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An experimental study on one-step and two-step foaming of natural rubber/silica nanocomposites

  • Hossein Bayat , Mohammad Fasihi EMAIL logo , Yasser Zare and Kyong Yop Rhee EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: May 15, 2020
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Nanotechnology Reviews
From the journal Nanotechnology Reviews Volume 9 Issue 1

Abstract

The curing and cellular structure of natural rubber (NR)/silica composite foams were investigated. The presence of an activator in the rubber formulation significantly lowered the decomposition temperature of the azodicarbonamide foaming agent, which allowed foaming before NR curing. Therefore, two foam methods were designed: foaming initially at 90°C and then curing at 140°C, and foaming and curing simultaneously at 140°C. Two-step foaming generated a lower cell density and higher cell size. Incorporation of nano silica into NR increased the foam density, but decreased the cell size. The higher foaming temperature restricted the bubble growth because of a higher curing rate and inhibited cell coalescence.

Keywords: foam; natural rubber (NR); nanosilica; cellular morphology; curing

1 Introduction

Nanomaterials have received widespread attention for numerous applications [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26]. Additionally, there is a critical need for solid materials, which simultaneously provide the processing of polymers and the high electrical properties of metals [27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38]. Today, polymeric foams have attracted much attention from different industries. Elastomeric foams have greater flexibility than plastic foams, and thus, they are applied in specific uses such as soft insulation. The properties of foams are influenced by their density and cellular structure, which in turn is governed by the foaming process and conditions [39]. The foaming of rubber is most often conducted by physical or chemical techniques. The control of cell size and cell distribution in rubber foams is more challenging than in thermoplastic foams since simultaneous foaming and curing occur [40,41,42]. Therefore, a balance between foaming and curing progress is essential. In the chemical method, bubble growth and curing are developed by heating. Consequently, suitable thermal conditions should be determined.

Commercially available rubber foams are produced from ethylene propylene diene monomer rubber (EPDM), styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR), acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber (NBR), natural rubber (NR), and polyurethane (PU). NR-based foams have exceptional properties such as low-temperature flexibility, excellent tear strength, and very good resilience [43,44]. Several studies have been performed on the properties and performance of NR foams. In most studies in this field, NR latex was used to produce foam [45,46]. However, a limited number of studies have been reported on the preparation of foams from solid NR. Najib et al. investigated mechanical performance and sound absorption of NR foams [47]. The foams with smaller cell sizes displayed higher sound absorption performance. Similar work on these properties was performed by Harnnarongchai [48]. The impact of temperature and rubber type on the properties of NR foams was also reported [49]. Moreover, it was stated that adding carbon black decreased the cell size and increased the cell density of NR foams [44,50]. The impact of blowing agent content on cure characteristics and mechanical and morphological properties of NR foams was reported by Pechurai et al. [51] who used 4,4′-oxydibenzenesulfonyl hydrazide (OBSH) as a foaming agent. Additionally, a combination of amino alcohol and carbonic acid [52] and a combination of sodium bicarbonate and azodicarbonamide were also considered as blowing agents [53,54]. A high level of the blowing agent led to more cell coalescence [54]. The effect of adding silica nanofiller on the curing and cellular structure of NR foams has been studied in our previous work [55,56]. It was found that the curing system of NR acted as an efficient activator for the blowing agent and promoted its decomposition. In addition, the blowing agent in the formulation of NR can promote the curing rate because of its exothermic decomposition. This finding allowed us to design one-step and two-step foaming processes, which were not studied in our previous work.

In this work, the cellular characteristics of one-step and two-step foaming were compared. In the one-step route, foaming and curing were performed simultaneously at 140°C. In the two-step route, foaming was performed at 90°C and curing was accomplished at 140°C. Moreover, the effect of incorporated silica particles was investigated.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Materials

Natural rubber (NR) ribbed smoked sheet 1 (RSS1) as the matrix was supplied by Thomson Enterprise Co. (India). Precipitated silica (ULTRASIL VN3) was purchased from Evonik Industries (Germany) as nanofiller with a specific surface area of 180 m2/g and an average particle size of 15 nm. Tetramethyl thiuram disulfide (TMTD) and N-cyclohexyl-2-benzothiazole sulfonamide (CBS) as accelerators and activated azodicarbonamide (porofor ADC/K) as the blowing agent were received from Lanxess Co. (Germany). Zinc oxide (ZnO) as the activator, sulfur as the curing agent, stearic acid, and paraffin oil were obtained from local companies.

2.2 Compounding of samples

The mixing of components was performed by an internal compounder (Brabender W50 EHT) at 60°C at a rotating speed of 80 rpm. First, NR was added into the mixer, and then silica and paraffin oil were gradually added within about 4 min. Subsequently, other ingredients consisting of the activator, accelerators, sulfur, blowing agent, and stearic acid were added into the mixer. The total mixing time for all samples was set at 15 min. Sample codes and compositions are introduced in Table 1.

Table 1

Compositions of prepared samples

Samples code NR (phr)a Stearic acid (phr) Sulfur (phr) ZnO (phr) TMTD (phr) CBS (phr) Oil (phr) Silica (phr) Foaming agent (phr)
PR 100 2 0.5 4 2.5 1 40 0 0
S0 100 2 0.5 4 2.5 1 40 0 8
S10 100 2 0.5 4 2.5 1 40 10 8
S20 100 2 0.5 4 2.5 1 40 20 8
S30 100 2 0.5 4 2.5 1 40 30 8
S40 100 2 0.5 4 2.5 1 40 40 8
  1. a

    phr: part per hundred of rubber (g/g).

2.3 Foam preparation

Two routes for preparing NR foams were designed. In the one-step method (route 1), foaming and curing of samples were conducted at 140°C for 20 min in a hot oven. The samples were cooled at room temperature after foaming. In the two-step method (route 2), first foaming was conducted for 10 min at 90°C, and then curing was performed at 140°C for 20 min using a hot oven.

2.4 Characterizations

An oscillating disc rheometer (ODR; Hiwa 100, Iran) was used to measure the rheology of the samples at temperatures of 90°C and 140°C in accordance with the ASTM D2084. Foam density was determined by the displacement method according to the ASTM D792. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM; VegaII Tescan, Czech) was applied to analyze the cell morphology. Samples were coated before this test with a thin layer of gold for better resolution. The average cell size of the bubbles was calculated by the ImageJ software from at least 50 different cell measurements.

The cell density of foams was determined using equation (1):

(1) N = 6 π d 2 ( ρ r ρ f − 1 )

where N is the cell density, d is the cell size (diameter), ρ r is the solid rubber density, and ρ f is the foam density.

The cell wall thickness, δ, of NR foams was calculated using equation (2):

(2) δ = d [ 1 1 − ρ f ρ r − 1 ]

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Curing behavior

Figure 1 shows the curing plots of all samples at 90°C and 140°C. The Y-axis in this figure is the difference between the minimum torque, M L, and maximum torque, M H, in the ODR test. As can be seen, the compounds at 90°C were not cured until 30 min, and the torque for all samples was close to zero. However, at 140°C, the materials cured at different rates. By addition of silica content from 0 to 40 phr, torque was enhanced due to increased viscosity from the added nanofiller.

Figure 1 Torque vs time at (A) 90°C and (B) 140°C.
Figure 1

Torque vs time at (A) 90°C and (B) 140°C.

The degree of conversion for all samples was calculated as follows:

(3) α ( t ) = M t − M L M H − M L

where M t is the torque value at time t. Figure 2 displays the conversion curves of samples at 140°C. As can be seen, the curing reaction of foam samples (S0–S40) was faster than the PR (non-foam) sample. This result was due to the exothermic decomposition of blowing agent that accelerated the curing reaction of rubber [56]. The torque for the PR sample was slightly higher than S0 because S0 was a foam, while PR was not; therefore, the finial modulus of PR was higher. Nonetheless, the scorch time and curing time of SX were explicitly lower than PR. This observation confirmed that the addition of nanofiller had a negligible impact on the curing reaction, while the blowing agent clearly promoted curing [56].

Figure 2 Degree of conversion vs time at 140°C.
Figure 2

Degree of conversion vs time at 140°C.

3.2 The density of foams

Figure 3 shows the density of the foams versus silica content for different foam processing. The addition of silica content up to 40 phr increased the foam density from approximately 0.3 to 0.6 g/cm3. This result might be related to the higher density of mineral particle when compared with the natural rubber. Moreover, compounds containing a higher silica level had higher viscosity (Figure 1b), which could restrict the bubble growth. However, the densities of samples from the two-step foaming process were 7% to 22% lower than foams prepared in one-step at 140°C. In two-step foaming, bubbles first grew and then the rubber cured. Thus, there was no limitation such as crosslinking on the bubble growth.

Figure 3 Density of natural rubber composites vs silica content.
Figure 3

Density of natural rubber composites vs silica content.

Viscosity, which is a barrier to cell growth, was higher at 90°C when compared with 140°C. Therefore, the bubble growth rate might be slower in the two-step foaming process. However, the curing reaction did not occur at 90°C. As the curing reaction progressed, the viscosity increased and bubble growth was prevented. The scorch time of samples at 140°C was between 3 and 7 min (Figure 2). Hence, in the one-step foaming at 140°C, bubbles had less time to grow and foams with higher density were produced.

3.3 Microscopic analysis

Figure 4 shows the cell structure of samples foamed by one-step and two-step foaming. According to the SEM figures, many closed cells in addition to a few open cells were observed. The addition of silica resulted in smaller cell size and more uniform distribution. However, the cell diameter from the two-step foaming process was not uniform and was larger when compared with the one-step foaming. Additionally, cell coalescence even at 40 phr silica appeared. Apparently, natural rubber at 90°C does not have enough strength to hold the gas inside bubbles and prevent cell coalescence over a long time.

Figure 4 SEM images of NR foams prepared at 140°C (a) S0, (b) S10, (c) S20, (d) S30, and (e) S40 and prepared at 90–140°C (f) S0, (g) S10, (h) S20, (i) S30, and (j) S40 (scale bar: 1 mm).
Figure 4

SEM images of NR foams prepared at 140°C (a) S0, (b) S10, (c) S20, (d) S30, and (e) S40 and prepared at 90–140°C (f) S0, (g) S10, (h) S20, (i) S30, and (j) S40 (scale bar: 1 mm).

Figure 5 illustrates the cell size of samples versus silica content. A higher silica content led to a lower cell diameter. For instance, the cell size of S0, which excluded silica, was about 580 µm, while for S40 the cell size was 200 µm. The cell sizes of foams prepared by route 1 were between 15% and 30% smaller than foams prepared by route 2.

Figure 5 Variation of average cell diameter and its deviation in different foams.
Figure 5

Variation of average cell diameter and its deviation in different foams.

Figures 6 and 7 show the prepared cell size distribution of foams prepared by routes 1 (one-step) and 2 (two-step), respectively. As seen, adding silica resulted in a smaller cell size and a narrower and more uniform cell distribution.

Figure 6 Distribution of cell size of foams prepared by route 1: (a) S10, (b) S20, (c) S30, and (d) S40.
Figure 6

Distribution of cell size of foams prepared by route 1: (a) S10, (b) S20, (c) S30, and (d) S40.

Figure 7 Distribution of cell size of foams prepared by route 2: (a) S10, (b) S20, (c) S30, and (d) S40.
Figure 7

Distribution of cell size of foams prepared by route 2: (a) S10, (b) S20, (c) S30, and (d) S40.

On the other hand, the cell density and cell wall thickness increased by adding silica due to the nucleating effect of silica particles (Figure 8). The cell density of S40 prepared by route 1 was approximately 10-fold higher than S0 and two-fold higher than S40 prepared by route 2. Therefore, the performance of silica as a nucleating agent in route 2 was inferior due to the lower temperature providing less energy for nucleation.

Figure 8 Variation of (a) cell wall thickness and (b) cell density of NR foams.
Figure 8

Variation of (a) cell wall thickness and (b) cell density of NR foams.

4 Conclusions

The curing and cell structure of natural rubber filled silica composite foams prepared by one-step and two-step foaming processes were compared. The addition of blowing agent to the NR compound noticeably promoted the curing rate and lessened the scorch time. The presence of silica had a negligible impact on the curing behavior. Two-step foaming caused a decrease in foam density and an increase in cell density. Moreover, the two-step foaming route caused the larger cell size and nonuniform cell distribution. The average cell size from route 1 was 15–30% lesser than route 2. At the higher temperature, faster curing restricted the bubble growth. In contrast, unstable grown bubbles at 90°C due to the lack of curing generated larger cells with a nonuniform distribution along with increased cell coalescence.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the Iran National Science Foundation (INSF) for financial support of this study.

  1. Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

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Received: 2019-12-25
Accepted: 2020-01-02
Published Online: 2020-05-15

© 2020 Hossein Bayat et al., published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  12. Interfacial characteristics of a carbon nanotube-polyimide nanocomposite by molecular dynamics simulation
  13. Preparation and properties of 3D interconnected CNTs/Cu composites
  14. On factors affecting surface free energy of carbon black for reinforcing rubber
  15. Nano-silica modified phenolic resin film: manufacturing and properties
  16. Experimental study on photocatalytic degradation efficiency of mixed crystal nano-TiO2 concrete
  17. Halloysite nanotubes in polymer science: purification, characterization, modification and applications
  18. Cellulose hydrogel skeleton by extrusion 3D printing of solution
  19. Crack closure and flexural tensile capacity with SMA fibers randomly embedded on tensile side of mortar beams
  20. An experimental study on one-step and two-step foaming of natural rubber/silica nanocomposites
  21. Utilization of red mud for producing a high strength binder by composition optimization and nano strengthening
  22. One-pot synthesis of nano titanium dioxide in supercritical water
  23. Printability of photo-sensitive nanocomposites using two-photon polymerization
  24. In situ synthesis of expanded graphite embedded with amorphous carbon-coated aluminum particles as anode materials for lithium-ion batteries
  25. Effect of nano and micro conductive materials on conductive properties of carbon fiber reinforced concrete
  26. Tribological performance of nano-diamond composites-dispersed lubricants on commercial cylinder liner mating with CrN piston ring
  27. Supramolecular ionic polymer/carbon nanotube composite hydrogels with enhanced electromechanical performance
  28. Genetic mechanisms of deep-water massive sandstones in continental lake basins and their significance in micro–nano reservoir storage systems: A case study of the Yanchang formation in the Ordos Basin
  29. Effects of nanoparticles on engineering performance of cementitious composites reinforced with PVA fibers
  30. Band gap manipulation of viscoelastic functionally graded phononic crystal
  31. Pyrolysis kinetics and mechanical properties of poly(lactic acid)/bamboo particle biocomposites: Effect of particle size distribution
  32. Manipulating conductive network formation via 3D T-ZnO: A facile approach for a CNT-reinforced nanocomposite
  33. Microstructure and mechanical properties of WC–Ni multiphase ceramic materials with NiCl2·6H2O as a binder
  34. Effect of ball milling process on the photocatalytic performance of CdS/TiO2 composite
  35. Berberine/Ag nanoparticle embedded biomimetic calcium phosphate scaffolds for enhancing antibacterial function
  36. Effect of annealing heat treatment on microstructure and mechanical properties of nonequiatomic CoCrFeNiMo medium-entropy alloys prepared by hot isostatic pressing
  37. Corrosion behaviour of multilayer CrN coatings deposited by hybrid HIPIMS after oxidation treatment
  38. Surface hydrophobicity and oleophilicity of hierarchical metal structures fabricated using ink-based selective laser melting of micro/nanoparticles
  39. Research on bond–slip performance between pultruded glass fiber-reinforced polymer tube and nano-CaCO3 concrete
  40. Antibacterial polymer nanofiber-coated and high elastin protein-expressing BMSCs incorporated polypropylene mesh for accelerating healing of female pelvic floor dysfunction
  41. Effects of Ag contents on the microstructure and SERS performance of self-grown Ag nanoparticles/Mo–Ag alloy films
  42. A highly sensitive biosensor based on methacrylated graphene oxide-grafted polyaniline for ascorbic acid determination
  43. Arrangement structure of carbon nanofiber with excellent spectral radiation characteristics
  44. Effect of different particle sizes of nano-SiO2 on the properties and microstructure of cement paste
  45. Superior Fe x N electrocatalyst derived from 1,1′-diacetylferrocene for oxygen reduction reaction in alkaline and acidic media
  46. Facile growth of aluminum oxide thin film by chemical liquid deposition and its application in devices
  47. Liquid crystallinity and thermal properties of polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane/side-chain azobenzene hybrid copolymer
  48. Laboratory experiment on the nano-TiO2 photocatalytic degradation effect of road surface oil pollution
  49. Binary carbon-based additives in LiFePO4 cathode with favorable lithium storage
  50. Conversion of sub-µm calcium carbonate (calcite) particles to hollow hydroxyapatite agglomerates in K2HPO4 solutions
  51. Exact solutions of bending deflection for single-walled BNNTs based on the classical Euler–Bernoulli beam theory
  52. Effects of substrate properties and sputtering methods on self-formation of Ag particles on the Ag–Mo(Zr) alloy films
  53. Enhancing carbonation and chloride resistance of autoclaved concrete by incorporating nano-CaCO3
  54. Effect of SiO2 aerogels loading on photocatalytic degradation of nitrobenzene using composites with tetrapod-like ZnO
  55. Radiation-modified wool for adsorption of redox metals and potentially for nanoparticles
  56. Hydration activity, crystal structural, and electronic properties studies of Ba-doped dicalcium silicate
  57. Microstructure and mechanical properties of brazing joint of silver-based composite filler metal
  58. Polymer nanocomposite sunlight spectrum down-converters made by open-air PLD
  59. Cryogenic milling and formation of nanostructured machined surface of AISI 4340
  60. Braided composite stent for peripheral vascular applications
  61. Effect of cinnamon essential oil on morphological, flammability and thermal properties of nanocellulose fibre–reinforced starch biopolymer composites
  62. Study on influencing factors of photocatalytic performance of CdS/TiO2 nanocomposite concrete
  63. Improving flexural and dielectric properties of carbon fiber epoxy composite laminates reinforced with carbon nanotubes interlayer using electrospray deposition
  64. Scalable fabrication of carbon materials based silicon rubber for highly stretchable e-textile sensor
  65. Degradation modeling of poly-l-lactide acid (PLLA) bioresorbable vascular scaffold within a coronary artery
  66. Combining Zn0.76Co0.24S with S-doped graphene as high-performance anode materials for lithium- and sodium-ion batteries
  67. Synthesis of functionalized carbon nanotubes for fluorescent biosensors
  68. Effect of nano-silica slurry on engineering, X-ray, and γ-ray attenuation characteristics of steel slag high-strength heavyweight concrete
  69. Incorporation of redox-active polyimide binder into LiFePO4 cathode for high-rate electrochemical energy storage
  70. Microstructural evolution and properties of Cu–20 wt% Ag alloy wire by multi-pass continuous drawing
  71. Transparent ultraviolet-shielding composite films made from dispersing pristine zinc oxide nanoparticles in low-density polyethylene
  72. Microfluidic-assisted synthesis and modelling of monodispersed magnetic nanocomposites for biomedical applications
  73. Preparation and piezoresistivity of carbon nanotube-coated sand reinforced cement mortar
  74. Vibrational analysis of an irregular single-walled carbon nanotube incorporating initial stress effects
  75. Study of the material engineering properties of high-density poly(ethylene)/perlite nanocomposite materials
  76. Single pulse laser removal of indium tin oxide film on glass and polyethylene terephthalate by nanosecond and femtosecond laser
  77. Mechanical reinforcement with enhanced electrical and heat conduction of epoxy resin by polyaniline and graphene nanoplatelets
  78. High-efficiency method for recycling lithium from spent LiFePO4 cathode
  79. Degradable tough chitosan dressing for skin wound recovery
  80. Static and dynamic analyses of auxetic hybrid FRC/CNTRC laminated plates
  81. Review articles
  82. Carbon nanomaterials enhanced cement-based composites: advances and challenges
  83. Review on the research progress of cement-based and geopolymer materials modified by graphene and graphene oxide
  84. Review on modeling and application of chemical mechanical polishing
  85. Research on the interface properties and strengthening–toughening mechanism of nanocarbon-toughened ceramic matrix composites
  86. Advances in modelling and analysis of nano structures: a review
  87. Mechanical properties of nanomaterials: A review
  88. New generation of oxide-based nanoparticles for the applications in early cancer detection and diagnostics
  89. A review on the properties, reinforcing effects, and commercialization of nanomaterials for cement-based materials
  90. Recent development and applications of nanomaterials for cancer immunotherapy
  91. Advances in biomaterials for adipose tissue reconstruction in plastic surgery
  92. Advances of graphene- and graphene oxide-modified cementitious materials
  93. Theories for triboelectric nanogenerators: A comprehensive review
  94. Nanotechnology of diamondoids for the fabrication of nanostructured systems
  95. Material advancement in technological development for the 5G wireless communications
  96. Nanoengineering in biomedicine: Current development and future perspectives
  97. Recent advances in ocean wave energy harvesting by triboelectric nanogenerator: An overview
  98. Application of nanoscale zero-valent iron in hexavalent chromium-contaminated soil: A review
  99. Carbon nanotube–reinforced polymer composite for electromagnetic interference application: A review
  100. Functionalized layered double hydroxide applied to heavy metal ions absorption: A review
  101. A new classification method of nanotechnology for design integration in biomaterials
  102. Finite element analysis of natural fibers composites: A review
  103. Phase change materials for building construction: An overview of nano-/micro-encapsulation
  104. Recent advance in surface modification for regulating cell adhesion and behaviors
  105. Hyaluronic acid as a bioactive component for bone tissue regeneration: Fabrication, modification, properties, and biological functions
  106. Theoretical calculation of a TiO2-based photocatalyst in the field of water splitting: A review
  107. Two-photon polymerization nanolithography technology for fabrication of stimulus-responsive micro/nano-structures for biomedical applications
  108. A review of passive methods in microchannel heat sink application through advanced geometric structure and nanofluids: Current advancements and challenges
  109. Stress effect on 3D culturing of MC3T3-E1 cells on microporous bovine bone slices
  110. Progress in magnetic Fe3O4 nanomaterials in magnetic resonance imaging
  111. Synthesis of graphene: Potential carbon precursors and approaches
  112. A comprehensive review of the influences of nanoparticles as a fuel additive in an internal combustion engine (ICE)
  113. Advances in layered double hydroxide-based ternary nanocomposites for photocatalysis of contaminants in water
  114. Analysis of functionally graded carbon nanotube-reinforced composite structures: A review
  115. Application of nanomaterials in ultra-high performance concrete: A review
  116. Therapeutic strategies and potential implications of silver nanoparticles in the management of skin cancer
  117. Advanced nickel nanoparticles technology: From synthesis to applications
  118. Cobalt magnetic nanoparticles as theranostics: Conceivable or forgettable?
  119. Progress in construction of bio-inspired physico-antimicrobial surfaces
  120. From materials to devices using fused deposition modeling: A state-of-art review
  121. A review for modified Li composite anode: Principle, preparation and challenge
  122. Naturally or artificially constructed nanocellulose architectures for epoxy composites: A review
https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2020-0032
Keywords for this article
foam; natural rubber (NR); nanosilica; cellular morphology; curing
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Generalized locally-exact homogenization theory for evaluation of electric conductivity and resistance of multiphase materials
  3. Enhancing ultra-early strength of sulphoaluminate cement-based materials by incorporating graphene oxide
  4. Characterization of mechanical properties of epoxy/nanohybrid composites by nanoindentation
  5. Graphene and CNT impact on heat transfer response of nanocomposite cylinders
  6. A facile and simple approach to synthesis and characterization of methacrylated graphene oxide nanostructured polyaniline nanocomposites
  7. Ultrasmall Fe3O4 nanoparticles induce S-phase arrest and inhibit cancer cells proliferation
  8. Effect of aging on properties and nanoscale precipitates of Cu-Ag-Cr alloy
  9. Effect of nano-strengthening on the properties and microstructure of recycled concrete
  10. Stabilizing effect of methylcellulose on the dispersion of multi-walled carbon nanotubes in cementitious composites
  11. Preparation and electromagnetic properties characterization of reduced graphene oxide/strontium hexaferrite nanocomposites
  12. Interfacial characteristics of a carbon nanotube-polyimide nanocomposite by molecular dynamics simulation
  13. Preparation and properties of 3D interconnected CNTs/Cu composites
  14. On factors affecting surface free energy of carbon black for reinforcing rubber
  15. Nano-silica modified phenolic resin film: manufacturing and properties
  16. Experimental study on photocatalytic degradation efficiency of mixed crystal nano-TiO2 concrete
  17. Halloysite nanotubes in polymer science: purification, characterization, modification and applications
  18. Cellulose hydrogel skeleton by extrusion 3D printing of solution
  19. Crack closure and flexural tensile capacity with SMA fibers randomly embedded on tensile side of mortar beams
  20. An experimental study on one-step and two-step foaming of natural rubber/silica nanocomposites
  21. Utilization of red mud for producing a high strength binder by composition optimization and nano strengthening
  22. One-pot synthesis of nano titanium dioxide in supercritical water
  23. Printability of photo-sensitive nanocomposites using two-photon polymerization
  24. In situ synthesis of expanded graphite embedded with amorphous carbon-coated aluminum particles as anode materials for lithium-ion batteries
  25. Effect of nano and micro conductive materials on conductive properties of carbon fiber reinforced concrete
  26. Tribological performance of nano-diamond composites-dispersed lubricants on commercial cylinder liner mating with CrN piston ring
  27. Supramolecular ionic polymer/carbon nanotube composite hydrogels with enhanced electromechanical performance
  28. Genetic mechanisms of deep-water massive sandstones in continental lake basins and their significance in micro–nano reservoir storage systems: A case study of the Yanchang formation in the Ordos Basin
  29. Effects of nanoparticles on engineering performance of cementitious composites reinforced with PVA fibers
  30. Band gap manipulation of viscoelastic functionally graded phononic crystal
  31. Pyrolysis kinetics and mechanical properties of poly(lactic acid)/bamboo particle biocomposites: Effect of particle size distribution
  32. Manipulating conductive network formation via 3D T-ZnO: A facile approach for a CNT-reinforced nanocomposite
  33. Microstructure and mechanical properties of WC–Ni multiphase ceramic materials with NiCl2·6H2O as a binder
  34. Effect of ball milling process on the photocatalytic performance of CdS/TiO2 composite
  35. Berberine/Ag nanoparticle embedded biomimetic calcium phosphate scaffolds for enhancing antibacterial function
  36. Effect of annealing heat treatment on microstructure and mechanical properties of nonequiatomic CoCrFeNiMo medium-entropy alloys prepared by hot isostatic pressing
  37. Corrosion behaviour of multilayer CrN coatings deposited by hybrid HIPIMS after oxidation treatment
  38. Surface hydrophobicity and oleophilicity of hierarchical metal structures fabricated using ink-based selective laser melting of micro/nanoparticles
  39. Research on bond–slip performance between pultruded glass fiber-reinforced polymer tube and nano-CaCO3 concrete
  40. Antibacterial polymer nanofiber-coated and high elastin protein-expressing BMSCs incorporated polypropylene mesh for accelerating healing of female pelvic floor dysfunction
  41. Effects of Ag contents on the microstructure and SERS performance of self-grown Ag nanoparticles/Mo–Ag alloy films
  42. A highly sensitive biosensor based on methacrylated graphene oxide-grafted polyaniline for ascorbic acid determination
  43. Arrangement structure of carbon nanofiber with excellent spectral radiation characteristics
  44. Effect of different particle sizes of nano-SiO2 on the properties and microstructure of cement paste
  45. Superior Fe x N electrocatalyst derived from 1,1′-diacetylferrocene for oxygen reduction reaction in alkaline and acidic media
  46. Facile growth of aluminum oxide thin film by chemical liquid deposition and its application in devices
  47. Liquid crystallinity and thermal properties of polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane/side-chain azobenzene hybrid copolymer
  48. Laboratory experiment on the nano-TiO2 photocatalytic degradation effect of road surface oil pollution
  49. Binary carbon-based additives in LiFePO4 cathode with favorable lithium storage
  50. Conversion of sub-µm calcium carbonate (calcite) particles to hollow hydroxyapatite agglomerates in K2HPO4 solutions
  51. Exact solutions of bending deflection for single-walled BNNTs based on the classical Euler–Bernoulli beam theory
  52. Effects of substrate properties and sputtering methods on self-formation of Ag particles on the Ag–Mo(Zr) alloy films
  53. Enhancing carbonation and chloride resistance of autoclaved concrete by incorporating nano-CaCO3
  54. Effect of SiO2 aerogels loading on photocatalytic degradation of nitrobenzene using composites with tetrapod-like ZnO
  55. Radiation-modified wool for adsorption of redox metals and potentially for nanoparticles
  56. Hydration activity, crystal structural, and electronic properties studies of Ba-doped dicalcium silicate
  57. Microstructure and mechanical properties of brazing joint of silver-based composite filler metal
  58. Polymer nanocomposite sunlight spectrum down-converters made by open-air PLD
  59. Cryogenic milling and formation of nanostructured machined surface of AISI 4340
  60. Braided composite stent for peripheral vascular applications
  61. Effect of cinnamon essential oil on morphological, flammability and thermal properties of nanocellulose fibre–reinforced starch biopolymer composites
  62. Study on influencing factors of photocatalytic performance of CdS/TiO2 nanocomposite concrete
  63. Improving flexural and dielectric properties of carbon fiber epoxy composite laminates reinforced with carbon nanotubes interlayer using electrospray deposition
  64. Scalable fabrication of carbon materials based silicon rubber for highly stretchable e-textile sensor
  65. Degradation modeling of poly-l-lactide acid (PLLA) bioresorbable vascular scaffold within a coronary artery
  66. Combining Zn0.76Co0.24S with S-doped graphene as high-performance anode materials for lithium- and sodium-ion batteries
  67. Synthesis of functionalized carbon nanotubes for fluorescent biosensors
  68. Effect of nano-silica slurry on engineering, X-ray, and γ-ray attenuation characteristics of steel slag high-strength heavyweight concrete
  69. Incorporation of redox-active polyimide binder into LiFePO4 cathode for high-rate electrochemical energy storage
  70. Microstructural evolution and properties of Cu–20 wt% Ag alloy wire by multi-pass continuous drawing
  71. Transparent ultraviolet-shielding composite films made from dispersing pristine zinc oxide nanoparticles in low-density polyethylene
  72. Microfluidic-assisted synthesis and modelling of monodispersed magnetic nanocomposites for biomedical applications
  73. Preparation and piezoresistivity of carbon nanotube-coated sand reinforced cement mortar
  74. Vibrational analysis of an irregular single-walled carbon nanotube incorporating initial stress effects
  75. Study of the material engineering properties of high-density poly(ethylene)/perlite nanocomposite materials
  76. Single pulse laser removal of indium tin oxide film on glass and polyethylene terephthalate by nanosecond and femtosecond laser
  77. Mechanical reinforcement with enhanced electrical and heat conduction of epoxy resin by polyaniline and graphene nanoplatelets
  78. High-efficiency method for recycling lithium from spent LiFePO4 cathode
  79. Degradable tough chitosan dressing for skin wound recovery
  80. Static and dynamic analyses of auxetic hybrid FRC/CNTRC laminated plates
  81. Review articles
  82. Carbon nanomaterials enhanced cement-based composites: advances and challenges
  83. Review on the research progress of cement-based and geopolymer materials modified by graphene and graphene oxide
  84. Review on modeling and application of chemical mechanical polishing
  85. Research on the interface properties and strengthening–toughening mechanism of nanocarbon-toughened ceramic matrix composites
  86. Advances in modelling and analysis of nano structures: a review
  87. Mechanical properties of nanomaterials: A review
  88. New generation of oxide-based nanoparticles for the applications in early cancer detection and diagnostics
  89. A review on the properties, reinforcing effects, and commercialization of nanomaterials for cement-based materials
  90. Recent development and applications of nanomaterials for cancer immunotherapy
  91. Advances in biomaterials for adipose tissue reconstruction in plastic surgery
  92. Advances of graphene- and graphene oxide-modified cementitious materials
  93. Theories for triboelectric nanogenerators: A comprehensive review
  94. Nanotechnology of diamondoids for the fabrication of nanostructured systems
  95. Material advancement in technological development for the 5G wireless communications
  96. Nanoengineering in biomedicine: Current development and future perspectives
  97. Recent advances in ocean wave energy harvesting by triboelectric nanogenerator: An overview
  98. Application of nanoscale zero-valent iron in hexavalent chromium-contaminated soil: A review
  99. Carbon nanotube–reinforced polymer composite for electromagnetic interference application: A review
  100. Functionalized layered double hydroxide applied to heavy metal ions absorption: A review
  101. A new classification method of nanotechnology for design integration in biomaterials
  102. Finite element analysis of natural fibers composites: A review
  103. Phase change materials for building construction: An overview of nano-/micro-encapsulation
  104. Recent advance in surface modification for regulating cell adhesion and behaviors
  105. Hyaluronic acid as a bioactive component for bone tissue regeneration: Fabrication, modification, properties, and biological functions
  106. Theoretical calculation of a TiO2-based photocatalyst in the field of water splitting: A review
  107. Two-photon polymerization nanolithography technology for fabrication of stimulus-responsive micro/nano-structures for biomedical applications
  108. A review of passive methods in microchannel heat sink application through advanced geometric structure and nanofluids: Current advancements and challenges
  109. Stress effect on 3D culturing of MC3T3-E1 cells on microporous bovine bone slices
  110. Progress in magnetic Fe3O4 nanomaterials in magnetic resonance imaging
  111. Synthesis of graphene: Potential carbon precursors and approaches
  112. A comprehensive review of the influences of nanoparticles as a fuel additive in an internal combustion engine (ICE)
  113. Advances in layered double hydroxide-based ternary nanocomposites for photocatalysis of contaminants in water
  114. Analysis of functionally graded carbon nanotube-reinforced composite structures: A review
  115. Application of nanomaterials in ultra-high performance concrete: A review
  116. Therapeutic strategies and potential implications of silver nanoparticles in the management of skin cancer
  117. Advanced nickel nanoparticles technology: From synthesis to applications
  118. Cobalt magnetic nanoparticles as theranostics: Conceivable or forgettable?
  119. Progress in construction of bio-inspired physico-antimicrobial surfaces
  120. From materials to devices using fused deposition modeling: A state-of-art review
  121. A review for modified Li composite anode: Principle, preparation and challenge
  122. Naturally or artificially constructed nanocellulose architectures for epoxy composites: A review
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