroxy-6-methyl-[synonyms: 2,6-cresotaldehyde]; tetradecanoic acid; n-hexadecanoic acid; hexadecanoic acid, ethyl ester; 9,12-octadecadienoic acid (Z,Z)-; oleic acid; 13-docosenamide, (z)-; 9,12-octadecadienoic acid, methyl ester, (e,e)-; squalene; stigmasterol phytosterol; stigmastan-6,22-dien, 3,5-dedihydro-; and leupol.

Figure 2 NMR spectrum obtained from aqueous leaf extract of A. monophylla: (a) 1H NMR and (b) 13C NMR.
Figure 2

NMR spectrum obtained from aqueous leaf extract of A. monophylla: (a) 1H NMR and (b) 13C NMR.

3.2 Synthesis and characterization of Am-AgNPs

Am-AgNPs composite mixture was examined through color change from transparent yellow to brown (Figure 3a, inset). A UV-Vis spectrum of the Am-AgNPs showed the surface plasmon resonance (SPR) peak at 421 nm (Figure 3a). FTIR spectrum of Am-AgNPs is shown is shown in Figure 3b. The strong bands were recorded at 3,404–3,363, 2,924–2,856, 1,631, 1,321, and 1,060 cm−1 corresponding to OH stretching, aliphatic C‒H stretching, C═H stretching, NO2 stretching, and –C–O–C stretching. In addition, the weak bands recorded at 894 and 600 cm−1 are owing to the C‒H bending and C‒Cl stretching. The band at 520 cm−1 corresponds to the metal peak silver. These functional groups have confirmed the presence of phytocompound in leaf extracts, such as carbohydrates, alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, tannins, triterpenes, coumarins, anthraquinones, and phenolics. These phytocompounds are responsible for the reduction of AgNO3 to Ag NPs. The Am-AgNPs were estimated using XRD analysis, as shown in Figure 3c. The four-clear expression of reflections at 38.09° (111), 44.27° (200), 64.41° (220), and 77.33° (311) were recognized as a face-centered cubic (FCC) structure and point out the well crystalline nature of Am-AgNPs, according to the matching card no. 89-3722. SEM analysis of Am-AgNPs as shown in Figure 4a, plant extract mediated with AgNPs, showed the spherical morphology. EDX analysis examined the presence of metals in Am-AgNPs (Figure 4b). The accurate particle size and shape were measured by TEM analysis. Overall, synthesized Am-AgNPs spherical shape morphology ranges between 18 and 25 nm (Figure 4c), with average particle size of 20 nm. SAED analysis determined the crystal structure and simple spot patterns corresponding to single-crystal diffraction, as shown in Figure 4d. The four ring spots of d-spacing values attributed to the hkl planes of (111), (200), (220), and (311), respectively. These planes are well correlated with XRD results.

Figure 3 (a) UV-Vis, (b) FTIR, and (c) XRD analysis of AgNPs synthesized using A. monophylla.
Figure 3

(a) UV-Vis, (b) FTIR, and (c) XRD analysis of AgNPs synthesized using A. monophylla.

Figure 4 (a) SEM, (b) EDX, (c) TEM, and (d) SAED images of synthesized AgNPs using A. monophylla.
Figure 4

(a) SEM, (b) EDX, (c) TEM, and (d) SAED images of synthesized AgNPs using A. monophylla.

3.3 Larvicidal activity of aquous leaf extract of A. monophylla and synthesized silver nanoparticles tested against blood-sucking vectors

BSVs larval mortality values are presented in Table 1. Both ALE of A. monophylla and Am-AgNPs showed a dose-dependent toxic effect against selected BSVs. The Am-AgNPs provided maximum toxic potential than ALE with the LC50/LC90 values of 22.19/43.63, 23.92/47.56, and 26.09/49.35 μg·mL−1 against BSVs of Ae. vittatus, An. subpictus and Cx. vishnui, respectively. Similarly, the LC50/LC90 values of 40.25/81.69, 51.87/99.04, and 60.53/125.56 μg·mL−1 were noted against larvae of H. bispinosa, R. microplus and R. sanguineus, respectively. The other statistical units were obviously exhibited in Table 1.

Table 1

Larvicidal activity of A. monophylla ALE and synthesized AgNPs against mosquitoes and ticks

Tested materials Target organisms LC50 (μg·mL−1) 95% fiducial limit (μg·mL−1) LC90 (μg·mL−1) 95% fiducial limit (μg·mL−1) Regression equation χ 2
LCL UCL LCL UCL
Mosquitoes
Aqueous extract Ae. vittatus 55.49 36.70 96.34 107.01 89.47 145.74 y = 0.02 + 1.18x 8.090
An. subpictus 60.53 33.49 78.09 125.56 103.74 176.36 y = 1.70 + 2.64x 8.269
Cx. vishnui 77.26 70.30 83.80 145.20 134.45 159.57 y = 1.56 + 0.93x 6.261
AgNPs Ae. vittatus 22.19 13.78 28.19 43.63 35.83 61.27 y = 1.14 + 0.05x 9.044
An. subpictus 23.92 13.81 30.71 47.56 39.35 66.33 y = 1.17 + 0.05x 8.813
Cx. vishnui 26.09 23.73 28.32 49.35 45.63 54.36 y = 1.48 + 0.06x 4.246
Ticks
Aqueous extract H. bispinosa 94.69 84.18 104.14 193.07 177.64 214.17 y = 2.30 + 18.06x 5.831
R. microplus 103.86 55.80 135.14 211.32 172.80 307.77 y = 2.78 + 31.94x 9.551
R. sanguineus 127.03 114.81 138.39 246.04 227.07 271.72 y = 2.75 + 8.02x 3.338
AgNPs H. bispinosa 40.25 35.31 44.57 81.69 75.61 89.73 y = 0.03 + 1.09x 6.040
R. microplus 51.87 47.02 56.37 99.04 91.48 109.24 y = 0.03 + 1.45x 4.530
R. sanguineus 60.53 33.49 78.09 125.56 103.74 176.36 y = 2.64 + 1.70x 8.269

Blood-sucking vectors larval toxicity experimentally exposed 24 h.

LC50: BSVs 50% mortality representing concentration.

LC90: BSVs 90% mortality representing concentration.

R value: regression value.

χ 2: Chi-square.

3.4 Bio-toxicity analysis

The bio-toxicity of A. monophylla ALE and Am-AgNPs were tested against certain aquatic and terrestrial NTF (A. sulcatus, A. bouvieri, A. mitificus, and C. moluccensis) and the results are presented in Table 2. The negligible toxicity effects were noted in the aquatic and terrestrial NTF compared to the target BSVs, with the LC50 values of aquatic NTF ranging from 4,422.4 to 10,532.8 μg·mL−1 and the terrestrial NTF from 2,094.5 to 5,382.7 μg·mL−1, respectively. The SI of different aquatic and terrestrial NTF survive and share their habitats with selected BSVs. The chosen NTF were exposed to A. monophylla ALE and AgNPs and their SI indicate that this ALE and AgNPs have few detrimental effects on A. sulcatus, A. bouvieri, A. mitificus, and C. moluccensis (Table 3). Not only mortality, other suppressing activities like survival, swimming, and diving of NTF were not distorted while exposed to BSVs. The outcome of the present study reveals that the LAE and SNPs of A. monophylla has least or no impact on non-target fauna. The analysis of A. monophylla ALE and Am-AgNPs showed the best BSVs larval bio-toxic effects and eco-toxic potential against NTF.

Table 2

The effect of A. monophylla ALE and synthesized AgNPs against NTF

Tested materials NTF LC50 (μg·mL−1) 95% fiducial limit (μg·mL−1) LC90 (μg·mL−1) 95% fiducial limit (μg·mL−1) R-value χ 2
LCL UCL LCL UCL
Aqueous extract A. sulcatus 4,913.0 4,564.0 5,278.5 8,606.1 7,930.0 9,537.6 y = 3.46 + 1.71x 1.648
A. bouvieri 4,422.4 4,116.3 4,772.3 7,618.6 6,953.2 8,568.8 y = 3.99 + 1.76x 1.443
A. mitificus 10,532.8 9,725.7 11,433.2 19,241.1 17,439.5 2,1870.5 y = 1.50 + 1.58x 1.049
C. moluccensis 9,644.9 8,946.7 10,372.8 17,037.3 15,689.9 18,894.7 y = 1.75 + 1.67x 2.201
AgNPs A. sulcatus 2,227.0 2,066.2 2,412.7 3,923.1 3,561.0 4,450.4 y = 7.71 + 1.72x 2.488
A. bouvieri 2,094.5 1,947.6 2,255.1 3,654.1 3,348.1 4,085.1 y = 8.27 + 1.74x 1.007
A. mitificus 5,382.7 5,028.2 5,774.8 9,085.0 8,357.7 10,097.6 y = 3.45 + 1.86x 1.429
C. moluccensis 3,850.69 3,570.38 4,141.73 6,817.96 6,279.84 7,559.24 y = 4.30 + 1.66x 0.518

NTF bio-toxicity experimentally exposed for 2 days.

NTF: non-target fauna.

LC50: NTF 50% mortality representing concentration.

LC90: NTF 90% mortality representing concentration.

R-value: regression value.

χ 2: Chi-square.

Table 3

SI of aquatic and terrestrial NTF shared over selected BSVs exposed to ALE and synthesized AgNPs of A. monophylla

Tested materials Aquatic NTF Ae. vittatus An. subpictus Cx. vishnui Terrestrial NTF H. bispinosa R. microplus R. sanguineus
Aqueous extract A. sulcatus 88.53 81.16 63.59 A. mitificus 111.23 101.41 82.91
A. bouvieri 79.69 73.06 57.24 C. moluccensis 101.85 92.86 75.92
AgNPs A. sulcatus 100.36 93.10 85.35 A. mitificus 133.73 103.77 88.92
A. bouvieri 94.38 87.56 80.27 C. moluccensis 95.66 74.23 63.61

4 Discussion

4.1 Preliminary phytochemical screening

The preliminary phytochemical screening was assessed in A. monophylla leaf extracts and its results were proven, and identified maximum groups of PCs were present in highly polar solvents (aqueous extract). Earlier, several PC types of research have been reported in various botanical sources and it also has an efficient agent for controlling different life threatening BSVs. Because the floral communities have a variety of PCs that can be extracted from various parts of flora, they are selective, highly biodegradable, non/less toxic bio-products, and alternate/replacement of synthetic pesticides [51].

4.1.1 NMR spectral analysis

Plants are enriched with complex mixtures of phytocompounds. It can be identified, quantified, and described through NMR spectroscopy. It is a uniquely powerful technique in the field of phytochemistry. NMR analysis confirmed the presence of a variety of phytocompounds identified from the ALE of A. monophylla. Different investigations in many plants have illustrated the NMR spectroscopy principle for identifying the potential phytocompounds/secondary metabolites in medicinal/toxic plants. Several research works have been done through NMR spectroscopy and present investigation of NMR spectral analysis results are comparable with some of the earlier reports. The NMR analysis confirmed the presence of 3,5-di-t-butyl-4-hydroxyanisole in C. dactylon leaf extract [52]. Phyto-compounds were compared on different tomato species [53]; O. europaea medicinal plant fruit and oil chemical composition [54]; A. thaliana metabolome changes in lettuce leaves by the influence of mancozeb pesticide [55]; Metabolomic analysis in B. rapa leaves [56]; geographic discrimination has been an essential factor for changing secondary metabolites in P. vera [57]; H. lupulus phytochemical analysis [58]; pea plant [59]; A. sativum phytochemical study [60].

4.2 Synthesis and characterization of AgNPs

The increasing number of applications of nanoparticles in biomedical devices, pharmaceuticals, and food has made them a promising future for many researchers. It has the ability to deliver drugs to specific tissues and enhance chemotherapeutic agents to kill tumors, in addition to its use in cosmetics, household products, and other health-related products. AgNPs, in particular, are widely used in different research fields due to their specific physical and chemical properties, which allow them to exert various activities, particularly in biomedical applications. AgNPs have antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, antiangiogenic, antioxidant, and anticancer characteristics in addition to their roles as drug carriers, imaging devices, water treatment materials, biosensors, and antitumor chemicals. Additionally, AgNPs are helpful in the treatment of infections and burns. It would therefore be necessary to carry out further research to develop optimal methods to synthesize them. In an earlier study, Abdellatif et al. [61,62] synthesized silver nanoparticles (SNPs) using cellulosic polymer technology and reported that the encapsulated plant extract showed remarkable antioxidant, antibacterial, and apoptotic cancer cell death. In the present investigation, the selected plant extract was encapsulated with AgNO3 and had a firm attachment with the plant extracts. Its characteristics were analyzed with various instrumental techniques. The color change (yellow to brown) of AgNPs was observed through SPR, which exhibited a peak at 421 nm (Figure 4). UV-Vis spectra analysis and similar trends were confirmed by earlier reports [63,64]. The observed peaks are considered such as flavonoids, triterpenoids, and polyphenols [65]. Hence, phytocompounds are proven to have potential activity and the present results indicate the presence of different functional groups involved in AgNPs synthesis. A similar result was reported earlier [66,67]. AgNPs sample obtained from the previous lyophilization step and acquisition of X-ray diffractograms the XRD pattern analyzed AgNPs.

The XRD results of present investigation are in agreement with some of the earlier literature values of the crystal structure of AgNPs and earlier reports [68,69] are in general agreement with the just-cited results. AgNPs synthesized by A. monophylla ALE are evidenced by the SEM image magnified into a different range. NPs showed beads shape which belong to the category of nanoparticles. Similar trends were noticed in earlier published reports of other plants’ synthesized NPs [70,71]. EDX attached with SEM examined and provided essential information on synthesized AgNPs of A. monophylla in the composite mixture’s inner and outer surface. Earlier investigations on green synthesized NPs in several floral communities were conducted [72,73]. The different floral parts of AgNPs were evaluated by TEM and SAED analysis, proven by earlier published research [74,75].

4.3 BSVs larval toxicity of ALE and Am-AgNPs

The BSVs larval toxicity of A. monophylla ALE and Am-AgNPs were tested against larvae of selected BSVs (Ae. vittatus, An. subpictus, Cx. vishnui, H. bispinosa, R. microplus, and R. sanguineus), and the results showed that the Am-AgNPs provided the maximum toxic effects than ALE. The probable mechanism of larval toxicity could be due to the action of AgNPs associated with the plant extract causing blockings in the respiratory siphons of the larvae. Other possible cues are primarily SNPs that might have entered into the system where they cause an enzymatical imbalance in the larvae in general and acetylcholinesterase in particular. Secondarily, the AgNPs might alter the sodium-potassium channels in the larval nervous system and that could be the reason for the larvae exhibiting immobility when induced with a stimulus. Similar observations were recorded in earlier reports, and the different medicinal plants AgNPs were tested against larvae of different BSVs like Cx. quinquefasciatus, An. subpictus, Ae. aegypti, An. stephensi, and R. microplus, the highest larval toxicity was noticed in synthesized AgNPs and it could be used to control mosquitoes as an eco-friendly approach [76,77]. Earlier, a similar observation was also reported on other BSVs like ticks, the different medicinal plants AgNPs were tested on ticks and the maximum larval mortality occurred in the lowest concentration of Am-AgNPs, and it has highly stable and statically significant BSVs larvicidal potential on tick’s community [78,79].

4.4 Bio-toxicity and SI of ALE and Am-AgNPs on NTF

Previously, many researchers reported different floral constituents against various aquatic and terrestrial NTF. It is first-hand information of selected BSVs and NTF. The SI of different aquatic and terrestrial NTF survive and share their habitats with BSVs, examined worldwide, and many studies identified similar outcomes [80,81,82,83,84,85].

5 Conclusion

For the management of several medical pests, natural products are crucial and substantial resources. Recent green AgNPs have advantages including eco-safety, target specificity, easy availability, low cost, and nanotechnology capabilities, making them an excellent material for pesticide characteristics. The naturally occurring phyto-properties have more benefits than any synthetic insecticide. Today, environmental safety is of the utmost importance, and the green synthesis of AgNPs was seen as a viable alternative treatment for SCPs. Several plants are utilized as traditional remedies and for pesticide/mosquitocidal purposes in India, a nation with rich plant biodiversity. Surprisingly, even though A. monophylla is an outstanding plant, little research has been conducted in various regions. There is an immediate need for intense research on this plant in order to use it to manage BSVs, which are of global relevance for human and animal health and pose fewer risks to NTF.

Acknowledgment

The authors express their sincere appreciation to the Researchers Supporting Project Number (RSP-2021/70), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

  1. Funding information: The authors express their sincere appreciation to the Researchers Supporting Project No. (RSP-2021-70) the King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

  2. Author contributions: Kuppusamy Elumalai: conceptualization, methodology, and software; M. R. Kavipriya: formal analysis, methodology, and software; A. Lakshmi Prabha: writing – review and editing; Kaliyamoorthy Krishnappa: formal analysis, methodology, and software; Jeganathan Pandiyan: formal analysis and software; Marcello Nicoletti: formal analysis and software; Naiyf S. Alharbi: resources, funding acquisition, and validation; Shine Kadaikunnan: funding acquisition and formal analysis; Jamal M. Khaled: formal analysis and software; Marimuthu Govindarajan: writing– review and editing.

  3. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

Appendix

Table A1

Qualitative analysis of phytochemical screening in A. monophylla leaf extracts

S. no. PCs A. monophylla in different solvent systems
HEX DEE DCM EA AQU
1 Carbohydrates − − − − +
2 Alkaloids − − − − +
3 Flavonoids + + + − +
4 Saponins − + − + +
5 Tannins + + + + +
6 Triterpenes + + + − +
7 Resins + − + − −
8 Coumarins + + + + +
9 Anthroquinnones + − − + +
10 Phenolics + + + − +

HEX: hexane; DEE: diethyl ether; DCM: dichloromethane; EA: ethyl acetate; AQU: aqueous.

+ = indicates presence of phytochemical group.

– = indicates absence of phytochemical group.

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Received: 2022-03-02
Revised: 2022-08-07
Accepted: 2022-08-22
Published Online: 2022-09-23

© 2022 Kuppusamy Elumalai et al., published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Kinetic study on the reaction between Incoloy 825 alloy and low-fluoride slag for electroslag remelting
  3. Black pepper (Piper nigrum) fruit-based gold nanoparticles (BP-AuNPs): Synthesis, characterization, biological activities, and catalytic applications – A green approach
  4. Protective role of foliar application of green-synthesized silver nanoparticles against wheat stripe rust disease caused by Puccinia striiformis
  5. Effects of nitrogen and phosphorus on Microcystis aeruginosa growth and microcystin production
  6. Efficient degradation of methyl orange and methylene blue in aqueous solution using a novel Fenton-like catalyst of CuCo-ZIFs
  7. Synthesis of biological base oils by a green process
  8. Efficient pilot-scale synthesis of the key cefonicid intermediate at room temperature
  9. Synthesis and characterization of noble metal/metal oxide nanoparticles and their potential antidiabetic effect on biochemical parameters and wound healing
  10. Regioselectivity in the reaction of 5-amino-3-anilino-1H-pyrazole-4-carbonitrile with cinnamonitriles and enaminones: Synthesis of functionally substituted pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidine derivatives
  11. A numerical study on the in-nozzle cavitating flow and near-field atomization of cylindrical, V-type, and Y-type intersecting hole nozzles using the LES-VOF method
  12. Synthesis and characterization of Ce-doped TiO2 nanoparticles and their enhanced anticancer activity in Y79 retinoblastoma cancer cells
  13. Aspects of the physiochemical properties of SARS-CoV-2 to prevent S-protein receptor binding using Arabic gum
  14. Sonochemical synthesis of protein microcapsules loaded with traditional Chinese herb extracts
  15. MW-assisted hydrolysis of phosphinates in the presence of PTSA as the catalyst, and as a MW absorber
  16. Fabrication of silicotungstic acid immobilized on Ce-based MOF and embedded in Zr-based MOF matrix for green fatty acid esterification
  17. Superior photocatalytic degradation performance for gaseous toluene by 3D g-C3N4-reduced graphene oxide gels
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  19. Slow pyrolysis of waste navel orange peels with metal oxide catalysts to produce high-grade bio-oil
  20. Development and butyrylcholinesterase/monoamine oxidase inhibition potential of PVA-Berberis lycium nanofibers
  21. Influence of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles using red alga Corallina elongata on broiler chicks’ performance
  22. Green synthesis, characterization, cytotoxicity, and antimicrobial activity of iron oxide nanoparticles using Nigella sativa seed extract
  23. Vitamin supplements enhance Spirulina platensis biomass and phytochemical contents
  24. Malachite green dye removal using ceramsite-supported nanoscale zero-valent iron in a fixed-bed reactor
  25. Green synthesis of manganese-doped superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles for the effective removal of Pb(ii) from aqueous solutions
  26. Desalination technology for energy-efficient and low-cost water production: A bibliometric analysis
  27. Biological fabrication of zinc oxide nanoparticles from Nepeta cataria potentially produces apoptosis through inhibition of proliferative markers in ovarian cancer
  28. Effect of stabilizers on Mn ZnSe quantum dots synthesized by using green method
  29. Calcium oxide addition and ultrasonic pretreatment-assisted hydrothermal carbonization of granatum for adsorption of lead
  30. Fe3O4@SiO2 nanoflakes synthesized using biogenic silica from Salacca zalacca leaf ash and the mechanistic insight into adsorption and photocatalytic wet peroxidation of dye
  31. Facile route of synthesis of silver nanoparticles templated bacterial cellulose, characterization, and its antibacterial application
  32. Synergistic in vitro anticancer actions of decorated selenium nanoparticles with fucoidan/Reishi extract against colorectal adenocarcinoma cells
  33. Preparation of the micro-size flake silver powders by using a micro-jet reactor
  34. Effect of direct coal liquefaction residue on the properties of fine blue-coke-based activated coke
  35. Integration of microwave co-torrefaction with helical lift for pellet fuel production
  36. Cytotoxicity of green-synthesized silver nanoparticles by Adansonia digitata fruit extract against HTC116 and SW480 human colon cancer cell lines
  37. Optimization of biochar preparation process and carbon sequestration effect of pruned wolfberry branches
  38. Anticancer potential of biogenic silver nanoparticles using the stem extract of Commiphora gileadensis against human colon cancer cells
  39. Fabrication and characterization of lysine hydrochloride Cu(ii) complexes and their potential for bombing bacterial resistance
  40. First report of biocellulose production by an indigenous yeast, Pichia kudriavzevii USM-YBP2
  41. Biosynthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles prepared using seeds of Sisymbrium irio and evaluation of their antifungal and cytotoxic activities
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  45. Anti-colon cancer activities of green-synthesized Moringa oleifera–AgNPs against human colon cancer cells
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  47. A low-cost and eco-friendly fabrication of an MCDI-utilized PVA/SSA/GA cation exchange membrane
  48. Synthesis, microstructure, and phase transition characteristics of Gd/Nd-doped nano VO2 powders
  49. Biomediated synthesis of ZnO quantum dots decorated attapulgite nanocomposites for improved antibacterial properties
  50. Preparation of metal–organic frameworks by microwave-assisted ball milling for the removal of CR from wastewater
  51. A green approach in the biological base oil process
  52. A cost-effective and eco-friendly biosorption technology for complete removal of nickel ions from an aqueous solution: Optimization of process variables
  53. Protective role of Spirulina platensis liquid extract against salinity stress effects on Triticum aestivum L.
  54. Comprehensive physical and chemical characterization highlights the uniqueness of enzymatic gelatin in terms of surface properties
  55. Effectiveness of different accelerated green synthesis methods in zinc oxide nanoparticles using red pepper extract: Synthesis and characterization
  56. Blueprinting morpho-anatomical episodes via green silver nanoparticles foliation
  57. A numerical study on the effects of bowl and nozzle geometry on performances of an engine fueled with diesel or bio-diesel fuels
  58. Liquid-phase hydrogenation of carbon tetrachloride catalyzed by three-dimensional graphene-supported palladium catalyst
  59. The catalytic performance of acid-modified Hβ molecular sieves for environmentally friendly acylation of 2-methylnaphthalene
  60. A study of the precipitation of cerium oxide synthesized from rare earth sources used as the catalyst for biodiesel production
  61. Larvicidal potential of Cipadessa baccifera leaf extract-synthesized zinc nanoparticles against three major mosquito vectors
  62. Fabrication of green nanoinsecticides from agri-waste of corn silk and its larvicidal and antibiofilm properties
  63. Palladium-mediated base-free and solvent-free synthesis of aromatic azo compounds from anilines catalyzed by copper acetate
  64. Study on the functionalization of activated carbon and the effect of binder toward capacitive deionization application
  65. Co-chlorination of low-density polyethylene in paraffin: An intensified green process alternative to conventional solvent-based chlorination
  66. Antioxidant and photocatalytic properties of zinc oxide nanoparticles phyto-fabricated using the aqueous leaf extract of Sida acuta
  67. Recovery of cobalt from spent lithium-ion battery cathode materials by using choline chloride-based deep eutectic solvent
  68. Synthesis of insoluble sulfur and development of green technology based on Aspen Plus simulation
  69. Photodegradation of methyl orange under solar irradiation on Fe-doped ZnO nanoparticles synthesized using wild olive leaf extract
  70. A facile and universal method to purify silica from natural sand
  71. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Atalantia monophylla: A potential eco-friendly agent for controlling blood-sucking vectors
  72. Endophytic bacterial strain, Brevibacillus brevis-mediated green synthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles, characterization, antifungal, in vitro cytotoxicity, and larvicidal activity
  73. Off-gas detection and treatment for green air-plasma process
  74. Ultrasonic-assisted food grade nanoemulsion preparation from clove bud essential oil and evaluation of its antioxidant and antibacterial activity
  75. Construction of mercury ion fluorescence system in water samples and art materials and fluorescence detection method for rhodamine B derivatives
  76. Hydroxyapatite/TPU/PLA nanocomposites: Morphological, dynamic-mechanical, and thermal study
  77. Potential of anaerobic co-digestion of acidic fruit processing waste and waste-activated sludge for biogas production
  78. Synthesis and characterization of ZnO–TiO2–chitosan–escin metallic nanocomposites: Evaluation of their antimicrobial and anticancer activities
  79. Nitrogen removal characteristics of wet–dry alternative constructed wetlands
  80. Structural properties and reactivity variations of wheat straw char catalysts in volatile reforming
  81. Microfluidic plasma: Novel process intensification strategy
  82. Antibacterial and photocatalytic activity of visible-light-induced synthesized gold nanoparticles by using Lantana camara flower extract
  83. Antimicrobial edible materials via nano-modifications for food safety applications
  84. Biosynthesis of nano-curcumin/nano-selenium composite and their potentialities as bactericides against fish-borne pathogens
  85. Exploring the effect of silver nanoparticles on gene expression in colon cancer cell line HCT116
  86. Chemical synthesis, characterization, and dose optimization of chitosan-based nanoparticles of clodinofop propargyl and fenoxaprop-p-ethyl for management of Phalaris minor (little seed canary grass): First report
  87. Double [3 + 2] cycloadditions for diastereoselective synthesis of spirooxindole pyrrolizidines
  88. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles and their antibacterial activities
  89. Review Articles
  90. A comprehensive review on green synthesis of titanium dioxide nanoparticles and their diverse biomedical applications
  91. Applications of polyaniline-impregnated silica gel-based nanocomposites in wastewater treatment as an efficient adsorbent of some important organic dyes
  92. Green synthesis of nano-propolis and nanoparticles (Se and Ag) from ethanolic extract of propolis, their biochemical characterization: A review
  93. Advances in novel activation methods to perform green organic synthesis using recyclable heteropolyacid catalysis
  94. Limitations of nanomaterials insights in green chemistry sustainable route: Review on novel applications
  95. Special Issue: Use of magnetic resonance in profiling bioactive metabolites and its applications (Guest Editors: Plalanoivel Velmurugan et al.)
  96. Stomach-affecting intestinal parasites as a precursor model of Pheretima posthuma treated with anthelmintic drug from Dodonaea viscosa Linn.
  97. Anti-asthmatic activity of Saudi herbal composites from plants Bacopa monnieri and Euphorbia hirta on Guinea pigs
  98. Embedding green synthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles in cotton fabrics and assessment of their antibacterial wound healing and cytotoxic properties: An eco-friendly approach
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https://doi.org/10.1515/gps-2022-0078
Keywords for this article
greener nanoparticles; blood-sucking vectors; larval toxicity; environmental safety; non-target fauna
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Kinetic study on the reaction between Incoloy 825 alloy and low-fluoride slag for electroslag remelting
  3. Black pepper (Piper nigrum) fruit-based gold nanoparticles (BP-AuNPs): Synthesis, characterization, biological activities, and catalytic applications – A green approach
  4. Protective role of foliar application of green-synthesized silver nanoparticles against wheat stripe rust disease caused by Puccinia striiformis
  5. Effects of nitrogen and phosphorus on Microcystis aeruginosa growth and microcystin production
  6. Efficient degradation of methyl orange and methylene blue in aqueous solution using a novel Fenton-like catalyst of CuCo-ZIFs
  7. Synthesis of biological base oils by a green process
  8. Efficient pilot-scale synthesis of the key cefonicid intermediate at room temperature
  9. Synthesis and characterization of noble metal/metal oxide nanoparticles and their potential antidiabetic effect on biochemical parameters and wound healing
  10. Regioselectivity in the reaction of 5-amino-3-anilino-1H-pyrazole-4-carbonitrile with cinnamonitriles and enaminones: Synthesis of functionally substituted pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidine derivatives
  11. A numerical study on the in-nozzle cavitating flow and near-field atomization of cylindrical, V-type, and Y-type intersecting hole nozzles using the LES-VOF method
  12. Synthesis and characterization of Ce-doped TiO2 nanoparticles and their enhanced anticancer activity in Y79 retinoblastoma cancer cells
  13. Aspects of the physiochemical properties of SARS-CoV-2 to prevent S-protein receptor binding using Arabic gum
  14. Sonochemical synthesis of protein microcapsules loaded with traditional Chinese herb extracts
  15. MW-assisted hydrolysis of phosphinates in the presence of PTSA as the catalyst, and as a MW absorber
  16. Fabrication of silicotungstic acid immobilized on Ce-based MOF and embedded in Zr-based MOF matrix for green fatty acid esterification
  17. Superior photocatalytic degradation performance for gaseous toluene by 3D g-C3N4-reduced graphene oxide gels
  18. Catalytic performance of Na/Ca-based fluxes for coal char gasification
  19. Slow pyrolysis of waste navel orange peels with metal oxide catalysts to produce high-grade bio-oil
  20. Development and butyrylcholinesterase/monoamine oxidase inhibition potential of PVA-Berberis lycium nanofibers
  21. Influence of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles using red alga Corallina elongata on broiler chicks’ performance
  22. Green synthesis, characterization, cytotoxicity, and antimicrobial activity of iron oxide nanoparticles using Nigella sativa seed extract
  23. Vitamin supplements enhance Spirulina platensis biomass and phytochemical contents
  24. Malachite green dye removal using ceramsite-supported nanoscale zero-valent iron in a fixed-bed reactor
  25. Green synthesis of manganese-doped superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles for the effective removal of Pb(ii) from aqueous solutions
  26. Desalination technology for energy-efficient and low-cost water production: A bibliometric analysis
  27. Biological fabrication of zinc oxide nanoparticles from Nepeta cataria potentially produces apoptosis through inhibition of proliferative markers in ovarian cancer
  28. Effect of stabilizers on Mn ZnSe quantum dots synthesized by using green method
  29. Calcium oxide addition and ultrasonic pretreatment-assisted hydrothermal carbonization of granatum for adsorption of lead
  30. Fe3O4@SiO2 nanoflakes synthesized using biogenic silica from Salacca zalacca leaf ash and the mechanistic insight into adsorption and photocatalytic wet peroxidation of dye
  31. Facile route of synthesis of silver nanoparticles templated bacterial cellulose, characterization, and its antibacterial application
  32. Synergistic in vitro anticancer actions of decorated selenium nanoparticles with fucoidan/Reishi extract against colorectal adenocarcinoma cells
  33. Preparation of the micro-size flake silver powders by using a micro-jet reactor
  34. Effect of direct coal liquefaction residue on the properties of fine blue-coke-based activated coke
  35. Integration of microwave co-torrefaction with helical lift for pellet fuel production
  36. Cytotoxicity of green-synthesized silver nanoparticles by Adansonia digitata fruit extract against HTC116 and SW480 human colon cancer cell lines
  37. Optimization of biochar preparation process and carbon sequestration effect of pruned wolfberry branches
  38. Anticancer potential of biogenic silver nanoparticles using the stem extract of Commiphora gileadensis against human colon cancer cells
  39. Fabrication and characterization of lysine hydrochloride Cu(ii) complexes and their potential for bombing bacterial resistance
  40. First report of biocellulose production by an indigenous yeast, Pichia kudriavzevii USM-YBP2
  41. Biosynthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles prepared using seeds of Sisymbrium irio and evaluation of their antifungal and cytotoxic activities
  42. Synthesis, characterization, and photocatalysis of a rare-earth cerium/silver/zinc oxide inorganic nanocomposite
  43. Developing a plastic cycle toward circular economy practice
  44. Fabrication of CsPb1−xMnxBr3−2xCl2x (x = 0–0.5) quantum dots for near UV photodetector application
  45. Anti-colon cancer activities of green-synthesized Moringa oleifera–AgNPs against human colon cancer cells
  46. Phosphorus removal from aqueous solution by adsorption using wetland-based biochar: Batch experiment
  47. A low-cost and eco-friendly fabrication of an MCDI-utilized PVA/SSA/GA cation exchange membrane
  48. Synthesis, microstructure, and phase transition characteristics of Gd/Nd-doped nano VO2 powders
  49. Biomediated synthesis of ZnO quantum dots decorated attapulgite nanocomposites for improved antibacterial properties
  50. Preparation of metal–organic frameworks by microwave-assisted ball milling for the removal of CR from wastewater
  51. A green approach in the biological base oil process
  52. A cost-effective and eco-friendly biosorption technology for complete removal of nickel ions from an aqueous solution: Optimization of process variables
  53. Protective role of Spirulina platensis liquid extract against salinity stress effects on Triticum aestivum L.
  54. Comprehensive physical and chemical characterization highlights the uniqueness of enzymatic gelatin in terms of surface properties
  55. Effectiveness of different accelerated green synthesis methods in zinc oxide nanoparticles using red pepper extract: Synthesis and characterization
  56. Blueprinting morpho-anatomical episodes via green silver nanoparticles foliation
  57. A numerical study on the effects of bowl and nozzle geometry on performances of an engine fueled with diesel or bio-diesel fuels
  58. Liquid-phase hydrogenation of carbon tetrachloride catalyzed by three-dimensional graphene-supported palladium catalyst
  59. The catalytic performance of acid-modified Hβ molecular sieves for environmentally friendly acylation of 2-methylnaphthalene
  60. A study of the precipitation of cerium oxide synthesized from rare earth sources used as the catalyst for biodiesel production
  61. Larvicidal potential of Cipadessa baccifera leaf extract-synthesized zinc nanoparticles against three major mosquito vectors
  62. Fabrication of green nanoinsecticides from agri-waste of corn silk and its larvicidal and antibiofilm properties
  63. Palladium-mediated base-free and solvent-free synthesis of aromatic azo compounds from anilines catalyzed by copper acetate
  64. Study on the functionalization of activated carbon and the effect of binder toward capacitive deionization application
  65. Co-chlorination of low-density polyethylene in paraffin: An intensified green process alternative to conventional solvent-based chlorination
  66. Antioxidant and photocatalytic properties of zinc oxide nanoparticles phyto-fabricated using the aqueous leaf extract of Sida acuta
  67. Recovery of cobalt from spent lithium-ion battery cathode materials by using choline chloride-based deep eutectic solvent
  68. Synthesis of insoluble sulfur and development of green technology based on Aspen Plus simulation
  69. Photodegradation of methyl orange under solar irradiation on Fe-doped ZnO nanoparticles synthesized using wild olive leaf extract
  70. A facile and universal method to purify silica from natural sand
  71. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Atalantia monophylla: A potential eco-friendly agent for controlling blood-sucking vectors
  72. Endophytic bacterial strain, Brevibacillus brevis-mediated green synthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles, characterization, antifungal, in vitro cytotoxicity, and larvicidal activity
  73. Off-gas detection and treatment for green air-plasma process
  74. Ultrasonic-assisted food grade nanoemulsion preparation from clove bud essential oil and evaluation of its antioxidant and antibacterial activity
  75. Construction of mercury ion fluorescence system in water samples and art materials and fluorescence detection method for rhodamine B derivatives
  76. Hydroxyapatite/TPU/PLA nanocomposites: Morphological, dynamic-mechanical, and thermal study
  77. Potential of anaerobic co-digestion of acidic fruit processing waste and waste-activated sludge for biogas production
  78. Synthesis and characterization of ZnO–TiO2–chitosan–escin metallic nanocomposites: Evaluation of their antimicrobial and anticancer activities
  79. Nitrogen removal characteristics of wet–dry alternative constructed wetlands
  80. Structural properties and reactivity variations of wheat straw char catalysts in volatile reforming
  81. Microfluidic plasma: Novel process intensification strategy
  82. Antibacterial and photocatalytic activity of visible-light-induced synthesized gold nanoparticles by using Lantana camara flower extract
  83. Antimicrobial edible materials via nano-modifications for food safety applications
  84. Biosynthesis of nano-curcumin/nano-selenium composite and their potentialities as bactericides against fish-borne pathogens
  85. Exploring the effect of silver nanoparticles on gene expression in colon cancer cell line HCT116
  86. Chemical synthesis, characterization, and dose optimization of chitosan-based nanoparticles of clodinofop propargyl and fenoxaprop-p-ethyl for management of Phalaris minor (little seed canary grass): First report
  87. Double [3 + 2] cycloadditions for diastereoselective synthesis of spirooxindole pyrrolizidines
  88. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles and their antibacterial activities
  89. Review Articles
  90. A comprehensive review on green synthesis of titanium dioxide nanoparticles and their diverse biomedical applications
  91. Applications of polyaniline-impregnated silica gel-based nanocomposites in wastewater treatment as an efficient adsorbent of some important organic dyes
  92. Green synthesis of nano-propolis and nanoparticles (Se and Ag) from ethanolic extract of propolis, their biochemical characterization: A review
  93. Advances in novel activation methods to perform green organic synthesis using recyclable heteropolyacid catalysis
  94. Limitations of nanomaterials insights in green chemistry sustainable route: Review on novel applications
  95. Special Issue: Use of magnetic resonance in profiling bioactive metabolites and its applications (Guest Editors: Plalanoivel Velmurugan et al.)
  96. Stomach-affecting intestinal parasites as a precursor model of Pheretima posthuma treated with anthelmintic drug from Dodonaea viscosa Linn.
  97. Anti-asthmatic activity of Saudi herbal composites from plants Bacopa monnieri and Euphorbia hirta on Guinea pigs
  98. Embedding green synthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles in cotton fabrics and assessment of their antibacterial wound healing and cytotoxic properties: An eco-friendly approach
  99. Synthetic pathway of 2-fluoro-N,N-diphenylbenzamide with opto-electrical properties: NMR, FT-IR, UV-Vis spectroscopic, and DFT computational studies of the first-order nonlinear optical organic single crystal
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