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Effective remediation of organic pollutant using Musa acuminata peel extract-assisted iron oxide nanoparticles

  • Amor Hedfi , Manel Ben Ali , Sirajul Haq EMAIL logo , Jamoliddin Razzokov , Wajid Rehman , Muhammad Waseem , Khaled Elmnasri , M. Khalid Hossain , Fazal Ur Rehman , Eldor Karimbaev and Shafia Shujaat
Published/Copyright: February 26, 2025
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Open Chemistry
From the journal Open Chemistry Volume 23 Issue 1

Abstract

The increasing environmental concerns over wastewater contamination have spurred significant interest in developing efficient and sustainable methods for wastewater treatment. In this study, a simple and user-friendly approach was employed to synthesize iron oxide nanoparticles (IO-NPs) using Musa acuminata peel extract as a reducing and stabilizing agent. The synthesized IO-NPs were thoroughly characterized using transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and thermogravimetric analysis to investigate their structural, morphological, compositional, and optical properties. The crystallite size was determined to be 38.42 nm, while the particle size was nearly double, at 65.22 nm. The IO-NPs were further evaluated for their photocatalytic efficacy in degrading methyl orange (MO) and rhodamine 6G (R-6G), two common organic dye pollutants. The highest degradation efficiency of 99.42% was achieved for R-6G, while MO showed a degradation of 79.87% within 160 min. Photocatalytic experiments were conducted under varying conditions of catalyst dosage, initial dye concentration, and solution pH to optimize the degradation process. The recycling potential of the IO-NPs was also examined by performing the photocatalytic process over five cycles, demonstrating their reusability and potential for sustainable wastewater treatment.

Graphical abstract

Keywords: instrumentation; iron oxide; photocatalysis; waste-water

1 Introduction

Environmental pollution is primarily caused by the growing industrialization as well as urbanization. Water bodies, ranging from surface water to ground water resources, are found to be polluted by different pollutants, including organic dyes and several metal cations, released as a result of different chemical and physical processes [1,2]. So, before being discharged into receiving water bodies, removal of such pollutants becomes a major concern, as these effluents are a major source of eutrophication in the ecosystem and pollution in the environment, thereby affecting both aquatic and non-aquatic life and causing damage to ecological systems [3,4]. The treatment of the contaminated industrial water serves as an important contraption against water pollution with the textile industry being a major contributor towards this issue. Almost 20% of the water contamination is attributed to the dyes that become part of the environment without ant treatment [5,6,7]. Among the organic dyes, methyl orange (MO) is a stable azo dye known for its environmental persistence due to its stable organic structure, making its degradation in water difficult and causing serious pollution problems. R-6G is a fluorescent dye widely used in various applications, including laser technology and biological imaging. Due to its excellent photostability and solubility in water and organic solvents, R-6G is often employed as a tracer or probe in fluorescence-based assays [8]. However, R-6G is also a synthetic organic pollutant, raising environmental concerns due to its persistence and potential toxicity [9]. Because of their assorted impacts on aquatic life and risks to human health, MO and R-6G were selected as model pollutants. These dyes use dissolved oxygen in water during chemical or biological decomposition and release toxic byproducts [10]. Conventional methods, including flocculation, membrane filtration, coagulation, and adsorption, manipulate toxic chemicals and result in the partial removal of dyes [11,12]. Besides these methods, photocatalysis is a low-cost, simple chemical process catalyzed by solids in the presence of suitable external radiation with wavelengths in the ultraviolet (UV) and visibleregions [13]. In this process, solar energy is utilized for energy production and environmental purification. It is advantageous over other purification techniques in terms of efficient decomposition of different classes of pollutants and the formation of no polycyclic byproduct. The use of solid catalysts speeds up the reaction under light irradiation by generating electron–hole pairs, which enable the chemical transformation of reactants and regenerate their chemical composition [14,15].

Recently, several types of decontaminants have been employed for wastewater treatment, with natural sources such as biochars being utilized to remove both organic and inorganic pollutants [16,17]. However, among the materials utilized, metal, metal oxide, and metal sulfide NPs have attained much attention from researchers due to their preeminent applications, including sensing, energy storage, antimicrobial and anticancer activities, catalysis, supercapacitors, tumor detection, and wastewater treatment [18,19,20,21,22,23]. Among metal oxides, iron oxide nanoparticles (IO-NPs) are highly stable and have a lower band gap of 2.2–2.3 eV that allows them to absorb light from the visible range and thereby eliminate reliance on the UV spectrum for photocatalysis [22]. The IO-NPs are widely used as photocatalysts because of their significant optical properties, nontoxic nature, chemical stability, as well as ease of recovery from the reaction medium [24,25]. Nanoparticles of IO are easy to prepare and are widely used for environmental and biomedical applications [26,27,28]. For preparing IO-NPs, various synthetic methods have been documented, which include chemical vapor deposition, sol–gel, pyrolysis, hydrothermal, as well as chemical precipitation [15]. These techniques call for wide utilization of toxic reagents in addition to high temperature and pressure. Plant-mediated synthesis of NPs, an efficient alternative way for synthesizing IO-NPs, has drawn the attention of researchers. Plant-mediated fabrication is an easy, economical, and ecofriendly way for nanoparticle synthesis [29,30,31]. Due to its environmentally friendly and economical nature, plant-mediated synthesis has gained significant attention, and a lot of research has been conducted on preparing nanomaterials using plant extract, including peppers, lemon peels, Justicia adhatoda, and Pedanum harmala [32,33,34,35,36]. Rosli et al. synthesized IO-NPs using ferric sulfate heptahydrate and Averrhoa bilimbi Linn extract, which were characterized via Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) and UV–visible spectroscopies, and their antioxidant activity against DPPH free radicals was studied [37]. Likewise, Haris et al. prepared IO-NPs through Oscillatoria limnetica extract, and their antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, hemolytic, and brine shrimp cytotoxicity activities were performed [38]. On plant-assisted fabrication of IO-NPs, even though there have been a number of published articles, only one article focuses on using banana peel extract for the preparation of Fe3O4 NPs with investigations limited to their magnetic properties only [39]. This research work also focuses on the preparation of M. acuminata peel extract for IO-NPs, but the procedure used for preparing the extract is quite different from those reported in the literature. This is a single-pot, low-temperature process that eliminates the need for hazardous chemicals, complex equipment, or energy-intensive procedures, making it simple, cost-effective, and accessible for broader adoption. This approach not only minimizes environmental pollution associated with chemical synthesis but also promotes waste valorization. Moreover, the peel of M. acuminate is an abundant agricultural waste product rich in bioactive substances like antioxidants, flavonoids, and polyphenols [40]. These substances serve as organic stabilizing as well as reducing agents, which makes peel extract a great candidate for eco-friendly NPs fabrication. A comprehensive physicochemical study using different available techniques also distinguishes this research work from the reported data. Furthermore, NPs of IO mediated by M. acuminata peel extract are never employed for MO photodegradation. This also demonstrates the reusability of the IO-NPs over multiple cycles without losing the catalytic property.

The current research work reports the fabrication of IO-NPs using M. acuminata peel extract manipulated for the photocatalytic degradation of MO. The prepared IO-NPs were characterized via energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), DRS, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and FTIR spectroscopy. During the photocatalytic reaction, a UV–visible spectrophotometer was employed to track the decline in the absorbance maxima of MO. It was also observed that how the photocatalytic process was affected by pH, temperature, catalyst dosage, and starting concentration.

2 Research methodology

2.1 Reagents used

In this research work, reagents used were analytical -grade and were bought from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA). These reagents included ferric sulfate heptahydrate (99%) and MO (98%) and were utilized without any further purification. To wash the glass labware, a 15% HNO3 solution was employed, followed by distilled water (DW). The solutions required for different reactions were prepared in DW.

2.2 Extract preparation

The extract was prepared from the collected waste M. acuminata peels following a standard procedure with minor modifications [41]. The collected waste M. acuminata peels were cut down into small pieces of about 1.5 cm and washed twice using ordinary water, then the DW. To remove surface moisture, washed peels were wrapped in a clean filter paper and then stored in an airtight thermos bottle. At 80°C, 500 mL DW was boiled and transferred into the thermos bottle containing the clean waste M. acuminata peels. Light yellow-colored crude extract was obtained after 2 h, which was filtered twice with Whatmann filter paper [40] and later stored at 4°C in an airtight flask.

2.3 Fabrication of IO-NPs

After dissolving 2.07 mg of FeSO4⸱7H2O in 500 mL DW to create the standard solution (15 mM), 70 mL of stock solution was put into a conical flask with 30 mL of produced extract. Brick-red precipitate appeared after 45 min of stirring the reaction mixture at 250 rpm and 50°C. The aging process of the precipitate was continued for 6 h followed by filtration and subsequent washing process with hot DW thrice to remove any uncoordinated ions. The sample was stored in a glass bottle and oven-dried at 140°C after being filtered.

2.4 Characterization

The Panalytical X’pert Pro (manufactured in CA, USA) was used for the crystallographic analysis. It was operated at 30 mA as well as 40 kV, with a scanning speed of 5 min−1 per 2θ. The microstructure of IO-NPs was investigated using the SEM model JEOL 5910 (Tokyo, Japan) and the TEM model Hitachi HT7800 (Cleveland, TN, USA). In contrast, elemental analysis was carried out using EDX (INCA 200) (Oxfordshire, UK) in conjunction with SEM. A known quantity of IO-NPs was heated to 1,000°C with a 10°C rise per minute using the Perkin Elmer model 6300 thermogravimetric analysis analyzer to record the thermogram. Optical characteristics were studied using the Shimadzu UV-800 Pharmaspec spectrophotometer, and the Tauc plot was used to compute the band gap energy. Utilizing KBr pellets, the chemical composition was investigated using an FTIR Nicolet 670 in the 4,000–400 cm−1 range. Thermo Fisher Scientific Waltham, MA, USA, supplied the FTIR and UV–visible spectrophotometers [42,43,44].

2.5 Photocatalytic assay

In the presence of IO-NPs, a 15 mM solution of MO and R-6G was degraded throughout the photo-induced reaction, which was performed under simulated solar light. To establish sorption desorption steadiness, the reaction, which involved 50 mL of stock solution and 20 mg of IO-NPs, was agitated for 45 min without light. Following the reaction mixture’s exposure to artificial sunlight, 3 mL was spectrophotometrically examined after a predetermined amount of time, and the absorbance peak’s drop with the passage of time was recorded. The percentage degradation and degradation rate constant were calculated using mathematical equations (equations (1) and (2)), where C o is the initial concentration and C t is the final concentration. Under the same reaction conditions, the impact of catalyst dosage, initial concentration, and pH on MO degradation was also assessed

(1) % Degradation = C o − C t C o × 100 ,

(2) ln C t C o = − k t .

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Physicochemical study

To investigate the crystalline nature of IO-NPs and extract additional crystallographic characteristics from the XRD data, an XRD analysis was performed (Figure 1). The shape of the diffractogram was a bit noisy, which suggested that the sample may possess some amorphous content along with a crystalline phase. Similar observations have also been studied previously during the synthesis of SnO2 NPs [42]. The diffractogram shown in Figure 2 exhibited characteristic diffraction peaks assigned to different crystallographic planes of the IO-NPs that were mentioned in the XRD pattern above corresponding reflections. In accordance with the JCPDS card 01-071-4918 and the corresponding miller planes, diffraction peaks at the 2-theta position were identified. On the basis of the available information provided in the JCPDS card, the Fe2O3 crystallites were formed with a cubic geometrical shape, where lengths of all three coordinates (a, b, and c) were 4.582 Å with an interfacial angle of 90° between the coordinates. The average crystallite size, calculated from the XRD data, was 38.42 nm, with a lattice strain of 0.149%.

Figure 1 XRD pattern of IO-NPs.
Figure 1

XRD pattern of IO-NPs.

Figure 2 Low (a) and high (b) magnification SEM micrographs of IO-NPs.
Figure 2

Low (a) and high (b) magnification SEM micrographs of IO-NPs.

To examine the morphology of prepared IO-NPs, SEM analysis was performed. Figure 2 displays obtained low and high micrographs that were synthesized. In low magnification image (a), most of the particles seemed to be round or nearly round in shape and were irregularly distributed. The lower left portion of the image (a) was seen to be slightly agglomerated, forming larger particles, whereas small particles resided upon the surface of the larger ones. In high magnification image (b), three perfect spherical particles were seen, whereas several nearly spherical-shaped particles were present. The spherical particles exhibited well-defined boundaries, whereas the nearly spherical particles seemed to be fused with one another; however, their fusion did not lead to the formation of larger agglomerates. It has been reported in the literature that because of the high surface energy, the particles tend to fuse together [45].

TEM analysis was performed to have a better understanding of the morphology of IO-NPs, and the resulting micrograph is presented as Figure 3. The TEM image showed that the particle exhibited a nearly spherical morphology. Upon close observation, it was observed that the particle had a porous surface. The particle size was found to be 56.22 nm.

Figure 3 TEM micrographs of IO-NPs.
Figure 3

TEM micrographs of IO-NPs.

Using EDX coupled with SEM, IO-NPs’ elemental composition was assessed, and the obtained EDX spectrum is shown in Figure 4. The presence of carbon, which may have resulted from the use of carbon tape for sample streaking during EDX analysis, was the cause of the band at 0.4 keV. Three peaks in the EDX spectrum at 0.6, 6.40, and 7.12 keV confirmed the presence of iron in the sample. The existence of oxygen in the sample was ascribed to a sharp signal at 0.50 keV, which confirmed the formation of iron oxide. The detected weight% of iron and oxygen in the sample were 78.21 and 21.79, respectively.

Figure 4 EDX spectrum of IO-NPs.
Figure 4

EDX spectrum of IO-NPs.

A two-stage weight loss was seen in the thermogram of IO-NPs shown in Figure 5. The first weight loss, detected between 48 and 130°C, was because of the evaporation of moisture and physisorbed water, with a total of 9.71% (0.68 mg) weight loss in this stage. Approximately 12.02% of the weight (0.76 mg) was lost during the second weight loss, which occurred between 220 and 535°C and was caused by the loss of chemisorbed water [46].

Figure 5 Thermogram of IO-NPs showing weight loss in two stages.
Figure 5

Thermogram of IO-NPs showing weight loss in two stages.

The chemical moieties in the IO-NPs were analyzed through FTIR, and the resultant spectrum is presented in Figure 6, where most of the bands corresponded to the existence of the hydroxyl group as well as Fe–O stretching. The non-bonding water molecules were responsible for the short band at 3742.51 cm−1, while the stretching vibration of −O–H and the band for bending vibrations at 1639.28 cm−1 were represented by the wide wave band in the 3394.72–3038.59 cm−1 range [43,47,48]. The bands at 1054.72, 755.63, and 726.76 cm⁻¹ were indicative of metal–oxygen (M–O) stretching and bending vibrations within the iron hydroxide structure, respectively [49,50]. The bands at 473.90 and 435.24 cm⁻¹ could correspond to lattice vibrations involving iron–oxygen bonds [51]. The FTIR results suggested the formation of pure IO-NPs with no impurities.

Figure 6 FTIR spectrum of IO-NPs.
Figure 6

FTIR spectrum of IO-NPs.

A strong absorbance band at 312.35 nm in the UV–visible spectra of IO-NPs is depicted in Figure 7 and was associated with an electronic transition known as a “direct band-to-band transition.” The energy level at which electrons in the nanoparticles are shifted from VB to CB was correlated with this transition. Tauc’s plot indicated that the band gap energy was 3.20 eV. The least amount of energy needed to transfer an electron from VB, which is the highest energy level where electrons live, to CB, which is the lowest energy level where electrons can freely migrate, is known as the band gap energy. The energy of photons having a wavelength of 312.35 nm was equal to this energy. The IO-NPs’ wide range of applications was indicated by their band gap energy of 3.20 eV. By absorbing photons with a wavelength of 312.35 nm, the VB electrons gained sufficient energy to move to the CB, enabling effective charge transport and the creation of electron–hole pairs, that can play a key role in the photocatalytic process.

Figure 7 UV–visible spectrum (inset: Tauc’s plot) of IO-NPs.
Figure 7

UV–visible spectrum (inset: Tauc’s plot) of IO-NPs.

3.2 Photocatalytic study

Photocatalytic efficacy of IO-NPs fabricated via the biological method was inspected under full light spectrum against the degradation of MO, and Figure 8 displays the findings. First, DW was used to create the dye’s stock solution, and 50 mL of this solution was added to the vessel containing the catalyst. The reaction mixture was stirred for 30 min without light in order to achieve the sorption and release steadiness of the dye molecule. It was then analyzed using a UV–visible spectrometer, and it was found that at 464 nm, the highest absorption took place. Following the observation of the liquid samples at predetermined intervals of 10, 20, 40, 80, 120, and 160 min, the decrease in the absorbance maxima was noted as a function of time. The solution became colorless after 160 min, suggesting that all of the dye had been degraded. With a degradation rate of 0.00873 per min, the percentage degradation in the same time period was 79.87%. The photocatalytic efficiency of IO-NPs was also tested against the rhodamine 6G dye under the same reaction conditions as discussed above, and the obtained results are revealed in Figure 9(a–d). The degradation profile (Figure 9(a)) at 526 nm exhibited a gradual decline in the absorbance maxima over time, suggesting the degradation of chromophore responsible for the absorption of light at 526 nm. The percentage degradation plot (Figure 9(c)) showed that percentage degradation increased with the passage of time, and after 160 min, 99.42% of R-6G was degraded. The degradation rate constant was determined by applying equation (2), where the result displayed 99.42% of R-6G with a degradation rate of 0.03012 per min. When IO-NPs photocatalyzed the degradation of both dyes, they excited valance electrons with light energy equal to the catalyst’s band gap energy, forming reactive species such as superoxide radicals, hydroxyl radicals, and positive holes [52]. After interacting with the adsorbed dye molecules on the IO-NPs’ surface, these reactive species started a series of oxidation processes that degraded the pollutant into less dangerous and simpler forms. IO-NPs’ distinct electrical and surface characteristics were essential to the photocatalytic process, which made them efficient catalysts for the photo-degradation of organic pollutants [53,54].

Figure 8 (a–d) Photocatalytic data of the MO degradation in the presence of IO-NPs under simulated solar light.
Figure 8

(a–d) Photocatalytic data of the MO degradation in the presence of IO-NPs under simulated solar light.

Figure 9 (a–d) Photocatalytic data of the R-6G degradation in the presence of IO-NPs under simulated solar light.
Figure 9

(a–d) Photocatalytic data of the R-6G degradation in the presence of IO-NPs under simulated solar light.

The absorption of photons with energies higher than the semiconductor’s band gap started a sequence of intricate processes that led to the photocatalytic degradation of MO in the presence of IO-NPs. Electrons were stimulated from the IO-NPs’ VB to the CB upon photon absorption, leaving holes in the VB behind. These photogenerated electron–hole pairs have the ability to get to the NP’s surface and engage in redox reactions with substances that have been adsorbed. Superoxide radicals (O₂⁻) can be created when the electrons combine with adsorbed oxygen, while hydroxyl radicals (˙OH) can be produced when the holes react with water molecules. Superoxide and hydroxyl radicals are both extremely reactive substances that have the ability to oxidize organic color molecules, causing them to break down into less hazardous, simpler substances like CO₂ and H₂O [55,56].

3.2.1 Impact of pH

The percent photodegradation of MO in the photocatalytic reaction was observed for pH values ranging from 4 to 9 while allowing the remaining reaction under constant conditions (Figure 10(a)). The results demonstrate that the pH also affected the rate of photocatalytic effects. Against 20 mg IO-NPs and 15 ppm MO solution, the pH effect was examined. Recorded results exhibited that maximum degradation occurred at pH 6 [57].

Figure 10 (a–d) Effect of pH (a), effect of initial concentration (b), effect of dose (c), and reuse efficacy of the IO-NPs during the photocatalytic experiment.
Figure 10

(a–d) Effect of pH (a), effect of initial concentration (b), effect of dose (c), and reuse efficacy of the IO-NPs during the photocatalytic experiment.

3.2.2 Effect of dose

Various quantities of the IO-NPs viz. 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 mg were manipulated against the mineralization of the MO. Findings indicated that the degradation rate increased correspondingly with increasing catalyst’s dose and was maximum at 20 mg, but the further increment in catalyst’s quantity decreased the degradation rate. It can be explained by the catalyst’s surface not having any active sites [58,59].

3.2.3 Effect of initial concentration

To examine the photocatalytic activity, IO-NPs were exposed to 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 ppm of the dye solution (MO) in this study. The findings showed that the photocatalytic activity was significantly influenced by the initial concentration. Initially, activity increased upon increasing initial concentration and was found to be maximum at 15 ppm, but then there was a gradual decrease on increasing initial concentration. The main reason behind this decrease was the blockage of light penetration due to the dye molecules, which at first interacted with the catalyst but later started accumulating in the solution, thus reducing the photocatalytic efficacy [57,60].

3.2.4 Reuse of catalyst

An important aspect of the photocatalytic investigation was the reusability of the IO-NPs as catalysts. In this study, the photocatalytic degradation experiments were conducted over five successive cycles. It was observed that the percent degradation of MO gradually decreased over five cycles from an initial value of 79.87%, reduced to 77.73, 68.94, 53.83%, and finally 38.65% (Figure 10(d)). This trend highlighted the diminishing efficiency of the catalyst upon multiple usages. The decline in the degradation efficiency of IO-NPs with successive cycles underscored the necessity of catalyst regeneration or replacement. The decreasing efficiency can be attributed to the catalyst surface fouling, aggregation, and potential degradation of active sites [61,62].

3.3 Discussion

The physicochemical analysis revealed the synthesis of crystalline IO-NPs with nearly spherical shape, which were extremely pure, as evidenced by the XRD, TEM, EDX, and FTIR results. The crystallinity reduced structural defects, which enhanced the production of reactive species like superoxide anions as well as hydroxyl radicals necessary for dye degradation and also minimized charge recombination. The ordered crystal structure made the nanoparticles less susceptible to the degradation process, which enhanced their durability in reaction. As far as the morphology of the NPs was concerned, the nearly spherical shape provided a larger surface area for adsorbing dye molecules and light harvesting, facilitating more efficient catalytic reactions. Moreover, the nearly spherical shape promoted uniform dispersion in aqueous solutions, reducing diffusion resistance, and allowing faster access of dye molecules to active sites. It also ensured the uniform light absorption phenomenon and effective utilization of light energy across the NPs’ surface. Likewise, the thermal stability also ensured robustness under prolonged light irradiation, maintaining consistent photocatalytic performance over time. The band gap energy is needed for the excitation of an electron from VB to CB. Low band gap energy, in this context, makes it possible to use solar light to excite electrons and initiate the photocatalytic reaction. Reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as superoxide anions and hydroxyl radicals, are produced in greater quantities during photocatalytic reactions involving lower-energy photons. These ROS are essential for the degradation of dye molecules.

3.4 Comparative analysis

The photocatalytic efficacy of the IO-NPs synthesized in this study was evaluated as well as contrasted with similar studies documented in the literature, as summarized in Table 1. The tabulated data highlighted key information, including the sources and methods employed for the production of IO-NPs in various studies, along with the experimental conditions under which their photocatalytic activity was assessed. A detailed analysis of the data revealed that the IO-NPs produced in this study demonstrated superior photocatalytic potential compared to those reported in previous works. This conclusion was substantiated by the significantly higher percentage of dye degradation achieved under comparable experimental conditions. The enhanced performance of the IO-NPs synthesized in this study highlighted the effectiveness of the adopted synthesis method and experimental design, making these nanoparticles an extremely effective photocatalyst for applications including environmental remediation applications.

Table 1

Comparative analysis of the photocatalytic potential of the IO-NPs reported in the literature

Sources/method Dye Dye concentration Catalyst dose Contact time Percentage degradation (%) References
Carica papaya Yellow RR 70 ppm 0.8 g/L 6 h 76.6 [15]
Sol–gel Congo red 100 g/L 50 g 1 h 60 [63]
Purpureocillium lilacinum Navy blue 100 ppm — 2 h 49.3 [64]
Safranin 66
Aspergillus carbonarious Tanning wastewater unknown 50 g 24 h 28 [64]
M. acuminata MO 15 mM 20 mg 2.40 h 79.87 Current study
Rhodamine 6G 99.42

4 Conclusion

The results demonstrated that the IO-NPs were successfully synthesized via an eco-friendly way and exhibited promising photocatalytic activity under visible light for the degradation of MO. The synthesis of crystalline iron oxide phases was validated by XRD analysis, while the nearly spherical morphology of IO-NPs was revealed by TEM images. FTIR and EDX analyses provided insights into the functional groups and elemental composition, respectively. UV–visible spectroscopy indicated nanoparticles’ ability to absorb visible light, a crucial factor for effective photocatalysis. Study’s findings underscored the potential of utilizing naturally derived precursors for the green synthesis of effective photocatalytic materials. The recyclability of the IO-NPs further highlighted their practical applicability for multiple wastewater treatment cycles. As a whole, for wastewater treatment, this study contributed in developing sustainable as well as efficient photocatalytic materials, aligned with contemporary efforts for green and cost-effective environmental remediation strategies.

Acknowledgments

The authors extend their appreciation to Taif University٫ Saudi Arabia, for supporting this work through project number (TU-DSPP-2024-158).

  1. Funding information: The research was financially supported by Taif University, Saudi Arabia, for supporting this work through project number (TU-DSPP-2024-158).

  2. Author contributions: Amor Hedfi and Manel Ben Ali – Formal analysis, visualization and funding acquisition; Sirajul Haq (Supervision), Wajid Rehman, Muhammad Waseem, Jamoliddin Razzokov – Conceptualization, methodology and project administration; Shafia Shujaat – writing – original draft; Khaled Elmnasri, M. Khalid Hossain – Software and Data curation; Eldor Karimbaev and Fazal Ur Rehman – Validation and Writing – review & editing.

  3. Conflict of interest: It has been declared that there is no conflict of interest associated with this manuscript.

  4. Data availability statement: The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

  5. Ethical approval: The conducted research is not related to either human or animals use.

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Received: 2024-08-07
Revised: 2025-01-21
Accepted: 2025-01-24
Published Online: 2025-02-26

© 2025 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/chem-2025-0132
Keywords for this article
instrumentation; iron oxide; photocatalysis; waste-water
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Phytochemical investigation and evaluation of antioxidant and antidiabetic activities in aqueous extracts of Cedrus atlantica
  3. Influence of B4C addition on the tribological properties of bronze matrix brake pad materials
  4. Discovery of the bacterial HslV protease activators as lead molecules with novel mode of action
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  7. Analysis and health risk assessment of toxic elements in traditional herbal tea infusions
  8. Cadmium exposure in marine crabs from Jiaxing City, China: Insights into health risk assessment
  9. Green-synthesized silver nanoparticles of Cinnamomum zeylanicum and their biological activities
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  25. Multifunctional chitosan nanoparticles: Zn2+ adsorption, antimicrobial activity, and promotion of aquatic health
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  43. Stability studies of titanium–carboxylate complexes: A multi-method computational approach
  44. Efficient adsorption performance of an alginate-based dental material for uranium(vi) removal
  45. Synthesis and characterization of the Co(ii), Ni(ii), and Cu(ii) complexes with a 1,2,4-triazine derivative ligand
  46. Evaluation of the impact of music on antioxidant mechanisms and survival in salt-stressed goldfish
  47. Optimization and validation of UPLC method for dapagliflozin and candesartan cilexetil in an on-demand formulation: Analytical quality by design approach
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  49. Multifunctional nitrogen and boron co-doped carbon dots: A fluorescent probe for Hg2+ and biothiol detection with bioimaging and antifungal applications
  50. Separation of sulphonamides on a C12-diol mixed-mode HPLC column and investigation of their retention mechanism
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  57. Protective effect of green synthesized nanoceria on retinal oxidative stress and inflammation in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rat
  58. Evaluation of the antianxiety activity of green zinc nanoparticles mediated by Boswellia thurifera in albino mice by following the plus maze and light and dark exploration tests
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