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Advances in biomaterials for adipose tissue reconstruction in plastic surgery

  • Zhiyu Peng , Pei Tang , Li Zhao EMAIL logo , Lina Wu , Xiujuan Xu , Haoyuan Lei , Min Zhou , Changchun Zhou and Zhengyong Li EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: May 27, 2020
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Nanotechnology Reviews
From the journal Nanotechnology Reviews Volume 9 Issue 1

Abstract

Adipose tissue reconstruction is an important technique for soft tissue defects caused by facial plastic surgery and trauma. Adipose tissue reconstruction can be repaired by fat transplantation and biomaterial filling, but there are some problems in fat transplantation, such as second operation and limited resources. The application of advanced artificial biomaterials is a promising strategy. In this paper, injectable biomaterials and three-dimensional (3D) tissue-engineered scaffold materials for adipose tissue reconstruction in plastic surgery are reviewed. Injectable biomaterials include natural biomaterials and artificial biomaterials, which generally have problems such as high absorptivity of fillers, repeated injection, and rejection. In recent years, the technology of new 3D tissue-engineering scaffold materials with adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) and porous scaffold as the core has made good progress in fat reconstruction, which is expected to solve the current problem of clinical adipose tissue reconstruction, and various biomaterials preparation technology and transformation research also provide the basis for clinical transformation of fat tissue reconstruction.

Keywords: adipose tissue reconstruction; biomaterial; plastic surgery

1 Introduction

Adipose tissue reconstruction is an plastic surgery aimed at achieving volume recovery and adipose tissue regeneration [1,2]. The surgery is not only used for routine cosmetic treatment, such as wrinkle removal, but also widely used for congenital defects, trauma, or reconstruction of surgically removed tissues, such as breast collapse after breast tumor surgery [3] and soft tissue deficiency after maxillofacial surgery [4]. Adipose tissue reconstruction usually uses the transfer of autologous adipose tissue or the construction of biomaterials suitable for filling requirements. Adipose tissue metastasis has the advantages of low immune rejection and light inflammatory response, which has been introduced into daily clinical treatment [5]. However, autologous fat transplantation is accompanied by inevitable fat absorption and donor region complications [6]. So, researchers are turning to biomaterials. Biomaterials are inanimate materials used for medical purposes to contact with living tissues [7]. Common implantable biomaterials include hyaluronic acid (HA), collagen, and polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA). Compared with autologous fat transplantation, biomaterials have the advantages of easy access, no damage to the donor area and modification according to requirements, but also have the disadvantages of foreign body reaction and inflammation, deformation, and repeated injection due to absorption of filler materials [7,8,9,10]. Although fat transplantation and biomaterials have been widely used in clinical practice, problems such as multiple operations because of material absorption and rejection reactions are not completely solved. The idea of three-dimensional (3D) biological scaffolds is to construct extracellular matrix (ECM) scaffolds and combine them with adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) and other cells, so as to provide an environment for the differentiation and growth of adipocytes and ultimately achieve the reconstruction of adipose tissue [11]. Now many studies of the combination of injectable biomaterials and biomaterial stents with fat transplantation show great potential in preclinical studies. This paper reviews the recent research advances in biomaterials for surgery of adipose tissue reconstruction.

2 Injectable biomaterials for adipose tissue reconstruction in plastic surgery

The materials used for adipose tissue reconstruction are generally injectable hydrogel materials because they can be simply injected subcutaneously, greatly avoiding pain and complications in patients. In addition, the injected biomaterials can fill the complex lacuna in the patient’s surgical area, avoiding the formation of dead space [12]. Therefore, injectable biomaterials are widely used in adipose tissue reconstruction. Injectable in situ gels can be prepared by various physical and chemical methods. Physical methods include temperature, pH, electric and magnetic fields, enzymatic method, optical method, and hydrophobic interaction, etc., while chemical methods include various crosslinking methods, such as Schiff crosslinking method, Michael crosslinking method, and enzyme-catalyzed crosslinking method [5,7,13]. The preparation of various injectable biomaterials is complicated, but the materials can be divided into natural materials and synthetic materials. The basic research and clinical application progress of various injectable biomaterials are introduced from natural biomaterials and synthetic biomaterials, respectively.

2.1 Natural biological materials

2.1.1 Collagen

Collagen is the main component of connective tissues, ligaments, and tendons, and collagen in the natural ECM is an important biomaterial [14,15]. Currently, there are three main sources of collagen biomaterials. The first is bovine collagen extracted from bovine tendons, dermis, and bones [16]. Bovine collagen can form a firm structure through collagen fibers after injection to help correct facial defects. Now various bovine collagen products have been on the market for correcting scars, crow’s feet, and periorbital wrinkles [5,17]. However, it has been reported that bovine collagen has a high incidence of rejection [18]. The second is pig collagen, which is extracted from the tendons, dermis, and bones of pigs. Recently, materials using pig collagen have been promoted as intraepithelial fillers. Compared with bovine collagen, pig collagen has higher wrinkle resistance and no serious adverse reactions [19]. The third is human collagen material extracted from the dermis of the human body. It can be extracted from adipose tissue after liposuction or produced by recombining yeast or bacteria of human collagen [20,21]. Human collagen material has been used in clinical practice, delaying the degradation of collagen lysine residues by cross-linking them with glutaraldehyde, mainly for deep scars and wrinkles [20]. The human collagen material has shown good clinical effect, but the price is expensive, and the long-term effect is yet to be verified by clinical studies (Table 1).

Table 1

Advanced biomaterials for adipose tissue regeneration and their applications

Name Molecular structure/formula Resource Advantages Disadvantages Application
Natural biomaterials Collagen [5,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21] None Bovine collagen, pig collagen and human collagen Superior biocompatibility Rejection reaction; possible disease transfection Facial soft tissue filler for crow’s feet, periorbital wrinkles, and deep scars
Hyaluronic acid [22,23,24,25,26,27,28]
Bacteria or the cockscomb of roosters Minimal rejection reaction Mild swelling; rapid degradation Temporary filler to induce tissue repair
Chitosan [29,30,68]
Partial deacetylation of chitin Nontoxic; slowly biodegradable; biocompatible Rejection reaction; limited promotion of cell proliferation Soft tissue filler; wound healing
Gelatin [31,32,69]
Partial hydrolysis of collagen A good vehicle for adipose tissue engineering Poor mechanical properties Biological scaffold for adipose tissue engineering
Decellularized adipose tissue [33,34,35] None Adipose tissue Potential benefits for repairing of damaged tissues Rapid degradation; repeated injection Biological scaffold for adipose tissue engineering; wound healing cartilage and bone regeneration, nerve injury repairing
Synthetic biomaterials PMMA [36,37]
Artificially synthesized Long-lasting Rejection reaction; nonbiodegradable Volume enhancer and profiler for nasolabial line, radial upper lip line, interbrow line and corner line
PLLA [38,39,40,41]
Artificially synthesized Superior biocompatibility; provoke collagen deposition Rapid biodegradation Soft tissue reconstruction; biological stimulant
Calcium hydroxyapatite [42,43]
Artificially synthesized Long-lasting; biocompatibility; biodegradability; low toxicity Rejection reaction Nasolabial folds

2.1.2 HA

HA is a naturally occurring glycosaminoglycan that is usually extracted from bacteria or the cockscomb of roosters. HA has shown low immunogenicity in preclinical studies, and several HA materials have been approved for clinical use [22,23]. However, HA degrades quickly and requires repeated injections and lacks the ability to induce adipose cells, so it is usually used as a temporary filler to induce tissue repair [24]. Several studies have focused on reducing the degradation rate of HA to ensure its volume persistence and improve its biological performance. At present, there are two main methods to degrade the degradation rate of HA, one is the double-crosslinking method [24] and the other is the combination of HA with biopolymers such as gelatin, chitosan, cellulose, or synthetic polymers such as polyethylene glycol (PEG) [25,26,27]. Compared with pure HA, the combination of HA and gelatin shows good biocompatibility and lower degradation rate. Although the anaphylaxis caused by HA is weak, there are still pain, bruising, and temporary edema in the local area which have been reported [28].

2.1.3 Chitosan

Chitosan is a natural linear polysaccharide obtained by partial deacetylation of chitin. In tissue engineering applications, its water-soluble analog N-SCS is often used as a tissue filler [29]. Tan et al. [30] developed a biodegradable hydrogel construct composed of succinyl chitosan (SCS), PEG, and insulin, in which insulin acts as an adipogenic factor. When the hydrogel was cultured with cells for 6 h, the adhesion of cells to SCS/PEG hydrogel was significantly greater than that to pure SCS hydrogel (the relative DNA content increased by about 1.5 times).

2.1.4 Gelatin

Gelatin is a water-soluble biocompatible protein, which is the product of partial hydrolysis of collagen. It retains biological interaction signals including Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) sequence, so it is often used in various tissue engineering applications. Tuin et al. [31] evaluated the potential of an injectable hydrogel composed of recombinant gelatin enriched by HA and RGD in rats. They found that after 4 weeks of transplantation, the introduction of recombinant gelatin induced soft tissue regeneration, characterized by significant vascularization and infiltration of fibroblasts and macrophages. Using transglutaminase to hydrolyze and cross-link gelatin hydrogel and encapsulating ADSCs, Zeno Alarake et al. [32] obtained good results in vitro.

2.1.5 Decellularized adipose tissue

Because decellularized adipose tissue (DAT) has the potential to enhance the regeneration and repair of damaged tissues, some studies have shown that ADSCs combined with DAT is an effective biofiller [33,34,35]. Zhang et al. [33] studied the potential of heparinized DAT loaded with basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) in mice. These injectable scaffolds induced significant adipogenesis and neovascularization within 6–12 weeks, whereas the non-crosslinked DAT (excluding bFGF) formed adipogenesis to a lesser extent and was almost completely absorbed after 12 weeks. Tan et al. [35] also observed that after subcutaneous injection of acellular pig fat tissue, fat generation was significantly enhanced after ADSC inoculation. Therefore, the application of DAT in combination with ADSCs is considered to be highly synergistic, as these systems demonstrate long-term lipogenesis and angiogenesis in vivo.

2.2 Synthetic biomaterials

2.2.1 PMMA

PMMA is a synthetic and nondegradable biocompatible polymer, which is often used as an intradermal filler in tissue repair. The PMMA microspheres developed originally are called Arteplast [36], because of their small molecular diameter (less than 20 µm), causing immune responses such as macrophage phagocytosis and inflammation. Artefill [37] is a new generation of developed PMMA microspheres, with a size of 30–50 µm, which is reported that it has a less risk of phagocytosis and can reduce the formation of granuloma. At present, it has been reported as a volume enhancer and profiler for nasolabial line, radial upper lip line, interbrow line, and corner line.

Figure 1 Cells, growth factors, and porous scaffolds constitute the adipose tissue regeneration engineering.
Figure 1

Cells, growth factors, and porous scaffolds constitute the adipose tissue regeneration engineering.

2.2.2 Poly-l-lactic acid

Originally synthesized from α-hydroxy acids, poly-l-lactic acid (PLLA) is a biodegradable thermoplastic polymer that has been widely used in orthopedics, neurosurgery, and suture materials of craniofacial surgery, absorbable plates, and screws [38]. The main use of PLLA in soft tissue reconstruction is to enlarge and fill the deep dermis or subcutaneous layer and repair facial fat atrophy [39]. PLLA expands at the moment of injection to fill and repair the lacuna and degrades after a period of time. PLLA can stimulate collagen production and vascularization in the whole process, which ultimately causes dermal fiber proliferation, acting as a biological stimulant [40]. Therefore, PLLA is also approved as a treatment for nasolabial fold, facial wrinkles, line, and contour enhancement defects [40,41].

2.2.3 Calcium hydroxyapatite

Calcium hydroxyapatite (CH) and its by-products naturally occurring in human bone and tooth enamel are composed of calcium and phosphate ions and have strong biocompatibility [42]. CH can be prepared as microspheres and suspended in carboxymethyl cellulose gel, which has been approved for the correction of facial wrinkles and the filling of soft tissues [43]. The CH microspheres in the gel can promote the formation of new tissues through collagen deposition. The gel usually degrades within 2–3 months and its by-products, calcium and phosphate ions, can be removed by phagocytosis of macrophages. Therefore, some studies believe that the treatment effect of CH on nasolabial folds is better than that of pure collagen materials [43].

3 Tissue engineering scaffold materials for adipose tissue reconstruction in plastic surgery

The application of 3D tissue-engineered scaffold materials for adipose tissue repair is an important method in the field of adipose tissue reconstruction. The principle is to encapsulate adipose cells, ADSCs, or other cells and growth factors through tissue engineering, and then inoculate them on 3D scaffolds simulating ECM [11]. Good tissue engineering scaffolds in orthopedic adipose tissue reconstruction should meet the following requirements: (1) good biocompatibility and nontoxicity; (2) the scaffold shall have interpore connections with an aperture greater than 100 µm to provide effective oxygen and nutrients and to ensure good cell proliferation and migration; (3) it can be designed and shaped flexibly and it should be convenient to construct 3D scaffold quickly [7,11]. The progress of adipose reconstruction scaffold material depends on the progress of preparation technology. The biggest advantage of 3D scaffold is that it can provide a good biomimetic environment for cells and cytokines, etc. At present, the preclinical research on the combination of cells and biological scaffold material shows a good application prospect. The manufacturing technology of 3D adipose tissue engineering scaffold materials, the cells and growth factors used in adipose tissue reconstruction, and the application of 3D scaffold materials in adipose tissue reconstruction are introduced (Figure 1).

Figure 2 Figure 2: Examples of preparation methods of tissue engineering scaffolds. (a) Solvent casting [70]. (b) Particulate leaching method [71]. (c) Scaffold fabricated by FDM method: (a) laser scanning; (b) CAD model fabricating; (c) porous patient-specific scaffolds generating; (d) MicroCT scans show the filament and volume of the scaffolds; (e) SEM image bars and struts of the scaffold [46]. (d) Scaffold fabricated by laser fabrication approach [64]. (e) Scaffolds fabricated by the LAB method. (f) Two-photon polymerization (2PP) method: (a) schematic illustration showing 2PP structures (gray) fabricated by a focused laser beam (red) within the suspension of cells (blue); (b) CAD model used for laser cell encapsulation; (c) an optical online image of a 2PP-produced 400 μm wide Yin–Yang hydrogel structure with cells inside [73].
Figure 2

Figure 2: Examples of preparation methods of tissue engineering scaffolds. (a) Solvent casting [70]. (b) Particulate leaching method [71]. (c) Scaffold fabricated by FDM method: (a) laser scanning; (b) CAD model fabricating; (c) porous patient-specific scaffolds generating; (d) MicroCT scans show the filament and volume of the scaffolds; (e) SEM image bars and struts of the scaffold [46]. (d) Scaffold fabricated by laser fabrication approach [64]. (e) Scaffolds fabricated by the LAB method. (f) Two-photon polymerization (2PP) method: (a) schematic illustration showing 2PP structures (gray) fabricated by a focused laser beam (red) within the suspension of cells (blue); (b) CAD model used for laser cell encapsulation; (c) an optical online image of a 2PP-produced 400 μm wide Yin–Yang hydrogel structure with cells inside [73].

3.1 Preparation technology of 3D tissue engineering scaffold for adipose tissue reconstruction

At present, the methods applied to the construction of 3D biological scaffolds can be divided into two types: traditional construction and additive manufacturing forming technology (Figure 2). Traditional construction methods include solvent casting method and particle leaching method, freeze-drying method, and freeze-gel methods, which are simple and economical. For example, Phull et al. [44] used the solvent casting method and the particle leaching method to produce macroporous structures for soft tissue engineering. They used alginate microspheres as pore-foaming agents, and a mechanically stable scaffold material with large voids was prepared by gelatin for the surrounding matrix. The results showed that the gelatin matrix with ADSCs could support the growth and differentiation of cells along the fat line.

Additive manufacturing forming technology includes two kinds of technology methods of conventional 3D printing, which can fabricate post complex cells, growth factors, and direct 3D bio-fabrication. Additive manufacturing forming technology has the advantage that can make custom-made scaffold for patients according to their characteristics, and scaffold materials, seed cells, and growth factors can be prepared accurately; it is widely used in the manufacture of artificial organs, such as bone tissue, skin, trachea, and so on [45,46,47]. In conventional 3D printing manufacturing technologies, fused deposition modelling (FDM) technology based on extrusion molding can be used to fabricate 3D porous scaffolds of adipose tissue layer by layer. The main disadvantage of this method is that cells cannot be printed with materials and cells must be inoculated after printing. Chhaya et al. [48] added PLLA scaffold with an aperture more than 1 mm to human umbilical vein endothelial cells, and then subcutaneously implanted the scaffold into nude mice without thymus. Angiogenesis and adipose tissue formation were observed in all mammary scaffolds. Bio-fabrication is the application of “bio-ink” containing cell components to produce 3D scaffolds. Its advantage is that scaffolds and cells are prepared as “bio-ink” in advance, and then, they are simultaneously printed [49]. Current research on bio-fabrication focuses on how to solve the survival rate of cells and how do cells stay alive and differentiate into tissue after printing [50]. Gruene et al. [51] made 3D biological scaffolds by using laser-assisted methods in bio-fabrication, and the results showed that bio-fabrication had no effect on the differentiation potential and proliferation ability of stem cells.

3.2 Cells and cytokines of tissue engineering for adipose tissue reconstruction

3.2.1 ADSCs

Adipose tissue contains ADSCs. ADSCs are similar to bone marrow stem cells in their ability to differentiate and regenerate, and they can supplement lost volume at repair sites by proliferating and differentiating into adipocytes [52]. In addition, they also secrete various growth factors, such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), hepatocyte growth factor, fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2), insulin-like growth factor 1, etc., playing an important role in adipose tissue regeneration and angiogenesis [53]. It has been reported that ADSCs mixed with HA filler can differentiate into fibroblasts, smooth muscle cells, preadipocytes, progenitor cells, endothelial cells, and stem cells after injection [54].

Several studies have shown that ADSCs promote the regeneration of adipose tissue. Yao et al. [55] encapsulated ADSCs of human in alginate microspheres and alginate/gelatin microspheres to simulate the natural fat lobule in adipose tissue. It was found that alginate/gelatin microspheres containing ADSCs showed higher cell proliferation and adipogenic differentiation than that of alginate microspheres. Turner et al. [56] prepared DAT as a substrate to induce ADSCs. The results showed that when ADSCs were inoculated on DAT microcarriers containing adipogenic medium, the adipogenic differentiation level was higher, while the gelatin microcarriers showed no substantial adipogenesis. In addition to promoting adipose tissue regeneration, ADSCs are related to promoting angiogenesis and collagen expression and have good biocompatibility and tolerance. Butler et al. [57] subcutaneously injected human microvascular endothelial cells (HMEC) and ADSCs coated with collagen hydrogel in mice, finding that combined transplantation with ADSCs had effects of anti-apoptosis and can promote angiogenesis on HMEC.

3.2.2 Growth factors of tissue engineering for adipose tissue reconstruction

Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) is a concentrated solution of a large number of platelets in a small volume of plasma. It has been reported that PRP contains a large number of cytokines that promote cell proliferation, differentiation, and angiogenesis. Liao et al. studied the effect of PRP on proliferation and adipogenic differentiation of ADSCs in vitro and found that PRP significantly increased the proliferation of ADSCs. Recently, Li et al. [58] studied the effects of PRP and conditioned medium on ADSCs in nude mice after subcutaneous injection of PRP combined with ADSCs. The results showed that the residual fat volume of PRP and ADSC group was significantly higher than that of other groups after 90 days. Therefore, the combination of PRP with ADSCs and fat transfer can significantly increase the proliferation and adipose differentiation of ADSCs and improve the survival rate of grafts after fat transplantation.

As a signaling protein, FGF has many functions such as development, metabolism, and adipokine. Adipokines are involved in the remodeling, lipogenesis, and angiogenesis of adipose tissue by autocrine/paracrine. Ogushi et al. [59] cross-linked ADSCs with FGF enzymes in vivo and in vitro and then loaded them into injectable carboxymethyl cellulose with phenolic hydroxyl for adipose tissue engineering. The results showed that the survival rate of adipocyte was 92.8%, and the adipocyte proliferation was good. In addition, after subcutaneous injection of Lewis rats for 10 weeks, new vascularized adipose tissue and lipogenesis were observed at the injection site. Therefore, FGF can be used as a component of ADSCs and fat transfer to promote adipose tissue generation and angiogenesis.

VEGF was first identified as an important role in angiogenesis in 1983 [60]. In addition, it has been found to play a role in wound healing, fatty tissue expansion, tumor growth, and age-related macular degeneration. Kim et al. [61] studied the effects of ADSCs and VEGF on myogenic differentiation in injectable heat-sensitive PEG–poly-e-caprolactone (PCL) hydrogels. The results showed that the combination of ADSCs and VEGF in the hydrogel showed obvious proliferation, differentiating into muscle tissue and vascularization enhancement after subcutaneous injection into the neck of mice for 4 weeks. Gorkun et al. [62] studied the effect of VEGF on endothelial cell differentiation after ADSCs or umbilical cord pluripotent MMSCs were cultured on unmodified and polyglycolated fibrin hydrogel. The results showed that poly(ethylene glycol) hydrogel had better multibranch formation than pure fibrin gels, and the differentiated ADSCs had stronger angiogenesis capacity than the differentiated umbilical MMSCs. Therefore, it can be believed that VEGF can play an important role in angiogenesis of ADSCs and fat transfer.

3.3 Application of 3D scaffolds for adipose tissue reconstruction

The application of 3D scaffold materials for adipose tissue reconstruction has made good progress, and some fruitful results of 3D porous scaffolds have been obtained in vivo. For example, (d,l)-lactide, GelMod, alginate, and DAT bioinks and PCL have been used in scaffold printing for adipose tissue engineering [7]. Chang et al. [63] used gelatin/HA cold gel scaffolds in nude mice, and the results showed that this type of scaffolds is expected to provide a stable structure and chemical environment, enabling cells to attach and proliferate, and supporting the biological functions and fat generation of ADSCs. Ovsianikov et al. [64] prepared a methylacrylamide-modified gelatin (GelMod) scaffold with an aperture of 250 mm by bio-fabrication for adipose tissue engineering applications. The results showed that the crosslinking degree had no effect on the enzymatic degradation ability of the gel-based structure, and the scaffold successfully supported the adhesion, proliferation, and adipogenic differentiation of ASC.

However, the study of biological scaffolds still has many limitations. Compared with injectable materials, the placement of 3D biological scaffolds requires surgical incision, which is more complicated, and clinical verification is also required for the location and fixation of implants. The study of scaffold’s microenvironments on regulation of cell fate is still a difficult issue [65]. Another difficulty that can be predicted is the fabrication of a tri-microbial scaffold, which uses materials that are same as injectable biomaterials. Its progress depends on advances in the fabrication of biomaterials. Therefore, it can be expected that the production time of biological scaffolds is longer and more difficult than that of in situ injectable materials [66]. The studies in vivo reported so far indicate that only very small amounts of material have been used in mouse or rat models. How these results will be applied to humans in future studies? And whether the hydrogels can achieve the same effect by increasing their volume? These problems are unclear. Hillel et al. [67] reported differences in inflammatory responses between mice and humans. Implants made of polyethylene glycol and HA caused a greater inflammatory response in human body Therefore, more clinical studies are needed to verify the effectiveness and safety of biological scaffold materials.

4 Summary and expectation

Injectable biomaterials are widely used in soft tissue reconstruction. Natural biomaterial has good biocompatibility, and it is a kind of natural degradable nonpermanent soft tissue filling material. However, natural biomaterials tend to have a higher absorption rate and are more difficult to produce long-lasting filling. Synthetic biomaterials have low biocompatibility, but some mechanical property, chemical property, and degradation property can be customized according to requirements. At present, many kinds of injectable scaffolds with good biological and mechanical properties have shown good effects in preclinical studies by combining relevant cells and cytokines with natural and synthetic biomaterials. ADSCs are pluripotent mesenchymal stem cells with the function of supplementing tissue defects through proliferation and maturation, so they are widely used in fat regeneration of various cell. The combination of ADSCs, growth factors, and biological scaffolds has shown a broad prospect in studies related to adipose tissue regeneration, but most of these studies are still in the preclinical stage. More clinical studies are needed to verify its safety and efficacy in the future.

These authors contribute equally to this paper.

  1. Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (No. 2018YFC1106800), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 31971251 and 81871574), the Sichuan Province Science & Technology Department Projects (2016CZYD0004, 2017SZ0001, 2018GZ0142, and 2019YFH0079), the Research Foundation for Young Teachers of Sichuan University (2018SCUH0017), and the “111” Project (No. B16033).

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Received: 2020-01-16
Accepted: 2020-01-24
Published Online: 2020-05-27

© 2020 Zhiyu Peng et al., published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2020-0028
Keywords for this article
adipose tissue reconstruction; biomaterial; plastic surgery
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  25. Effect of nano and micro conductive materials on conductive properties of carbon fiber reinforced concrete
  26. Tribological performance of nano-diamond composites-dispersed lubricants on commercial cylinder liner mating with CrN piston ring
  27. Supramolecular ionic polymer/carbon nanotube composite hydrogels with enhanced electromechanical performance
  28. Genetic mechanisms of deep-water massive sandstones in continental lake basins and their significance in micro–nano reservoir storage systems: A case study of the Yanchang formation in the Ordos Basin
  29. Effects of nanoparticles on engineering performance of cementitious composites reinforced with PVA fibers
  30. Band gap manipulation of viscoelastic functionally graded phononic crystal
  31. Pyrolysis kinetics and mechanical properties of poly(lactic acid)/bamboo particle biocomposites: Effect of particle size distribution
  32. Manipulating conductive network formation via 3D T-ZnO: A facile approach for a CNT-reinforced nanocomposite
  33. Microstructure and mechanical properties of WC–Ni multiphase ceramic materials with NiCl2·6H2O as a binder
  34. Effect of ball milling process on the photocatalytic performance of CdS/TiO2 composite
  35. Berberine/Ag nanoparticle embedded biomimetic calcium phosphate scaffolds for enhancing antibacterial function
  36. Effect of annealing heat treatment on microstructure and mechanical properties of nonequiatomic CoCrFeNiMo medium-entropy alloys prepared by hot isostatic pressing
  37. Corrosion behaviour of multilayer CrN coatings deposited by hybrid HIPIMS after oxidation treatment
  38. Surface hydrophobicity and oleophilicity of hierarchical metal structures fabricated using ink-based selective laser melting of micro/nanoparticles
  39. Research on bond–slip performance between pultruded glass fiber-reinforced polymer tube and nano-CaCO3 concrete
  40. Antibacterial polymer nanofiber-coated and high elastin protein-expressing BMSCs incorporated polypropylene mesh for accelerating healing of female pelvic floor dysfunction
  41. Effects of Ag contents on the microstructure and SERS performance of self-grown Ag nanoparticles/Mo–Ag alloy films
  42. A highly sensitive biosensor based on methacrylated graphene oxide-grafted polyaniline for ascorbic acid determination
  43. Arrangement structure of carbon nanofiber with excellent spectral radiation characteristics
  44. Effect of different particle sizes of nano-SiO2 on the properties and microstructure of cement paste
  45. Superior Fe x N electrocatalyst derived from 1,1′-diacetylferrocene for oxygen reduction reaction in alkaline and acidic media
  46. Facile growth of aluminum oxide thin film by chemical liquid deposition and its application in devices
  47. Liquid crystallinity and thermal properties of polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane/side-chain azobenzene hybrid copolymer
  48. Laboratory experiment on the nano-TiO2 photocatalytic degradation effect of road surface oil pollution
  49. Binary carbon-based additives in LiFePO4 cathode with favorable lithium storage
  50. Conversion of sub-µm calcium carbonate (calcite) particles to hollow hydroxyapatite agglomerates in K2HPO4 solutions
  51. Exact solutions of bending deflection for single-walled BNNTs based on the classical Euler–Bernoulli beam theory
  52. Effects of substrate properties and sputtering methods on self-formation of Ag particles on the Ag–Mo(Zr) alloy films
  53. Enhancing carbonation and chloride resistance of autoclaved concrete by incorporating nano-CaCO3
  54. Effect of SiO2 aerogels loading on photocatalytic degradation of nitrobenzene using composites with tetrapod-like ZnO
  55. Radiation-modified wool for adsorption of redox metals and potentially for nanoparticles
  56. Hydration activity, crystal structural, and electronic properties studies of Ba-doped dicalcium silicate
  57. Microstructure and mechanical properties of brazing joint of silver-based composite filler metal
  58. Polymer nanocomposite sunlight spectrum down-converters made by open-air PLD
  59. Cryogenic milling and formation of nanostructured machined surface of AISI 4340
  60. Braided composite stent for peripheral vascular applications
  61. Effect of cinnamon essential oil on morphological, flammability and thermal properties of nanocellulose fibre–reinforced starch biopolymer composites
  62. Study on influencing factors of photocatalytic performance of CdS/TiO2 nanocomposite concrete
  63. Improving flexural and dielectric properties of carbon fiber epoxy composite laminates reinforced with carbon nanotubes interlayer using electrospray deposition
  64. Scalable fabrication of carbon materials based silicon rubber for highly stretchable e-textile sensor
  65. Degradation modeling of poly-l-lactide acid (PLLA) bioresorbable vascular scaffold within a coronary artery
  66. Combining Zn0.76Co0.24S with S-doped graphene as high-performance anode materials for lithium- and sodium-ion batteries
  67. Synthesis of functionalized carbon nanotubes for fluorescent biosensors
  68. Effect of nano-silica slurry on engineering, X-ray, and γ-ray attenuation characteristics of steel slag high-strength heavyweight concrete
  69. Incorporation of redox-active polyimide binder into LiFePO4 cathode for high-rate electrochemical energy storage
  70. Microstructural evolution and properties of Cu–20 wt% Ag alloy wire by multi-pass continuous drawing
  71. Transparent ultraviolet-shielding composite films made from dispersing pristine zinc oxide nanoparticles in low-density polyethylene
  72. Microfluidic-assisted synthesis and modelling of monodispersed magnetic nanocomposites for biomedical applications
  73. Preparation and piezoresistivity of carbon nanotube-coated sand reinforced cement mortar
  74. Vibrational analysis of an irregular single-walled carbon nanotube incorporating initial stress effects
  75. Study of the material engineering properties of high-density poly(ethylene)/perlite nanocomposite materials
  76. Single pulse laser removal of indium tin oxide film on glass and polyethylene terephthalate by nanosecond and femtosecond laser
  77. Mechanical reinforcement with enhanced electrical and heat conduction of epoxy resin by polyaniline and graphene nanoplatelets
  78. High-efficiency method for recycling lithium from spent LiFePO4 cathode
  79. Degradable tough chitosan dressing for skin wound recovery
  80. Static and dynamic analyses of auxetic hybrid FRC/CNTRC laminated plates
  81. Review articles
  82. Carbon nanomaterials enhanced cement-based composites: advances and challenges
  83. Review on the research progress of cement-based and geopolymer materials modified by graphene and graphene oxide
  84. Review on modeling and application of chemical mechanical polishing
  85. Research on the interface properties and strengthening–toughening mechanism of nanocarbon-toughened ceramic matrix composites
  86. Advances in modelling and analysis of nano structures: a review
  87. Mechanical properties of nanomaterials: A review
  88. New generation of oxide-based nanoparticles for the applications in early cancer detection and diagnostics
  89. A review on the properties, reinforcing effects, and commercialization of nanomaterials for cement-based materials
  90. Recent development and applications of nanomaterials for cancer immunotherapy
  91. Advances in biomaterials for adipose tissue reconstruction in plastic surgery
  92. Advances of graphene- and graphene oxide-modified cementitious materials
  93. Theories for triboelectric nanogenerators: A comprehensive review
  94. Nanotechnology of diamondoids for the fabrication of nanostructured systems
  95. Material advancement in technological development for the 5G wireless communications
  96. Nanoengineering in biomedicine: Current development and future perspectives
  97. Recent advances in ocean wave energy harvesting by triboelectric nanogenerator: An overview
  98. Application of nanoscale zero-valent iron in hexavalent chromium-contaminated soil: A review
  99. Carbon nanotube–reinforced polymer composite for electromagnetic interference application: A review
  100. Functionalized layered double hydroxide applied to heavy metal ions absorption: A review
  101. A new classification method of nanotechnology for design integration in biomaterials
  102. Finite element analysis of natural fibers composites: A review
  103. Phase change materials for building construction: An overview of nano-/micro-encapsulation
  104. Recent advance in surface modification for regulating cell adhesion and behaviors
  105. Hyaluronic acid as a bioactive component for bone tissue regeneration: Fabrication, modification, properties, and biological functions
  106. Theoretical calculation of a TiO2-based photocatalyst in the field of water splitting: A review
  107. Two-photon polymerization nanolithography technology for fabrication of stimulus-responsive micro/nano-structures for biomedical applications
  108. A review of passive methods in microchannel heat sink application through advanced geometric structure and nanofluids: Current advancements and challenges
  109. Stress effect on 3D culturing of MC3T3-E1 cells on microporous bovine bone slices
  110. Progress in magnetic Fe3O4 nanomaterials in magnetic resonance imaging
  111. Synthesis of graphene: Potential carbon precursors and approaches
  112. A comprehensive review of the influences of nanoparticles as a fuel additive in an internal combustion engine (ICE)
  113. Advances in layered double hydroxide-based ternary nanocomposites for photocatalysis of contaminants in water
  114. Analysis of functionally graded carbon nanotube-reinforced composite structures: A review
  115. Application of nanomaterials in ultra-high performance concrete: A review
  116. Therapeutic strategies and potential implications of silver nanoparticles in the management of skin cancer
  117. Advanced nickel nanoparticles technology: From synthesis to applications
  118. Cobalt magnetic nanoparticles as theranostics: Conceivable or forgettable?
  119. Progress in construction of bio-inspired physico-antimicrobial surfaces
  120. From materials to devices using fused deposition modeling: A state-of-art review
  121. A review for modified Li composite anode: Principle, preparation and challenge
  122. Naturally or artificially constructed nanocellulose architectures for epoxy composites: A review
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