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Degradable tough chitosan dressing for skin wound recovery

  • Yan Kong , Xiaoxuan Tang , Yahong Zhao , Xiaoli Chen , Ke Yao , Liling Zhang , Qi Han , Luzhong Zhang , Jue Ling EMAIL logo , Yongjun Wang EMAIL logo and Yumin Yang EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: December 31, 2020
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Nanotechnology Reviews
From the journal Nanotechnology Reviews Volume 9 Issue 1

Abstract

The performance of wound dressing determines the effect of wound closure and recovery. Water absorption and bacteriostasis of wound dressings play an important role in wound recovery and healing. In this study, an optimized chitosan wound dressing-tough chitosan dressing (TCS) with high water absorption, high bacteriostasis, and degradability was developed. The chemical structure of chitosan remained stable during the process of optimized treatment, and an increase in mechanical properties was obtained for the dressing. After optimization, the water absorption and antibacterial properties of the chitosan dressing were greatly improved, which is significantly better than sodium alginate dressing. The authors believe that TCS dressing with high hygroscopicity and high bacteriostasis has great potential application value in the field of wound recovery and healing.

Keywords: skin wound dressing; chitosan; hygroscopicity; bacteriostasis

1 Introduction

Skin trauma is one of the most common injuries in humans [1], which is painful and would cause wound infections by breaking the integrity and protective function of the skin. The recovery of skin traumatic wounds affects the patient’s physical and mental condition. The implications of effective wound healing for both the patient and the economy are massive [2], and how to accelerate the healing of wounds was a focus question. Thus, the design of new wound materials is an urgent need for the development of modern medical technology [3,4].

In general, traditional dressings cannot provide a moist environment and play a bacteriostatic role in the wound [5]. Gauze, as a traditional wound dressing, could provide some protection for skin traumatic wounds, but their hydrophilicity was poor [6]. Hydrogel dressings possess excellent hydrophilicity and can provide a soothing and cooling effect to decrease the temperature of cutaneous wounds [7]. However, the exudate will lead to maceration and bacterial proliferation of the hydrogel dressings [8]. Alginate dressing has good biodegradability and hydrophilicity, which can stimulate macrophages to initiate an inflammatory response and accelerate wound healing [9]. However, the bacteriostatic effect of alginate dressing was poor [10]. Collagen dressings could greatly simulate the extracellular matrix, creating a physiological interface between the wound surface and the environment to promote wound healing [11,12]. However, allogeneic or heterogeneous collagen may cause immune rejection [13]. Nanosilver dressing is excellent in antibacterial wounds but may accumulate in the body by crossing the skin and mucous membrane barrier and cause damage to the human body [14]. The performance of wound dressing could be greatly improved by not only maintaining moisture at the wound site but also providing antibacterial effects to protect the wound from infection to promote wound healing [15].

To meet the needs of developing ideal wound dressings, nanotechnology-based materials have been attractive to researchers in the field of biomedical materials [16,17]. Because of the similarity in morphology and structure between the nanofibers and the natural extracellular matrix proteins, the nanofibers have certain promoting effects on the recovery of damaged tissues [18]. Particularly for wound healing, the nanofiber dressing prepared by electrospinning technology has excellent performance on promoting skin regeneration in wound treatment [19,20], because it could promote cell proliferation and migration [21]. The reinforced fiber with nanoparticles can effectively improve the mechanical properties and biological effects of the fiber surface, which is more conducive to cell growth [22].

As a natural polysaccharide substance, chitosan has various physiological functions such as biocompatibility, non-toxicity, and bacteriostasis [23,24]. Therefore, chitosan has been widely used in tissue engineering materials, medical fibers, antibacterial agents, drug sustained-release materials, and many other fields and other daily chemical industries [25,26]. The capacity of chitosan on promoting wound healing and hemostasis has been reported [27]. As a tissue engineering material, chitosan can also promote cell proliferation and tissue regeneration [28,29]. Its degradation product, chitosan oligosaccharides, also has excellent biological functions on tissue regeneration [30,31]. Among the dressing materials manufactured in recent years, chitosan dressing with biocompatibility has been considered as a dressing with promising applications [32,33]. However, chitosan materials have poor degradation performance under general conditions, which hinders their application [34].

To solve the disadvantages that traditional skin dressings cannot provide a moist environment, weak water absorption, and weak bacteriostasis ability, an optimized chitosan wound dressing was prepared in this study. The chitosan dressing was treated by the protonation reaction to obtain the TCS dressing with high water absorption, high bacteriostasis, and degradability. This optimized chitosan dressing could be considered as an excellent dressing candidate in practical applications.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Preparation of chitosan dressing

The experiment used a protonation reaction in a non-aqueous system to make the chitosan carry positive ions. First, 100 g of chitosan (average MW = 9,000, commercial available) was immersed in 100 mL of ethanol, and 80 g of 75% acetic acid was slowly added dropwise, then reacted at room temperature for 3–4 h after stirring. After filtering and drying, optimized chitosan could be obtained. Dressings were fabricated using nonwoven technology [35]. Ordinary chitosan nonwoven dressing was used as a control. For ease of reference, the untreated chitosan dressing and treated chitosan dressing were named as UTCS and TCS dressings, respectively.

2.2 Scanning electron microscopy analysis

The surface of chitosan dressing was observed by electron microscope before and after optimization. Appropriate amount of flat dressing was cut, dried, and then sprayed with gold for observation under an electron microscope. By observing the morphology of the fiber and counting the diameter of the fiber, the effect of optimization treatment on the chitosan fiber was analyzed.

2.3 Fourier transform infrared analysis

Take the appropriate amount of UTCS and TCS for Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy to analyze the component. First, the dried dressing was cut and grind, and some potassium bromide was added. The mixture was then extruded into flakes and placed in a FTIR spectrometer for analysis. The experiment compared the obtained infrared spectrum curves and analyzed whether the optimization treatment would affect the composition of the chitosan dressing.

2.4 Mechanical analysis

In the experiment, the tensile mechanical analysis of the UTCS and TCS dressings was performed, and the commercialized alginate dressing was selected as a comparison to evaluate the mechanical properties of the samples. The mechanical testing device was used to analyze the tensile strength of the dressing, and five parallel samples were set in each group to reduce the experimental error.

2.5 Wettability

The contact angle instrument was used to measure the hydrophilicity of different chitosan dressing. The contact angle of the chitosan dressing was measured under wet conditions. The dressing samples were placed on the contact angle test bench to measure the wettability, and the situation of water droplets on the material was observed from a top view. In this experiment, five parallel samples were used for each group.

2.6 Swelling test

The swelling rate of UTCS, TCS, and commercial control dressings was measured in the swelling test experiment.

The three kinds of dressings were cut to the 1 × 1 cm size, and three parallel samples were set in each group. The weight (m 1) of each sample was recorded separately, then the sample was immersed in phosphate buffer saline (PBS), and the swelling experiment was performed at room temperature. The time points of 10, 20, 30 min, 1, 1.5, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12, 24, 48, 72, and 96 h were set in the experiment. At each time point, the excess PBS was discarded and the weight (m t) of each sample was recorded. The calculation method of swelling rate was:

m t – m 1 m 1 × 100 % .

2.7 Degradation

The PBS solution was used to analyze the degradation of the dressing in vitro. The weight of each sample was recorded at the beginning of the experiment (m 1), and then the samples were soaked in 3 mL of PBS and incubated at 37°C. The samples were taken out at the time point (1, 3, 5, 7, 10, and 15 days), the lyophilized weight of samples (m t) was recorded, and three parallel samples were set at each time point. The degradation rate was calculated by the following equation:

m 1 – m t m 1 × 100 % .

2.8 Antibacterial test

The modified chitosan powder (I) and commercial bacteriostatic powder (II) were formulated into the concentration of 32,000 μg/mL with 0.5% acetic acid solution as the original solution. The concentrations of 16,000, 8,000, 4,000, 2,000, 1,000, 500, 250, 125, 62.5, and 31.25 μg/mL were diluted in 96-well plates. The volume of solution in each well was 100 μL. Then another 100 μL of bacterial solution (OD 600 = 0.5) was added to each well. Only culture medium was added as a control group. Three strains of Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Candida albicans were inoculated separately, and each drug concentration was repeated thrice. After shaking culture for 18 h, the microplate reader read the absorbance at 600 nm.

Then, the antibacterial properties between chitosan powder and chitosan nonwoven dressing were tested. The bacteriostatic difference between the two groups was analyzed by counting the number of colonies formed after cultivation. The bacterial liquid without adding sample was treated in the same way and used as a negative control.

After that, the commercial sodium alginate (SA) wound dressing was then used as a control to evaluate the antibacterial properties of the chitosan dressing. The UTCS dressing (1), TCS dressing (2), and SA commercial wound dressing (3) were cut to the same size (1 × 0.5 cm). Then, the samples were immersed in the bacterial culture medium. The bacterial liquid without adding dressing was treated in the same way and used as a negative control. Three strains of S. aureus, E. coli, and C. albicans were used for the experiment, and each experiment was repeated thrice. The number of colony-forming unit was counted after overnight cultivation. Finally, the following equation was used to calculate the antibacterial rate %:

Antibacterial rate % = number of colonies in the control group − number of colonies in the experimental group number of colonies in the control group × 100 % .

2.9 Statistical analysis

All data analyses were performed with GraphPad Prism. Differences between the experimental groups were analyzed and compared by t-test analysis of variance. Statistical significance was designated with *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, and ***P < 0.001.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Morphology of the dressing

In this study, chitosan powder was dispersed in ethanol by dropwise addition of acetic acid. In this process, the amino groups of chitosan were protonated and possessed positive charges in acidic solutions with improved hydrophilicity [36]. Then, positive charged chitosan powder was obtained after filtration. Then, TCS dressing was prepared by nonwoven technology.

To investigate the microstructure of the dressings, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis was conducted [37]. The morphologies and diameter distributions of chitosan dressing before and after treatment are shown in Figure 1. As shown in SEM images, the fibers of both UTCS and TCS dressings were smooth, cylindrical, and randomly oriented (Figure 1a). There was no significant difference between UTCS and TCS on the macroscopic morphology (Figure 1b). The fiber diameter of UTCS dressing was 12.09 ± 0.5937 μm (Figure 1c). The average fiber diameter of TCS dressing was 13.36 ± 0.4523 μm (Figure 1c), which is very close to that of UTCS dressing with no statistical difference.

Figure 1 (a) Scanning electron micrograph of UTCS and TCS dressings; (b) macro photographs of UTCS and TCS dressings; (c) statistical analysis of the fiber diameter of two groups (n = 30). All data were mean ± SEM. The differences in each group were performed using two-tailed unpaired t-test. NS indicates P > 0.05.
Figure 1

(a) Scanning electron micrograph of UTCS and TCS dressings; (b) macro photographs of UTCS and TCS dressings; (c) statistical analysis of the fiber diameter of two groups (n = 30). All data were mean ± SEM. The differences in each group were performed using two-tailed unpaired t-test. NS indicates P > 0.05.

3.2 FTIR analysis

To determine the composition of chitosan dressings, we characterized their chemical structures by FTIR analysis. The characteristic peaks of chitosan were all found in the FTIR spectra of both UTCS and TCS in Figure 2. The peak in absorbance at 3,450 and 2,867 cm−1 represents O–H group and C–H stretch, respectively. The peak at 1,071 cm−1 represents skeletal vibration involving bridge C–O stretch and 1,375 cm−1 represents asymmetric C–H bending of CH2 group [38]. This indicates that the optimization process did not change the original main ingredients of the chitosan dressing. It is also worth noting that the peaks indicated by arrows 1 and 2 appear only in the infrared curve of the TCS group, which may be caused by the protonation of amino groups and free H ions or residual acetic acid, respectively.

Figure 2 FTIR spectra of the chitosan dressing before and after optimization.
Figure 2

FTIR spectra of the chitosan dressing before and after optimization.

3.3 Mechanical tensile test

Excellent mechanical properties are required for developing desirable wound dressing to maintain integrity and protect the damaged area under external forces [39]. Therefore, tensile tests were performed to determine the stretchability of wound dressings of varied compositions. The results showed that the SA wound dressing ruptured easily at small loads strains of 2.351 N. The UTCS ruptured at 8.098 N. The Young’s modulus of UTCS was basically the same as the SA dressing (0.396 MPa), which was 0.369 MPa (Figure 3d). In contrast, TCS sustained loads of 21.5 N without rupture and had the highest mechanical strength (1.078 MPa) in comparison to UTCS (0.405 MPa) and SA (0.118 MPa) groups. Moreover, the young’s modulus of TCS (3.29 MPa) was significantly higher than UTCS (0.369 MPa) and SA (0.396 MPa). After the optimization, the mechanical properties of the chitosan dressing were significantly enhanced. Study had shown that the shear force is the main reason to destroy the structure of nanofibers [40]. It may be that after optimizing the treatment process, the chitosan fiber becomes very easy to absorb water. After the dressing was dried again, the dressing was tougher because the chitosan fibers became tighter and could bear greater shearing force. In general, the Young’s modulus of human skin is about 0.5–2 MPa [41]. Therefore, the Young’s modulus (3.29 MPa) of TCS dressing could meet the needs of the requirement of large motion when applied to wound sites.

Figure 3 Mechanical test of the wound dressing: (a) the stress–strain curve of the dressing; (b) mechanical strength of dressing (n = 5); (c) maximum load of the dressing (n = 5); (d) Young’s modulus for each dressing (n = 5). All data were mean ± SEM. The differences in each group were performed using two-tailed unpaired t-test. NS indicates P > 0.05. **P < 0.01 and ***P < 0.001.
Figure 3

Mechanical test of the wound dressing: (a) the stress–strain curve of the dressing; (b) mechanical strength of dressing (n = 5); (c) maximum load of the dressing (n = 5); (d) Young’s modulus for each dressing (n = 5). All data were mean ± SEM. The differences in each group were performed using two-tailed unpaired t-test. NS indicates P > 0.05. **P < 0.01 and ***P < 0.001.

3.4 Wettability analysis

Because the surface wettability significantly influences the biocompatibility of dressings exposed to tissue, we determined the contact angle of the chitosan dressings and compared with that of SA dressing. Figure 4 shows the droplet from the side view in contact angle analysis. The water droplets rapidly infiltrated and spread out on the surface of UTCS, TCS, and SA dressings without showing the contact angle after dropped on the dressing. Both UTCS and TCS groups showed comparable hydrophilicity to SA dressing under wetting conditions, which is because of the fact that chitosan itself is a hydrophilic substance. These results suggest that TCS could absorb exudative tissue fluid at the wound site effectively.

Figure 4 The contact angle of three dressings under wetting conditions before and after water drop. Scale bars represent 0.4 mm.
Figure 4

The contact angle of three dressings under wetting conditions before and after water drop. Scale bars represent 0.4 mm.

3.5 Swelling capacity and degradation

The capability of retaining and absorbing water is a significant parameter to evaluate its application in wound dressing field. It would prohibit the accumulation of exudates at the wound site and could absorb nutrition into the dressing [42]. Therefore, the ideal wound dressing should have excellent water retention ability and swelling rate to maintain a moist healing environment to promote wound healing [43].

Figure 5 shows the swelling ratio of wound dressing from different groups. The swelling rate of all groups increased significantly within 10 min. However, the UTCS group reached its maximum swelling rate after 10 min. In contrast, both the TCS and SA groups reached their maximum swelling after 48 h. The highest swelling ratio of 2,100% was observed in the TCS group, whereas UTCS dressing showed the least swelling ratio of 300%. The final swelling rate of SA dressing was between the other two groups (850%). Besides, after soaked in PBS for 2 h, the volume of TCS dressing was enlarged. The appearance of it became transparent and moist. The water was fully absorbed and wrapped by the TCS group. TCS dressing has a better ability to absorb the water which could reach twice the SA dressing because of the protonation of the chitosan in optimized dressing. This property was effective in cleaning a wound with a large amount of exudate.

Figure 5 (a) Swelling curves of three different dressings; (b) swelling behavior of three dressings in PBS; (c) degradation of three dressings within 15 days. Each group had three parallel samples (n = 3). All data were mean ± SEM.
Figure 5

(a) Swelling curves of three different dressings; (b) swelling behavior of three dressings in PBS; (c) degradation of three dressings within 15 days. Each group had three parallel samples (n = 3). All data were mean ± SEM.

The degradation analysis of three wound dressings was performed by PBS (Figure 5). Soaking in PBS for 15 days, the dry weight degradation rate of UTCS, TCS, and SA was 1.64, 43.01, and 49.97%, respectively. Clearly, the UTCS group showed no degradation basically (<5%) at the end of the analysis, and the degradation rate of the TCS (>40%) was significantly higher than that of UTCS. These results were in line with the results of the swelling rate shown in Figure 5b. The increased degradation rate of TCS was because the chitosan becomes more soluble in water after protonation on the amino group of the chitosan. The TCS has the same degradation tendency (43.01%) as the commercial SA dressing (49.97%), and there is no significant difference in the final degradation rate between them. Therefore, the chitosan dressing (TCS) prepared in this experiment achieved excellent degradation performance, which could match the degree of wound healing better. This degradation characteristic makes the TCS dressing have the potential for clinical application.

3.6 Antibacterial experiment

Because of the lack of skin protection at the wound, the defected sites are easy to be infected by various bacteria from the outside; therefore, the antibacterial effect of the dressing on bacteria is very important for the recovery of the wound [44]. Optimum wound healing dressing that has inherent antibacterial properties will be more attractive to play the role of barrier to protect the wound tissue from external bacterial infection [45].

In this study, the antibacterial activities of all wound dressing were evaluated using E. coli, S. aureus, and C. albicans. In Figure 6a and b, the powder of TCS (I) exhibited an excellent antibacterial rate (>95%) for S. aureus, E. coli, and C. albicans, indicating its outstanding inherent antibacterial properties. The antibacterial rates of commercial bacteriostatic powder (II) for the three strains hovered around 80%. Obviously, the antibacterial effect of TCS dressing powder was better than that of commercial antibacterial powder. This is because chitosan itself has excellent antibacterial properties, and its positively charged amino group may damage the bacterial cell wall, resulting in the release of bacterial intracellular fluid, thereby playing a bactericidal role [1,46].

Figure 6 Antibacterial experiment of various dressings: (a and b) antibacterial experiment of chitosan in powder state, I: TCS powder, II: commercial antibacterial powder (n = 5); (c) antibacterial effect of TCS in different forms (n = 5); (d and e) antibacterial effect of various dressings on three bacterial species. 1: UTCS dressing; 2: TCS dressing; 3: SA wound dressing. n = 5 in each group. The differences between each group were performed using two-tailed unpaired t-test. *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, and ***P < 0.001.
Figure 6

Antibacterial experiment of various dressings: (a and b) antibacterial experiment of chitosan in powder state, I: TCS powder, II: commercial antibacterial powder (n = 5); (c) antibacterial effect of TCS in different forms (n = 5); (d and e) antibacterial effect of various dressings on three bacterial species. 1: UTCS dressing; 2: TCS dressing; 3: SA wound dressing. n = 5 in each group. The differences between each group were performed using two-tailed unpaired t-test. *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, and ***P < 0.001.

Figure 6c compares the antibacterial efficiency of TCS dressing in different forms. Regardless of the form of powder or complete excipients, their antibacterial rate for the three strains all reached 90% with no significant difference. Next, the UTCS, TCS, and SA dressings were compared for bacteriostatic effects (Figure 6d). From the perspective of the number of colonies of different bacterial species, the number of colonies on the optimized chitosan dressing group was greatly reduced, and the bacteriostatic rate was above 90%. Figure 6e shows that the antibacterial rate of the UTCS group was lower than that of the TCS group. This showed that the optimized treatment process could effectively improve the antibacterial ability of chitosan dressing. In contrast, in the SA group, the bacteriostatic rates of the three strains were all below 20%. This is because SA does not have inherent antimicrobial properties [47].

Chitosan itself has better antibacterial properties than SA materials, but the chitosan does not diffuse well in the bacterial solution before optimization. The optimized antibacterial effect of chitosan dressing can be attributed to the excellent water absorption and swelling of TCS dressing. Optimizing the chitosan dressing could absorb more culture fluid, which made it easier to spread in the bacterial solution, thus improving the bacteriostatic efficiency. Obviously, the TCS dressing was better than the other two groups. It is worth mentioning that the antibacterial effect of optimized chitosan against C. albicans was close to 100%, which had a significant advantage compared to the other two dressings. To sum up, this chitosan dressing with superior antibacterial properties has potential value as a clinical dressing.

4 Conclusion

To solve the poor degradability of chitosan dressing and improve the water absorption and antibacterial properties of chitosan dressing, this experiment prepared a chitosan dressing with degradable, ultra-high water absorption, high antibacterial properties, and excellent mechanical properties to meet the urgent needs of developing desirable wound materials. So as to meet the urgent needs of developing desirable wound materials, the water absorption of TCS dressing can reach 2,100% and the improved mechanical properties of TCS dressing were achieved. In terms of bacteriostasis, the bacteriostatic effect of TCS dressing is significantly better than the commercial SA dressing. The TCS dressing has certain application potential and value in the treatment of wound injury and healing process.

These authors contributed equally to this work.

Acknowledgments

Y. Kong and X. Tang contributed equally to this work. The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support of the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2018YFC1105600).

  1. Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

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Received: 2020-11-18
Accepted: 2020-12-09
Published Online: 2020-12-31

© 2020 Yan Kong et al., published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  5. Graphene and CNT impact on heat transfer response of nanocomposite cylinders
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  7. Ultrasmall Fe3O4 nanoparticles induce S-phase arrest and inhibit cancer cells proliferation
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  80. Static and dynamic analyses of auxetic hybrid FRC/CNTRC laminated plates
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  83. Review on the research progress of cement-based and geopolymer materials modified by graphene and graphene oxide
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  115. Application of nanomaterials in ultra-high performance concrete: A review
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https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2020-0105
Keywords for this article
skin wound dressing; chitosan; hygroscopicity; bacteriostasis
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Generalized locally-exact homogenization theory for evaluation of electric conductivity and resistance of multiphase materials
  3. Enhancing ultra-early strength of sulphoaluminate cement-based materials by incorporating graphene oxide
  4. Characterization of mechanical properties of epoxy/nanohybrid composites by nanoindentation
  5. Graphene and CNT impact on heat transfer response of nanocomposite cylinders
  6. A facile and simple approach to synthesis and characterization of methacrylated graphene oxide nanostructured polyaniline nanocomposites
  7. Ultrasmall Fe3O4 nanoparticles induce S-phase arrest and inhibit cancer cells proliferation
  8. Effect of aging on properties and nanoscale precipitates of Cu-Ag-Cr alloy
  9. Effect of nano-strengthening on the properties and microstructure of recycled concrete
  10. Stabilizing effect of methylcellulose on the dispersion of multi-walled carbon nanotubes in cementitious composites
  11. Preparation and electromagnetic properties characterization of reduced graphene oxide/strontium hexaferrite nanocomposites
  12. Interfacial characteristics of a carbon nanotube-polyimide nanocomposite by molecular dynamics simulation
  13. Preparation and properties of 3D interconnected CNTs/Cu composites
  14. On factors affecting surface free energy of carbon black for reinforcing rubber
  15. Nano-silica modified phenolic resin film: manufacturing and properties
  16. Experimental study on photocatalytic degradation efficiency of mixed crystal nano-TiO2 concrete
  17. Halloysite nanotubes in polymer science: purification, characterization, modification and applications
  18. Cellulose hydrogel skeleton by extrusion 3D printing of solution
  19. Crack closure and flexural tensile capacity with SMA fibers randomly embedded on tensile side of mortar beams
  20. An experimental study on one-step and two-step foaming of natural rubber/silica nanocomposites
  21. Utilization of red mud for producing a high strength binder by composition optimization and nano strengthening
  22. One-pot synthesis of nano titanium dioxide in supercritical water
  23. Printability of photo-sensitive nanocomposites using two-photon polymerization
  24. In situ synthesis of expanded graphite embedded with amorphous carbon-coated aluminum particles as anode materials for lithium-ion batteries
  25. Effect of nano and micro conductive materials on conductive properties of carbon fiber reinforced concrete
  26. Tribological performance of nano-diamond composites-dispersed lubricants on commercial cylinder liner mating with CrN piston ring
  27. Supramolecular ionic polymer/carbon nanotube composite hydrogels with enhanced electromechanical performance
  28. Genetic mechanisms of deep-water massive sandstones in continental lake basins and their significance in micro–nano reservoir storage systems: A case study of the Yanchang formation in the Ordos Basin
  29. Effects of nanoparticles on engineering performance of cementitious composites reinforced with PVA fibers
  30. Band gap manipulation of viscoelastic functionally graded phononic crystal
  31. Pyrolysis kinetics and mechanical properties of poly(lactic acid)/bamboo particle biocomposites: Effect of particle size distribution
  32. Manipulating conductive network formation via 3D T-ZnO: A facile approach for a CNT-reinforced nanocomposite
  33. Microstructure and mechanical properties of WC–Ni multiphase ceramic materials with NiCl2·6H2O as a binder
  34. Effect of ball milling process on the photocatalytic performance of CdS/TiO2 composite
  35. Berberine/Ag nanoparticle embedded biomimetic calcium phosphate scaffolds for enhancing antibacterial function
  36. Effect of annealing heat treatment on microstructure and mechanical properties of nonequiatomic CoCrFeNiMo medium-entropy alloys prepared by hot isostatic pressing
  37. Corrosion behaviour of multilayer CrN coatings deposited by hybrid HIPIMS after oxidation treatment
  38. Surface hydrophobicity and oleophilicity of hierarchical metal structures fabricated using ink-based selective laser melting of micro/nanoparticles
  39. Research on bond–slip performance between pultruded glass fiber-reinforced polymer tube and nano-CaCO3 concrete
  40. Antibacterial polymer nanofiber-coated and high elastin protein-expressing BMSCs incorporated polypropylene mesh for accelerating healing of female pelvic floor dysfunction
  41. Effects of Ag contents on the microstructure and SERS performance of self-grown Ag nanoparticles/Mo–Ag alloy films
  42. A highly sensitive biosensor based on methacrylated graphene oxide-grafted polyaniline for ascorbic acid determination
  43. Arrangement structure of carbon nanofiber with excellent spectral radiation characteristics
  44. Effect of different particle sizes of nano-SiO2 on the properties and microstructure of cement paste
  45. Superior Fe x N electrocatalyst derived from 1,1′-diacetylferrocene for oxygen reduction reaction in alkaline and acidic media
  46. Facile growth of aluminum oxide thin film by chemical liquid deposition and its application in devices
  47. Liquid crystallinity and thermal properties of polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane/side-chain azobenzene hybrid copolymer
  48. Laboratory experiment on the nano-TiO2 photocatalytic degradation effect of road surface oil pollution
  49. Binary carbon-based additives in LiFePO4 cathode with favorable lithium storage
  50. Conversion of sub-µm calcium carbonate (calcite) particles to hollow hydroxyapatite agglomerates in K2HPO4 solutions
  51. Exact solutions of bending deflection for single-walled BNNTs based on the classical Euler–Bernoulli beam theory
  52. Effects of substrate properties and sputtering methods on self-formation of Ag particles on the Ag–Mo(Zr) alloy films
  53. Enhancing carbonation and chloride resistance of autoclaved concrete by incorporating nano-CaCO3
  54. Effect of SiO2 aerogels loading on photocatalytic degradation of nitrobenzene using composites with tetrapod-like ZnO
  55. Radiation-modified wool for adsorption of redox metals and potentially for nanoparticles
  56. Hydration activity, crystal structural, and electronic properties studies of Ba-doped dicalcium silicate
  57. Microstructure and mechanical properties of brazing joint of silver-based composite filler metal
  58. Polymer nanocomposite sunlight spectrum down-converters made by open-air PLD
  59. Cryogenic milling and formation of nanostructured machined surface of AISI 4340
  60. Braided composite stent for peripheral vascular applications
  61. Effect of cinnamon essential oil on morphological, flammability and thermal properties of nanocellulose fibre–reinforced starch biopolymer composites
  62. Study on influencing factors of photocatalytic performance of CdS/TiO2 nanocomposite concrete
  63. Improving flexural and dielectric properties of carbon fiber epoxy composite laminates reinforced with carbon nanotubes interlayer using electrospray deposition
  64. Scalable fabrication of carbon materials based silicon rubber for highly stretchable e-textile sensor
  65. Degradation modeling of poly-l-lactide acid (PLLA) bioresorbable vascular scaffold within a coronary artery
  66. Combining Zn0.76Co0.24S with S-doped graphene as high-performance anode materials for lithium- and sodium-ion batteries
  67. Synthesis of functionalized carbon nanotubes for fluorescent biosensors
  68. Effect of nano-silica slurry on engineering, X-ray, and γ-ray attenuation characteristics of steel slag high-strength heavyweight concrete
  69. Incorporation of redox-active polyimide binder into LiFePO4 cathode for high-rate electrochemical energy storage
  70. Microstructural evolution and properties of Cu–20 wt% Ag alloy wire by multi-pass continuous drawing
  71. Transparent ultraviolet-shielding composite films made from dispersing pristine zinc oxide nanoparticles in low-density polyethylene
  72. Microfluidic-assisted synthesis and modelling of monodispersed magnetic nanocomposites for biomedical applications
  73. Preparation and piezoresistivity of carbon nanotube-coated sand reinforced cement mortar
  74. Vibrational analysis of an irregular single-walled carbon nanotube incorporating initial stress effects
  75. Study of the material engineering properties of high-density poly(ethylene)/perlite nanocomposite materials
  76. Single pulse laser removal of indium tin oxide film on glass and polyethylene terephthalate by nanosecond and femtosecond laser
  77. Mechanical reinforcement with enhanced electrical and heat conduction of epoxy resin by polyaniline and graphene nanoplatelets
  78. High-efficiency method for recycling lithium from spent LiFePO4 cathode
  79. Degradable tough chitosan dressing for skin wound recovery
  80. Static and dynamic analyses of auxetic hybrid FRC/CNTRC laminated plates
  81. Review articles
  82. Carbon nanomaterials enhanced cement-based composites: advances and challenges
  83. Review on the research progress of cement-based and geopolymer materials modified by graphene and graphene oxide
  84. Review on modeling and application of chemical mechanical polishing
  85. Research on the interface properties and strengthening–toughening mechanism of nanocarbon-toughened ceramic matrix composites
  86. Advances in modelling and analysis of nano structures: a review
  87. Mechanical properties of nanomaterials: A review
  88. New generation of oxide-based nanoparticles for the applications in early cancer detection and diagnostics
  89. A review on the properties, reinforcing effects, and commercialization of nanomaterials for cement-based materials
  90. Recent development and applications of nanomaterials for cancer immunotherapy
  91. Advances in biomaterials for adipose tissue reconstruction in plastic surgery
  92. Advances of graphene- and graphene oxide-modified cementitious materials
  93. Theories for triboelectric nanogenerators: A comprehensive review
  94. Nanotechnology of diamondoids for the fabrication of nanostructured systems
  95. Material advancement in technological development for the 5G wireless communications
  96. Nanoengineering in biomedicine: Current development and future perspectives
  97. Recent advances in ocean wave energy harvesting by triboelectric nanogenerator: An overview
  98. Application of nanoscale zero-valent iron in hexavalent chromium-contaminated soil: A review
  99. Carbon nanotube–reinforced polymer composite for electromagnetic interference application: A review
  100. Functionalized layered double hydroxide applied to heavy metal ions absorption: A review
  101. A new classification method of nanotechnology for design integration in biomaterials
  102. Finite element analysis of natural fibers composites: A review
  103. Phase change materials for building construction: An overview of nano-/micro-encapsulation
  104. Recent advance in surface modification for regulating cell adhesion and behaviors
  105. Hyaluronic acid as a bioactive component for bone tissue regeneration: Fabrication, modification, properties, and biological functions
  106. Theoretical calculation of a TiO2-based photocatalyst in the field of water splitting: A review
  107. Two-photon polymerization nanolithography technology for fabrication of stimulus-responsive micro/nano-structures for biomedical applications
  108. A review of passive methods in microchannel heat sink application through advanced geometric structure and nanofluids: Current advancements and challenges
  109. Stress effect on 3D culturing of MC3T3-E1 cells on microporous bovine bone slices
  110. Progress in magnetic Fe3O4 nanomaterials in magnetic resonance imaging
  111. Synthesis of graphene: Potential carbon precursors and approaches
  112. A comprehensive review of the influences of nanoparticles as a fuel additive in an internal combustion engine (ICE)
  113. Advances in layered double hydroxide-based ternary nanocomposites for photocatalysis of contaminants in water
  114. Analysis of functionally graded carbon nanotube-reinforced composite structures: A review
  115. Application of nanomaterials in ultra-high performance concrete: A review
  116. Therapeutic strategies and potential implications of silver nanoparticles in the management of skin cancer
  117. Advanced nickel nanoparticles technology: From synthesis to applications
  118. Cobalt magnetic nanoparticles as theranostics: Conceivable or forgettable?
  119. Progress in construction of bio-inspired physico-antimicrobial surfaces
  120. From materials to devices using fused deposition modeling: A state-of-art review
  121. A review for modified Li composite anode: Principle, preparation and challenge
  122. Naturally or artificially constructed nanocellulose architectures for epoxy composites: A review
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