Home Elemental geochemistry of the Middle Jurassic shales in the northern Qaidam Basin, northwestern China: Constraints for tectonics and paleoclimate
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Elemental geochemistry of the Middle Jurassic shales in the northern Qaidam Basin, northwestern China: Constraints for tectonics and paleoclimate

  • Haihai Hou EMAIL logo , Shujun Liu , Longyi Shao EMAIL logo , Yonghong Li , Ming’en Zhao and Cui Wang
Published/Copyright: November 25, 2021
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Open Geosciences
From the journal Open Geosciences Volume 13 Issue 1

Abstract

The elemental geochemical characteristics of mudstones/shales are good tracers for indicating the evolution of tectonics, paleoenvironment, and paleoclimate. Based on the continuous sampling of drilling cores from the Middle Jurassic Dameigou and Shimengou Formations in the northern Qaidam Basin, the major, trace, and rare earth elements of the 31 mudstones and shales were analyzed. The information on the evolution of tectonics, provenance, and paleoclimate during Middle Jurassic was also recovered. The results show that: (1) A couple of elements consisting of Sc, Y, V, Cr, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Th, and U are relatively enriched, indicating that the contents of siderophile and chalcophile elements are significantly high in the Middle Jurassic samples; (2) Changes in the chemical index of alteration, Ga/Rb, and K2O/Al2O3 ratios in the mudstone/shale samples suggest that the paleoclimate was changed from warm and humid in the early stage to cold and dry in the middle stage and to hot and arid in the late stage; (3) The Middle Jurassic provenance of the northern Qaidam Basin was predicted from upper crust and felsic rocks to the mixed felsic rocks and basic rocks; (4) The Middle Jurassic tectonic background was changed from passive continental margin to active continental margin and oceanic island arc. The paleoclimatic and paleogeographic evolution of northern Qaidam Basin were closely related to the surrounding paleo-oceanic and ancient plate activities. In the early stage of the Middle Jurassic, the extensional activity in the passive continental margin and the water vapor input was caused by the Tethys Ocean, resulting in a warm and humid paleoclimate. In the late stage of the Middle Jurassic, the tectonic background of the study area tended to be an oceanic island arc caused by compressive tectonic, which blocked the monsoon input and led to a hot and arid paleoclimate. The establishment of multiple geochemical profiles can provide a scientific basis for the climate changes in greenhouse–icehouses and source–sink systems of the Middle Jurassic in northwestern China.

Keywords: northern Qaidam Basin; middle Jurassic; element geochemistry; weathering; paleoclimate

1 Introduction

The Middle Jurassic shale in the northern Qaidam Basin is characterized by wide distribution, large thickness, and good preservation, which is not only an important marker for strata correlation but also an important exploration object for shale gas and oil shale [1]. In response to the current situation of shale gas exploration and development in this region, the Oil and Gas Resources Investigation Center of China Geological Survey has implemented the “Investigation of Geological Conditions for Shale Gas Formation in the Qaidam Basin” and the Chaiye-1 (CY-1) well was drilled in the Yuqia coalfield, which is the first shale gas parameter well in the northern Qaidam Basin for the Jurassic terrestrial basin. The exploration results show that three sets of gas-bearing mudstones and shales with a cumulative thickness of 141 m are found in the CY-1 well, and the thickest section is 58.12 m. In addition, the Middle Jurassic shales in the Qaidam Basin are characterized by relatively high gas content, strong compressibility, good pore connectivity, and abundant organic matter types [2,3]. Therefore, it is believed that the northern Qaidam Basin has a good prospect for the shale gas and oil shale development.

The elemental geochemical information of mudstones/shales have been mostly used to analyze the weathering denudation, provenance properties, and tectonic background of source areas as well as the paleoclimatic, paleogeographic, and tectonic features [4,5,6]. During sedimentary processes, clastic rocks primarily have undergone weathering, transportation, deposition, and diagenesis. Therefore, unstable geochemical elements are relatively deficient, whereas stable elements are considerably enriched in sedimentary rocks [7]. The elements in mudstones and shales can be classified as major elements, trace elements, and rare earth elements according to their content ratios, which are generally determined by X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), respectively. The major elements and their combinations can be divided into several quantitative parameters including chemical index of alteration (CIA), chemical index of weathering, and plagioclase alteration index. Based on the comprehensive analysis of these three parameters, previous investigations conclude that CIA is frequently used because it is less influenced by other factors to distinguish weathering index and paleoclimate in the source areas [8,9]. The variation in CIA values is usually used to analyze the degree of weathering and tectonic processes in the source areas during the sedimentary period, which can further reveal the intrinsic factors of the sedimentary process controlled by climatic and tectonic evolution [4,5]. The distribution characteristics of trace elements and rare earth elements can not only be used to study the depositional environment, provenance, and tectonic background but can also be used to recover the paleoenvironmental and tectonic evolution processes and determine the provenance properties during the depositional period [6,10,11]. Because CIA values are primarily influenced by different ranges of latitude and surface temperatures, the variation pattern in CIA values can be analyzed for the sedimentary weathering conditions and their paleoclimatic environments. The triangle diagrams and elemental distribution diagrams of CIA values are generally calculated from the various rock-source areas, which can infer the relationships between paleoclimate and sedimentary conditions [9]. Trace elements in mudstones/shales are not easily affected by water bodies and metamorphism in a series of processes including weathering, deposition, transportation, and post-diagenesis, and hence the combination of trace elements and their ratios can be used as good indicators of provenance properties and tectonic background [6,12].

Although a great resource potential is found within the Middle Jurassic strata, there is no substantial breakthrough in the exploration and development of shale gas in the northern Qaidam Basin, which would be attributed to a lack of full research on the tectonic background and paleogeographic pattern based on mudstones’ and shales’ elemental geochemistry. This study investigates the elemental geochemical characteristics of the Middle Jurassic mudstones/shales in the northern Qaidam Basin based on a series of XRF and ICP-MS experiments. According to the distribution of major, trace, and rare earth elements, the paleoclimatic characteristics, tectonic background, and provenance properties in the northern Qaidam Basin were analyzed. This study not only provides a theoretical basis for tectonic evolution and gas exploration of the Jurassic basins but also furnishes a scientific basis for analyzing the climate change in greenhouse–icehouses and the source–sink systems in the northern Qaidam Basin.

2 Geological settings

The Qaidam Basin is situated in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau and is one of the three major inland basins in China. This basin is rich in coal, oil, gas, potassium, and graphite resources, and has a great exploration potential in those resources. The northern Qaidam Basin is rich in unconventional natural gas resources of the Jurassic coal measures, and is a strategic replacement area for coalbed methane and shale gas exploration and development [13]. The northern Qaidam Basin is surrounded by the Altun Mountains to the west and the Qilian Mountains to the north, accompanied with the Saishiteng Mountain, Lyuliang Mountain, Xitie Mountain, Olongbuluke Mountain, Aimunke Mountain, and Maoniu Mountain from west to east (Figure 1).

Figure 1 Tectonic outline and distribution of sampling sites in the northern Qaidam Basin.
Figure 1

Tectonic outline and distribution of sampling sites in the northern Qaidam Basin.

The samples of this study came from the YQ-1 drilling cores, and this well was drilled in the Yuqia coalfield of the northern Qaidam Basin for the Jurassic shale gas exploration (Figure 2). The depositional systems including alluvial fan delta–lacustrine facies are primarily developed during the Middle Jurassic period in the northern Qaidam Basin [2,14]. Specifically, the Dameigou Formation, lower Shimengou Formation, and upper Shimengou Formation are dominated by the deltaic plain, shore-shallow lake, and deep-semideep lake, respectively (Figure 2). In terms of lithology distribution, the Dameigou Formation is dominated by non-marine coarse-grained to fine-grained silicious clastic rocks, with thick coal seams interbedded in the lowest section, whereas the Shimengou Formation consists of gray-white medium and coarse sandstones in the lower section and brown thick lacustrine shales in the upper section (Figure 2). It should be noted that a section of brown oil shale is stably distributed at the top of the upper Shimengou Formation, which can be used as a marker for the regional strata correlation in the northern Qaidam Basin [1]. A large-scale migration of the Middle Jurassic sedimentary centers from west to east and from south to north is found in the northern Qaidam Basin, forming the Yuqia and Dameigou sedimentary centers [15], with overlying thinning to the Lyucao Mountain, Lyuliang Mountain, and Aimunike Mountain. The rock sources come from the basement uplift on the north and south sides and the Altun Mountains on the northwest side [2,14].

Figure 2 Comprehensive histogram of YQ-1 well showing lithology, sampling, and sedimentary environment in the Yuqia coalfield, northern Qaidam Basin (14 samples from upper Shimengou Formation: YQ-1-1 to YQ-1-27; 10 samples from lower Shimengou Formation: YQ-1-30 to YQ-1-47; 7 samples from Dameigou Formation: YQ-1-48 to YQ-1-54).
Figure 2

Comprehensive histogram of YQ-1 well showing lithology, sampling, and sedimentary environment in the Yuqia coalfield, northern Qaidam Basin (14 samples from upper Shimengou Formation: YQ-1-1 to YQ-1-27; 10 samples from lower Shimengou Formation: YQ-1-30 to YQ-1-47; 7 samples from Dameigou Formation: YQ-1-48 to YQ-1-54).

3 Samples and methodology

3.1 Sample collection

As the elemental geochemical distribution in the mudstones and shales are more stable and advantageous for analyzing sources identification and paleoclimatical recovery [16,17], a total of 31 mudstone/shale samples have been taken from the YQ-1 well in the northern Qaidam Basin in this study. Specifically, 14 samples were collected from the upper Shimengou Formation, 10 samples from the lower Shimengou Formation, and 7 samples from the Dameigou Formation (Figure 2). After the macroscopic description in field, the collected samples were wrapped with preservative film prior to laboratory tests and analyses.

3.2 Experimental methods

3.2.1 Element geochemistry tests

The major elements including SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, MgO, CaO, Na2O, K2O, MnO, TiO2, and P2O5 were tested by an XRF spectrometer at Beijing Research Institute of Uranium Geology. The shale powders and lithium metaborate flux were mixed in a ratio of 1:10 and fused at 1,050°C in a Pt–Au crucible. Then, the cooled mixed melt was put on a glass disk for XRF analysis. According to the Chinese National Standard GB/T 14506.30-2010, the alkaline fusion glass sheet method was used for testing the trace and rare earth elements of the mudstones and shales. Each sample was placed in a high temperature furnace, and relevant organic matters were removed with analysis errors lower than 1% after adding a series of chemical reagents. The ICP-MS was used to determine the trace and rare earth elements of the samples, and the particle size of each sample should be crushed to lower than 74 μm. The 25 mg sample was weighed and sealed in the container with the weight accuracy of 0.01 mg. Then, 1 mL of HF and 0.5 mL of HNO3 were added, of which 50 mg liquids were heated to 185 ± 5°C within 24 h. After cooling and evaporating until nearly dry with adding 0.5 mL of HNO3, it was then heated at 130°C for 3 h for ICP-MS testing. The testing process mainly included the standard mixed solution adjustment, calibration data collection, blank solution analysis, and interference coefficient measurement.

3.2.2 CIA

The chemical weathering corresponds to the decrease in feldspars in rocks (kalium, sodium, and calcium elements) and the increase in clay minerals (iron and aluminum elements). The greater the CIA value, the stronger the chemical weathering of the sediments [18,19,20,21,22]. The CIA value can be calculated as follows: CIA = molar (Al2O3/[Al2O3 + Na2O + CaO* + K2O]) × 100, where mole number in each oxide is necessary, and CaO* refers to CaO in silicate minerals. As carbonate and phosphate minerals also contain CaO, an indirect method to calculate CaO* was proposed by Mclennan [23]. CaO* = molar (CaO–P2O5 × 10/3) when Na2O content is higher than that of CaO*; otherwise, CaO* = molar Na2O. The sample with higher CIA value likely means that the weathering process is losing a large amount of Ca, Na, and K compared to the stable Al and Ti, revealing a warm and humid paleoclimate. In addition, the lower CIA value reflects a cold and dry climatic condition in the regions [24]. Generally, the weathering degree can be divided into weak, moderate, and strong stages, corresponding to CIA values with 50–60%, 60–80%, and 80–100%, respectively [24].

4 Results

4.1 Major element characteristics

The major element results of the Middle Jurassic mudstones and shales in the northern Qaidam Basin are shown in Table 1. Generally, the SiO2 content of all the samples is the highest, followed by Al2O3 and Fe2O3, whereas the K2O, MgO, CaO, TiO2, Na2O, P2O5, and MnO contents are relatively low (Table 1 and Figure 3). Specifically, the SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 contents in the upper Shimengou shales range from 19.27 to 53.64% (average 42.67%), 6.14 to 23.03% (average 17.22%), and 2.79 to 18.36% (average 8.76%), respectively. In terms of the lower Shimengou shales, the SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 contents range from 47.92 to 68.19% (average 59.74%), 16.97 to 26.13% (average 23.10%), and 1.38 to 5.45% (average 2.07%), respectively. The SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 contents of the Dameigou shales range from 46.46 to 60.34% (average 56.29%), 20.87 to 26.92% (average 24.09%), and 1.01 to 4.32% (average 2.08%), respectively. Thus, the upper Shimengou shales have the lowest SiO2 and Al2O3 contents, with the highest Fe2O3 content (Table 1; Figure 3). In addition, the SiO2 and Al2O3 contents and CIA values first decrease and then increase from the Dameigou Formation to the upper Shimengou Formation, with the minimum value appearing at the top of the upper Shimengou Formation (Figure 3). The Na2O content first increases and then decreases from the bottom to the top with the maximum value appearing in the middle of the upper Shimengou Formation. The Fe2O3, MgO, CaO, MnO, and P2O5 contents are relatively low in the Dameigou Formation and the lower Shimengou Formation, whereas a relatively high value appears in the upper Shimengou Formation. The contents of K2O and TiO2 are higher in the Dameigou Formation and lower Shimengou Formation than those in the upper Shimengou Formation (Figure 3). Therefore, there are great variations in the major elements in the Middle Jurassic shales, which indicate that the paleoclimate and paleoenvironment also should be significantly changed in these strata in the northern Qaidam Basin.

Table 1

Major element compositions and CIA values of the Middle Jurassic mudstones/shales in the Yuqia coalfield, northern Qaidam Basin

Unit Sample number Lithology SiO2 (wt%) Al2O3 (wt%) Fe2O3 (wt%) MgO (wt%) CaO (wt%) Na2O (wt%) K2O (wt%) MnO (wt%) TiO2 (wt%) P2O5 (wt%) LOI (wt%) CIA (%)
Upper Shimengou Formation YQ-1-1 Gray-black mudstone 31.20 14.17 7.68 2.96 14.52 0.26 1.42 0.159 0.484 0.169 26.44 85.50
YQ-1-3 Brown oil shale 42.83 17.82 7.88 3.11 4.76 0.37 1.83 0.140 0.568 0.150 20.06 84.79
YQ-1-5 Brown oil shale 19.27 6.14 2.91 4.82 25.27 0.30 0.82 0.153 0.250 0.377 39.67 76.61
YQ-1-7 Brown oil shale 30.61 6.42 2.79 1.85 26.63 0.36 0.91 0.162 0.255 0.263 29.74 74.67
YQ-1-9 Gray-black mudstone 49.00 17.09 10.77 1.71 0.73 0.51 2.22 0.630 0.635 0.176 16.46 80.76
YQ-1-11 Gray-black mudstone 51.77 17.39 6.87 1.81 0.75 0.58 2.24 0.404 0.636 0.208 17.35 80.37
YQ-1-13 Gray-black mudstone 53.49 18.74 5.22 1.88 0.48 0.58 2.43 0.131 0.672 0.092 16.25 81.55
YQ-1-15 Gray-black mudstone 53.64 20.33 5.49 1.91 0.40 0.49 2.71 0.122 0.749 0.122 13.98 82.94
YQ-1-17 Gray-black mudstone 47.50 19.96 10.22 1.55 0.69 0.37 2.12 0.524 0.711 0.406 15.89 86.20
YQ-1-18 Gray-black mudstone 36.77 15.79 18.36 1.83 2.73 0.30 1.77 0.940 0.569 1.630 19.29 84.52
YQ-1-20 Gray-black mudstone 49.65 22.36 7.34 1.66 0.44 0.33 2.24 0.286 0.761 0.175 14.72 86.98
YQ-1-22 Gray-black mudstone 45.65 21.11 11.67 1.39 0.65 0.23 2.29 0.363 0.725 0.194 15.65 86.71
YQ-1-24 Gray-black mudstone 46.32 23.03 9.48 1.22 0.88 0.23 2.22 0.271 0.797 0.486 14.97 87.92
YQ-1-27 Gray-black mudstone 39.63 20.67 15.93 1.03 1.00 0.19 1.94 0.269 0.660 0.215 18.42 88.34
Lower Shimengou Formation YQ-1-30 Gray-black mudstone 58.53 25.19 2.14 0.75 0.19 0.16 2.50 0.014 1.040 0.045 9.36 88.71
YQ-1-32 Gray-black mudstone 47.92 26.13 1.71 0.80 0.23 0.20 2.45 0.008 0.786 0.086 19.67 89.05
YQ-1-33 Carbonaceous mudstone 58.64 25.16 1.91 0.85 0.17 0.19 2.82 0.010 0.950 0.051 9.12 87.62
YQ-1-34 Carbonaceous mudstone 68.19 16.97 1.92 0.44 0.15 0.16 2.34 0.005 0.946 0.036 8.72 85.04
YQ-1-35 Gray-black mudstone 57.69 23.67 1.57 0.73 0.20 0.19 2.96 0.007 0.836 0.064 11.98 86.35
YQ-1-36 Carbonaceous mudstone 62.33 23.22 1.40 0.61 0.15 0.19 2.75 0.007 0.947 0.056 8.21 87.13
YQ-1-39 Gray-black mudstone 61.55 23.46 1.39 0.70 0.15 0.18 2.84 0.006 1.010 0.056 8.5 86.96
YQ-1-41 Gray-black mudstone 60.14 23.82 1.79 0.57 0.16 0.15 2.63 0.016 0.961 0.070 9.54 88.07
YQ-1-44 Gray-black mudstone 61.52 18.96 5.45 1.25 0.43 0.16 2.58 0.039 0.896 0.070 8.51 85.06
YQ-1-47 Gray-black mudstone 60.87 24.45 1.38 0.64 0.13 0.18 2.80 0.008 0.931 0.040 8.48 87.55
Dameigou Formation YQ-1-48 Carbonaceous mudstone 46.46 26.90 1.57 0.64 0.19 0.20 2.52 0.007 0.799 0.072 20.62 89.26
YQ-1-49 Carbonaceous mudstone 58.64 22.27 4.32 0.60 0.24 0.14 2.55 0.093 0.936 0.115 10.07 87.55
YQ-1-50 Dark grey mudstone 53.81 20.87 4.21 0.48 0.15 0.14 2.19 0.033 0.832 0.073 17.15 88.53
YQ-1-51 Carbonaceous mudstone 56.99 26.92 1.24 0.59 0.16 0.15 2.28 0.006 0.894 0.066 10.66 90.44
YQ-1-52 Carbonaceous mudstone 57.92 26.19 1.17 0.56 0.14 0.14 2.22 0.006 0.886 0.041 10.62 90.33
YQ-1-53 Dark grey mudstone 59.90 22.54 1.01 0.57 0.12 0.14 2.63 0.004 0.952 0.103 12 88.05
YQ-1-54 Dark grey mudstone 60.34 22.97 1.06 0.55 0.11 0.13 2.58 0.005 0.934 0.100 11.14 88.51
Figure 3 The vertical distribution of major elements of the Middle Jurassic shales in the drilling YQ-1 well, Yuqia coalfield, northern Qaidam Basin (SMG-U: upper Shimengou Formation; SMG-L: lower Shimengou Formation; DMG: Dameigou Formation. (a) SiO2; (b) Al2O3; (c) Fe2O3; (d) MgO; (e) CaO; (f) Na2O; (g) K2O; (h) MnO; (i) TiO2; (j) P2O5; (k) CIA).
Figure 3

The vertical distribution of major elements of the Middle Jurassic shales in the drilling YQ-1 well, Yuqia coalfield, northern Qaidam Basin (SMG-U: upper Shimengou Formation; SMG-L: lower Shimengou Formation; DMG: Dameigou Formation. (a) SiO2; (b) Al2O3; (c) Fe2O3; (d) MgO; (e) CaO; (f) Na2O; (g) K2O; (h) MnO; (i) TiO2; (j) P2O5; (k) CIA).

4.2 Trace element characteristics

Each trace element and their combinations can be good indicators for determining provenance properties [12,25]. In order to analyze the enrichment characteristics of trace elements of the Middle Jurassic mudstones and shales in the northern Qaidam Basin, the distributions of most trace elements and their implications are shown aided by the standard cobweb drawings (Figure 4). The variations in the trace elements in the northern Qaidam Basin are basically similar between the Damengou and Shimengou shales. However, it should be noted that the elements consisting of Sc, Y, V, Cr, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, and Ba are relatively enriched in the Dameigou Formation, whereas other elements including Th, U, Nb, Ta, Zr, and Hf are relatively deficient in the Dameigou Formation (Table 2). Compared with the average trace element contents in the upper crust, several elements including Sc, Y, V, Cr, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Th, and U are relatively enriched, while Zn, Nb, Ta, Zr, and Hf elements are relatively deficient in the Middle Jurassic strata. These indicate that siderophile and chalcophile elements were significantly enriched in the study area during the Middle Jurassic period, while lithophile elements were relatively deficient.

Figure 4 Standardized cobweb diagram of trace elements in the Dameigou and Shimengou shales (UC, upper crust-normalized value of each trace element).
Figure 4

Standardized cobweb diagram of trace elements in the Dameigou and Shimengou shales (UC, upper crust-normalized value of each trace element).

Table 2

Trace element compositions of the Middle Jurassic mudstones and shales from the Yuqia coalfield, northern Qaidam Basin

Unit Sample number Sc Y Li Be V Cr Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Rb Sr Cs Ba Th U Nb Ta Zr Hf
Upper Shimengou Formation Y-1 11.9 27.1 30.2 1.75 76 58.3 16.6 56.6 55.2 58.4 16.5 79.1 454 5.29 492 12.9 4.12 8.3 0.659 78.8 2.44
Y-3 17.1 26.3 34.7 2.87 119 83.7 17.6 46.6 41.3 104 23.1 112 222 8.78 362 15.2 5.03 11.7 0.846 106 3.41
Y-5 7.2 17.2 13 0.822 80.5 57.1 11.3 28.7 65 66.6 8.94 50.4 688 3.64 519 8.03 5.74 4.55 0.322 42.1 1.27
Y-7 9.32 21.1 12.6 1.19 72 58 11.9 37.3 29.6 51.2 8.91 57.4 454 3.62 509 6.76 1.85 4.96 0.369 42.7 1.32
Y-9 19.6 38.9 45.9 3.94 129 126 32.7 98.5 57.4 113 24.3 148 115 11.9 516 18.7 4.3 13.7 1.01 116 3.5
Y-11 19.6 39.2 45.6 3.34 147 109 20.2 63.4 61.2 113 24.2 141 116 12.1 505 18.4 4.41 13.5 0.941 109 3.42
Y-13 21.7 40.7 51.1 3.1 134 119 28.1 75.5 68 137 25.6 149 118 13.9 522 21.4 5.74 14.5 1.03 124 3.66
Y-15 22.1 43.7 49.5 3.68 165 128 26.7 84.4 79 141 26.4 139 120 12.8 495 21.1 5.92 14.4 1.01 129 4.01
Y-17 23.2 39.5 49.3 3.63 168 140 29.3 70.2 67.9 132 26.7 132 240 11.7 882 22.5 5.48 13.8 0.983 118 3.63
Y-18 17.7 37.8 41.6 3.1 163 104 21.5 48.2 44.1 115 21.7 118 108 10.8 496 18 4.17 12.1 0.849 99.2 3.06
Y-20 25 42.7 56.7 3.33 178 147 33.5 79.9 73 142 28.7 140 132 12.8 536 25.6 7.11 15.1 1.04 132 4.2
Y-22 24.2 44 55.2 3.98 135 131 30.2 59.5 53.7 140 31.9 158 105 15.1 537 26 5.41 15.8 1.18 154 4.69
Y-24 24.1 44.7 60.1 3.48 145 108 27.1 53.7 45.3 137 29.2 141 254 14.9 610 27.4 5.21 16.4 1.22 153 4.69
Y-27 24.3 38.5 52.5 3.57 161 113 23.7 45.9 53.1 118 29.1 133 78.3 14.5 442 23.5 4.84 13.5 1.01 133 4.11
Lower Shimengou Formation Y-30 18.2 33.2 57.4 3.28 79.4 98.2 21.4 47.6 33.6 115 34.1 168 63.6 18.5 428 27.2 5.97 25.3 1.89 196 5.95
Y-32 27.6 59.6 71.4 4.47 183 145 8.39 31.4 75.3 87.3 39 181 133 26.3 394 30.9 9.33 18.3 1.43 200 5.93
Y-33 21.1 40.5 68.8 2.89 118 95.7 17.3 50 35.6 115 33.4 207 84.3 23.5 466 24.9 5.27 22.4 1.61 195 6.09
Y-34 17.5 28.6 37.7 2.37 77.9 76.6 32.3 36.4 26.7 80.5 22 175 71.9 19.6 707 19.5 4.84 25.2 1.81 345 10.1
Y-35 15.9 46.8 55.4 3.85 97.8 102 18.8 37.7 45.6 173 31.8 184 90.3 20 433 26.6 7.11 18.6 1.52 218 6.81
Y-36 19.4 40 58.3 2.85 93.9 103 30.2 55.8 46.5 123 33.5 187 100 21.8 491 26.8 8.14 24.4 1.81 238 7.26
Y-39 21.8 41.8 57.8 3.65 88.1 97.2 9.49 27.7 37.8 127 32.4 178 80.4 19.4 488 26.3 5.85 25.7 1.83 247 7.31
Y-41 16.2 44.2 48.7 3.69 93 74.1 32 48.3 40.5 161 32.4 167 77 14.8 453 29.1 7.79 25.3 2 243 7.12
Y-44 15.5 28.4 36.6 2.7 72 66.9 18.9 34.9 28.1 94.2 21.4 132 57.4 10.8 394 17.3 4.63 18.2 1.44 177 5.32
Y-47 17.7 27.9 52 2.69 107 75.8 5.7 25.3 29.5 86.3 30 184 66 24.9 438 23.6 4.89 21.9 1.68 183 5.75
Dameigou Formation Y-48 17.7 34.8 55.8 5.53 75.1 82 13.3 39.3 38.7 78.8 35.5 147 78.5 28.3 287 21.3 5.23 17.9 1.3 173 5.42
Y-49 15 38.1 45.2 2.73 88.5 81.3 11 21.1 36.2 129 27.5 147 137 12.6 464 23.3 5.18 22.8 1.65 229 6.67
Y-50 13.6 33.5 38.8 2.45 92.2 72.8 14.8 43.5 27.1 113 25.7 121 91.1 13.1 369 21.5 5.42 18.8 1.48 217 6.06
Y-51 15.5 25.1 94.7 2.89 105 71.8 12 35.7 48 136 35.5 168 126 28.5 404 18.5 4.19 24.7 2.05 186 5.68
Y-52 14.6 22.8 65.3 1.92 78.2 56.8 5.4 20.4 31.1 50 31.7 164 77.8 29.5 332 15.7 3.76 18.9 1.52 155 4.79
Y-53 20.3 37.3 45.9 4.1 124 104 19.2 48.5 42.6 192 30.9 161 180 18.9 498 24.4 6.11 23.4 1.79 223 6.56
Y-54 17.9 32.8 45.6 3.45 113 99.7 5.7 23.5 57.6 128 28.7 152 160 18.9 476 21.8 5.38 21.4 1.69 194 6.04

Sample number YQ-1-1 is abbreviated as Y-1; The units of these trace elements are µg/g.

4.3 Rare earth element characteristics

Rare earth elements mainly existed in detrital grains, which are more stable during the sedimentary process of mudstones/shales. They are not easily influenced by external factors, and can effectively reflect the provenance characteristics in the study area [26,27]. Therefore, it is possible to use rare earth elements to quantitatively analyze the physical properties of the sediments [28] and the changes in paleoclimate during the sedimentary period [29]. The rare earth elements of the Middle Jurassic shales in the northern Qaidam Basin are shown in Table 3. The average values of ∑REE, ∑LREE, ∑HREE, and ∑LREE/∑HREE in the Dameigou, lower Shimengou, and upper Shimengou shales are 236.12, 214.06, 22.07 µg/g, and 9.69; 276.60, 250.30, 26.29 µg/g, and 9.42; and 236.81, 212.35, 24.47 µg/g, and 8.55, respectively, indicating that the light rare earth elements are enriched and the heavy rare earth elements are deficient in the Middle Jurassic shales in the northern Qaidam Basin. The average values of La/Yb in the upper Shimengou, lower Shimengou, and Dameigou shales are 13.82, 15.07, and 15.73, respectively, suggesting that the accumulation ability of light rare earth elements in the upper Shimengou shales are lower than the lower Shimengou and Dameigou shales (Table 3). This enrichment of light rare earth and the deficiency of heavy rare earth are also found compared to the average rare earth element in the upper crust [30] (Figure 5). The La element is the most enriched among the light rare earth elements, while the Gd element is the most enriched among the heavy rare earth elements.

Table 3

Rare earth compositions of the Middle Jurassic mudstones and shales from the Yuqia coalfield, northern Qaidam Basin

Unit Sample number La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu ∑REE ∑LREE ∑HREE ∑LREE/∑HREE La/Yb
Upper Shimengou Formation Y-1 37.1 59 8.04 30.1 6.05 1.19 5.01 0.88 4.95 0.95 2.73 0.44 2.83 0.39 159.66 141.48 18.18 7.78 13.11
Y-3 40.2 62.4 8.93 34.3 6.34 1.31 5.51 0.93 5.11 0.96 2.71 0.44 2.8 0.4 172.34 153.48 18.86 8.14 14.36
Y-5 19.9 41.1 4.69 18.1 3.65 0.75 3.21 0.54 2.97 0.59 1.66 0.25 1.67 0.22 99.3 88.19 11.11 7.94 11.92
Y-7 24.7 46.5 5.44 20.8 4.01 0.86 3.77 0.63 3.46 0.69 1.95 0.31 2.06 0.29 115.47 102.31 13.16 7.77 11.99
Y-9 55.4 92.7 11.6 44.1 8.33 1.74 7.41 1.24 6.75 1.31 3.82 0.61 4.02 0.57 239.6 213.87 25.73 8.31 13.78
Y-11 50.3 87.6 11 43.8 8.44 1.7 7.25 1.26 6.44 1.28 3.6 0.6 3.88 0.57 227.72 202.84 24.88 8.15 12.96
Y-13 62.9 110 13.4 53.5 9.97 1.95 8.43 1.41 7.57 1.39 3.91 0.62 4.39 0.61 280.06 251.72 28.33 8.89 14.33
Y-15 63.1 119 14.1 53.1 9.93 1.92 8.78 1.47 7.8 1.48 4.11 0.71 4.47 0.66 290.63 261.15 29.48 8.86 14.12
Y-17 61.1 119 14.5 54.9 10.4 2.12 8.78 1.41 7.53 1.44 4.09 0.65 4.16 0.6 290.68 262.02 28.66 9.14 14.69
Y-18 47.1 84.6 10.7 41.2 7.96 1.53 6.9 1.19 6.2 1.23 3.44 0.58 3.65 0.54 216.82 193.09 23.73 8.14 12.90
Y-20 74.6 136 17 65.8 11.9 2.45 10.1 1.56 8.42 1.45 4.24 0.69 4.51 0.62 339.34 307.75 31.59 9.74 16.54
Y-22 64.4 120 14.8 57.3 10.4 1.96 8.71 1.48 7.94 1.52 4.33 0.71 4.49 0.67 298.71 268.86 29.85 9.01 14.34
Y-24 66.5 130 15.4 58.8 11.3 2.17 9.8 1.58 8.46 1.54 4.39 0.71 4.53 0.64 315.82 284.17 31.65 8.98 14.68
Y-27 59 107 13 51.7 9.35 1.85 8.01 1.32 7.06 1.35 4.02 0.64 4.29 0.63 269.22 241.9 27.32 8.85 13.75
Lower Shimengou Formation Y-30 57.9 101 12.4 46.8 8.37 1.38 7.34 1.2 6.38 1.16 3.37 0.54 3.62 0.52 251.98 227.85 24.13 9.44 15.99
Y-32 99.4 184 21.5 83.8 14.2 2.65 12.1 2.07 10.3 1.96 5.75 0.91 5.83 0.89 445.36 405.55 39.81 10.19 17.05
Y-33 57.7 102 11.9 45.8 8.12 1.5 6.94 1.23 6.75 1.3 3.72 0.62 4 0.57 252.15 227.02 25.13 9.03 14.43
Y-34 39.4 71.1 8.44 31.7 5.81 0.86 4.75 0.86 4.69 0.96 2.94 0.49 3.44 0.53 175.98 157.31 18.66 8.43 11.45
Y-35 79.8 163 19 75.4 14 2.39 11.2 1.85 9 1.58 4.45 0.66 4.27 0.65 387.25 353.59 33.66 10.50 18.69
Y-36 60.6 121 14.3 54.1 9.68 1.69 8 1.45 7.54 1.36 3.88 0.61 4.06 0.56 288.83 261.37 27.46 9.52 14.93
Y-39 58.4 106 12.9 49.7 8.77 1.68 8.06 1.34 7.39 1.39 3.98 0.66 4.5 0.68 265.45 237.45 28 8.48 12.98
Y-41 66.5 126 15.5 59.5 10.6 1.88 8.5 1.45 7.53 1.47 4.18 0.66 4.21 0.63 308.6 279.98 28.63 9.78 15.80
Y-44 42.7 78 9.21 34.7 6.15 1.14 5.11 0.92 4.89 0.95 2.85 0.48 3.1 0.43 190.63 171.9 18.73 9.18 13.77
Y-47 47.1 79.5 9.93 37 6.31 1.14 5.29 0.95 4.82 0.98 2.8 0.45 3.01 0.43 199.72 180.98 18.73 9.66 15.65
Dameigou Formation Y-48 61.8 111 14.4 55.5 9.82 1.78 8 1.38 6.95 1.28 3.62 0.58 3.71 0.55 280.37 254.3 26.07 9.75 16.66
Y-49 57.1 109 11.8 45.7 8.37 1.41 6.45 1.19 6.32 1.25 3.58 0.61 3.84 0.55 257.17 233.38 23.79 9.81 14.87
Y-50 51 104 11.6 44.9 7.91 1.39 6.32 1.15 5.88 1.13 3.31 0.54 3.39 0.48 243 220.8 22.2 9.95 15.04
Y-51 49.8 77.3 10 36.5 5.84 0.96 4.82 0.87 4.7 0.9 2.67 0.44 2.73 0.42 197.95 180.4 17.55 10.28 18.24
Y-52 37.5 57.5 7.33 26 4.35 0.76 3.88 0.73 3.8 0.79 2.2 0.38 2.45 0.35 148.01 133.44 14.58 9.15 15.31
Y-53 59.2 118 13.6 54.6 10.1 1.79 8.22 1.43 7.01 1.34 3.75 0.64 3.95 0.55 284.18 257.29 26.89 9.57 14.99
Y-54 51.9 100 11.9 45.2 8.29 1.51 6.97 1.22 6.25 1.13 3.32 0.54 3.46 0.5 242.19 218.8 23.39 9.35 15.00

Sample number YQ-1-1 is abbreviated as Y-1; The units of these rare earth elements are µg/g.

Figure 5 Standardized cobweb diagram of rare earth elements in the Middle Jurassic shales (Chondrite, chondrite-normalized value of each rare earth element).
Figure 5

Standardized cobweb diagram of rare earth elements in the Middle Jurassic shales (Chondrite, chondrite-normalized value of each rare earth element).

5 Discussion

5.1 Chemical weathering and its implication for paleoclimate

The average CIA value of the Middle Jurassic shales in northern Qaidam Basin is 89.26% with 88.95% in the Dameigou Formation, 87.15% in the lower Shimengou Formation, and 85.65% in the upper Shimengou Formation. The maximum value of CIA occurs in the Dameigou Formation with a value of 90.44%, and the minimum value of CIA is found in the upper Shimengou Formation with a value of 74.67% (Table 1 and Figure 6). These indicate that the weathering degree of the Middle Jurassic shales in the northern Qaidam Basin is relatively high and the chemical weathering degree from the Dameigou Formation to the upper part of the Shimengou Formation has a decreasing trend during the deposition process (Figure 6). The different combinations of Al, K, Rb, and Ga elements in the shales can also be used to analyze the chemical weathering intensity and the characteristics of paleoclimatical changes in the sedimentary period [31]. The Al and Ga elements are mainly associated with the composition of fine-grained aluminosilicate and are enriched in kaolinite minerals representing warm and humid climate [32]. The K and Rb elements are closely related to illite, with higher values representing a weaker chemical weathering intensity under an arid, wet, and cold climate [32]. Therefore, illite-rich sediments should have low Ga/Rb and high K2O/Al2O3 ratios, while kaolinite-rich sediments have high Ga/Rb and low K2O/Al2O3 ratios [31]. In this study, the Ga/Rb ratios in the mudstones/shales generally decrease from the Dameigou Formation to the upper part of the Shimengou Formation, whereas the K2O/Al2O3 ratios show an opposite trend (Figure 7), revealing a gradual shift from a warm and humid to a cold and dry paleoclimatic condition during the Middle Jurassic. It is worth noting that the Ga/Rb and K2O/Al2O3 ratios in the lower and upper Shimengou Formation shales belong to a mostly fluctuating trend, not an abrupt change (Figure 7). Combined with previous studies [4,33], the paleoclimate was changed from warm and humid to cold and dry in the early Middle Jurassic and then it changed into hot and arid in the late Middle Jurassic. In this study, there is a coal seam with thickness higher than 8 m in the Dameigou Formation, but it changes into a thin layer and directly disappears in the upper Shimengou Formation (Figure 2). Meanwhile, the lithology of the Upper Jurassic is mostly covered with red sand conglomerates [33,34,35], which also confirms that the depositional period was shifted from a warm and humid in the early stage to a cold and dry in the middle stage and then to a hot and arid paleoclimate in the late stage.

Figure 6 Al2O3–CaO* + Na2O–K2O(A–CN–K）ternary diagram showing the changes in chemical compositions and weathering degree in the Dameigou and Shimengou shales.
Figure 6

Al2O3–CaO* + Na2O–K2O(A–CN–K）ternary diagram showing the changes in chemical compositions and weathering degree in the Dameigou and Shimengou shales.

Figure 7 Chemical weathering intensity and paleoclimate evolution of the Middle Jurassic shales in the Yuqia coalfield, northern Qaidam Basin (Ga/Rb vs. K2O/Al2O3). The samples from Dameigou Formation are restricted in the range of Ga/Rb higher than 0.187 and K2O/Al2O3 lower than 0.1167.
Figure 7

Chemical weathering intensity and paleoclimate evolution of the Middle Jurassic shales in the Yuqia coalfield, northern Qaidam Basin (Ga/Rb vs. K2O/Al2O3). The samples from Dameigou Formation are restricted in the range of Ga/Rb higher than 0.187 and K2O/Al2O3 lower than 0.1167.

5.2 Provenance analyses

The sedimentary provenance is generally analyzed using several indicators consisting of framework petrography, heavy minerals, and element geochemistry [36,37,38]. The source rock types of sedimentary rocks can be largely determined using the La/Yb-∑REE diagram in shales [39]. Most samples in the study area are distributed in the mixed area between granite and alkaline basalt, with a few samples falling in the intersection area of sedimentary rock and alkaline basalt (Figure 8a). Therefore, it is considered that the provenance of the Middle Jurassic strata in the study area was mainly from alkaline basalts and granites, with a few from sedimentary rocks. Based on the relationship between La/Th and Hf [40], the distributions of the shale samples in the study area are relatively concentrated, indicating that the parent rock types tended to be consistent. The provenances were mainly from felsic rocks and mixed sources of felsic rocks and basic rocks, with a few from the upper crust (Figure 8b). Specifically, a vertical change rule of the source rocks from bottom to top can also be found, with the upper crust and felsic sources in the Dameigou Formation, felsic sources in the lower Shimengou Formation, and with the mixed sources of felsic rocks and basic rocks in the upper Shimengou Formation (Figure 8b). This indicates that a great change would be effected for the tectonic background in the northern Qaidam Basin.

Figure 8 Discrimination diagrams for provenance attribute of the Middle Jurassic shales in the Yuqia coalfield, northern Qaidam Basin (a) with the base map after Allègre and Minster [39], (b) with the base map after Floyd and Leveridge [40].
Figure 8

Discrimination diagrams for provenance attribute of the Middle Jurassic shales in the Yuqia coalfield, northern Qaidam Basin (a) with the base map after Allègre and Minster [39], (b) with the base map after Floyd and Leveridge [40].

5.3 Tectonic background discrimination

Based on the discriminant diagram of SiO2–K2O/Na2O proposed by Roser and Korsch [41], most of the samples fall in the region of passive continental margin except for a few samples which belong to the active continental margin and the oceanic/continental island arc peripheral regions in the upper Shimengou Formation (Figure 9a). This indicates that the tectonic background of the source rocks in the Middle Jurassic Dameigou and Shimengou formations is mostly characterized by passive continental margin. A few samples fall in the active continental margin and oceanic/continental island arc area, which are mainly attributed to low SiO2 contents, probably caused by weathering [20]. In addition, based on the distribution characteristics of each sample point, the tectonic background generally changed from the passive continental margin of the Dameigou Formation to the active continental margin and the oceanic island arc of the Upper Shimengou Formation (Figure 9a). According to the La–Th–Sc trace element discriminative tectonic background illustration proposed by Bhatia [42], the samples from the Middle Jurassic strata of YQ-1 well in the Yuqia coalfield are shown in the La–Th–Sc triangle map. The results show that the samples from the upper Shimengou Formation fall in the continental island arc region, and the Dameigou shales fall in the active and the passive continental margin regions (Figure 9b). It should be noted that the lower Shimengou shales are found in both these regions. Therefore, the tectonic settings of the Middle Jurassic Dameigou Formation in the study area were mostly characterized by passive or active continental margin, but the Shimengou period showed a tendency shifting to the continental island arc region.

Figure 9 Discrimination diagrams for tectonic setting of the Middle Jurassic shales in the Yuqia coalfield, northern Qaidam Basin (a) with the base map after Roser et al. [41], (b) with the base map after Bhatia [42]; A–SiO2–K2O/Na2O; B–La–Th–Sc; CTIA: continental island arc; OIA: oceanic island arc; ACM: active continental margin; PM: passive continental margin.
Figure 9

Discrimination diagrams for tectonic setting of the Middle Jurassic shales in the Yuqia coalfield, northern Qaidam Basin (a) with the base map after Roser et al. [41], (b) with the base map after Bhatia [42]; A–SiO2–K2O/Na2O; B–La–Th–Sc; CTIA: continental island arc; OIA: oceanic island arc; ACM: active continental margin; PM: passive continental margin.

5.4 Indication for the tectonic, climatic, and depositional system

There are several various rules for the tectonics, paleoenvironmental, and paleoclimatic evolution from the Middle Jurassic Dameigou Formation to Shimengou Formation in the northern Qaidam Basin. These changes were generally characterized by a shift in the tectonic setting from the passive continental margin to the active continental margin and oceanic island arc; a shift in rock sources from the upper crust and felsic rocks to the mixed felsic rocks and basic rocks; and a shift in paleoclimate from warm and humid to cold and dry and then to hot and arid. The relevant sedimentary facies were shifted from peatlands in the deltaic floodplain to mudstones in shallow lakes and oil shales in semi-deep lakes [1,2]. During the Jurassic, the Qaidam Basin was surrounded by the Tethys Ocean, Qiangtang Massif, Tarim Block, North China Craton, and Yangzi Block (Figure 10). Thus, the paleoclimatic and paleogeographic evolution of the Qaidam Basin were closely related to these paleo-oceanic and ancient plate activities [43,44]. In the early Middle Jurassic, the different movements of the Qiangtang Massif and the North China Craton resulted in a tectonic extensional environment in the northern Qaidam Basin [43]. This tectonic background corresponded to a passive continental margin, and the provenance directions mainly came from the northern and western parts of northern Qaidam Basin [2], which mainly provided upper crust and felsic rocks as the source rock types (Figures 8 and 10). At the same time, the overall topography of the Qaidam Basin was low, and the water vapor from the Tethys Ocean led the study region to be wet and rainy [33], which provided favorable conditions for the formation of thick coal seams under these warm and humid climates. Therefore, the abundant coal and coalbed methane resources were found in the Middle Jurassic Dameigou Formation [45,46]. In the late Middle Jurassic, a remarkable lift caused by the extrusion and collision of the Tarim Block in the west and the Qiangtang Massif in the south, blocked the transport of the Tethys Ocean monsoon [33] and the temperature of the region greatly increased under the influence of the dry climate zone and the strengthening global greenhouse effect [47], which resulted in a hot and arid climate stage. The Shimengou shales and oil shales were well deposited in the prevailed lacustrine paleoenvironments under these paleoclimates [48]. Plate extrusion and collision simultaneously causing the development of island arc and the upwelling of basic and ultrabasic iron with magnesium-rich magma, finally resulted in the oceanic island arc in tectonic background as well as the mixed felsic rocks and basic rocks in rock sources during the late Middle Jurassic (Figures 8 and 10).

Figure 10 Model showing the evolution for tectonic, climatic, and depositional system from early to late Middle Jurassic in the northern Qaidam Basin. (a) Early Middle Jurassic and (b) Late Middle Jurassic.
Figure 10

Model showing the evolution for tectonic, climatic, and depositional system from early to late Middle Jurassic in the northern Qaidam Basin. (a) Early Middle Jurassic and (b) Late Middle Jurassic.

6 Conclusion

  1. Based on the analyses of elemental geochemistry and the lithological changes, the paleoclimate of the Middle Jurassic in the northern Qaidam Basin was shifted from warm and humid in the early stage to cold and dry in the middle stage and then to hot and arid in the late stage.

  2. The vertical changes in trace and rare earth elements in the samples suggest that the Middle Jurassic tectonic background of the northern Qaidam Basin was changed from passive continental margin to active continental margin and oceanic island arc, and the corresponding rock sources were changed from the upper crust and felsic rocks to the mixed felsic rocks and basic rocks.

  3. Due to the passive continental margin of tectonic background during the early Middle Jurassic, there was a warm and humid paleoclimate caused by the extensional tectonics and the water vapor input from the Tethys Ocean. The late Middle Jurassic extrusion resulted in the development of island arc and blocked the monsoon input, making the tectonic background of this period tending to be oceanic island arc with a hot and arid paleoclimate.

  4. Since elemental geochemistry can only provide qualitative study results, it is difficult to vertically determine the degree of paleoclimatical dryness, wetness, and cooling. Therefore, it is suggested that more quantitative geochemical parameters such as carbon, oxygen isotopes, and organic carbon isotopes can be used in later studies to deeply investigate the tectonic-climatic responses to the sediment changes.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to Professor Huan Li and other anonymous reviewers for their careful comments to improve our article.

  1. Funding information: This research work was supported by the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (2021M693844), the Discipline Innovation Team of Liaoning Technical University (LNTU20TD-05; LNTU20TD-14; LNTU20TD-30), the Guiding Program of Liaoning Natural Science Funds (2019-ZD-0046), and the Scientific Research Funding Project of Liaoning Education Department (LJ2019JL004).

  2. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2021-08-08
Revised: 2021-10-29
Accepted: 2021-11-08
Published Online: 2021-11-25

© 2021 Haihai Hou et al., published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/geo-2020-0318
Keywords for this article
northern Qaidam Basin; middle Jurassic; element geochemistry; weathering; paleoclimate
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Regular Articles
  2. Lithopetrographic and geochemical features of the Saalian tills in the Szczerców outcrop (Poland) in various deformation settings
  3. Spatiotemporal change of land use for deceased in Beijing since the mid-twentieth century
  4. Geomorphological immaturity as a factor conditioning the dynamics of channel processes in Rządza River
  5. Modeling of dense well block point bar architecture based on geological vector information: A case study of the third member of Quantou Formation in Songliao Basin
  6. Predicting the gas resource potential in reservoir C-sand interval of Lower Goru Formation, Middle Indus Basin, Pakistan
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  8. Assessment of Chlorophyll-a concentration from Sentinel-3 satellite images at the Mediterranean Sea using CMEMS open source in situ data
  9. Spatiotemporal evolution of single sandbodies controlled by allocyclicity and autocyclicity in the shallow-water braided river delta front of an open lacustrine basin
  10. Research and application of seismic porosity inversion method for carbonate reservoir based on Gassmann’s equation
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  13. Comparative application of photogrammetry, handmapping and android smartphone for geotechnical mapping and slope stability analysis
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  15. The timing of Barleik Formation and its implication for the Devonian tectonic evolution of Western Junggar, NW China
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  76. Spatial modeling of ground subsidence susceptibility along Al-Shamal train pathway in Saudi Arabia
  77. Pore throat characteristics of tight reservoirs by a combined mercury method: A case study of the member 2 of Xujiahe Formation in Yingshan gasfield, North Sichuan Basin
  78. Geochemistry of the mudrocks and sandstones from the Bredasdorp Basin, offshore South Africa: Implications for tectonic provenance and paleoweathering
  79. Apriori association rule and K-means clustering algorithms for interpretation of pre-event landslide areas and landslide inventory mapping
  80. Lithology classification of volcanic rocks based on conventional logging data of machine learning: A case study of the eastern depression of Liaohe oil field
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  84. Research on the traditional zoning, evolution, and integrated conservation of village cultural landscapes based on “production-living-ecology spaces” – A case study of villages in Meicheng, Guangdong, China
  85. A prediction method for water enrichment in aquifer based on GIS and coupled AHP–entropy model
  86. Earthflow reactivation assessment by multichannel analysis of surface waves and electrical resistivity tomography: A case study
  87. Geologic structures associated with gold mineralization in the Kirk Range area in Southern Malawi
  88. Research on the impact of expressway on its peripheral land use in Hunan Province, China
  89. Concentrations of heavy metals in PM2.5 and health risk assessment around Chinese New Year in Dalian, China
  90. Origin of carbonate cements in deep sandstone reservoirs and its significance for hydrocarbon indication: A case of Shahejie Formation in Dongying Sag
  91. Coupling the K-nearest neighbors and locally weighted linear regression with ensemble Kalman filter for data-driven data assimilation
  92. Multihazard susceptibility assessment: A case study – Municipality of Štrpce (Southern Serbia)
  93. A full-view scenario model for urban waterlogging response in a big data environment
  94. Elemental geochemistry of the Middle Jurassic shales in the northern Qaidam Basin, northwestern China: Constraints for tectonics and paleoclimate
  95. Geometric similarity of the twin collapsed glaciers in the west Tibet
  96. Improved gas sand facies classification and enhanced reservoir description based on calibrated rock physics modelling: A case study
  97. Utilization of dolerite waste powder for improving geotechnical parameters of compacted clay soil
  98. Geochemical characterization of the source rock intervals, Beni-Suef Basin, West Nile Valley, Egypt
  99. Satellite-based evaluation of temporal change in cultivated land in Southern Punjab (Multan region) through dynamics of vegetation and land surface temperature
  100. Ground motion of the Ms7.0 Jiuzhaigou earthquake
  101. Shale types and sedimentary environments of the Upper Ordovician Wufeng Formation-Member 1 of the Lower Silurian Longmaxi Formation in western Hubei Province, China
  102. An era of Sentinels in flood management: Potential of Sentinel-1, -2, and -3 satellites for effective flood management
  103. Water quality assessment and spatial–temporal variation analysis in Erhai lake, southwest China
  104. Dynamic analysis of particulate pollution in haze in Harbin city, Northeast China
  105. Comparison of statistical and analytical hierarchy process methods on flood susceptibility mapping: In a case study of the Lake Tana sub-basin in northwestern Ethiopia
  106. Performance comparison of the wavenumber and spatial domain techniques for mapping basement reliefs from gravity data
  107. Spatiotemporal evolution of ecological environment quality in arid areas based on the remote sensing ecological distance index: A case study of Yuyang district in Yulin city, China
  108. Petrogenesis and tectonic significance of the Mengjiaping beschtauite in the southern Taihang mountains
  109. Review Articles
  110. The significance of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis on the microstructure of improved clay: An overview
  111. A review of some nonexplosive alternative methods to conventional rock blasting
  112. Retrieval of digital elevation models from Sentinel-1 radar data – open applications, techniques, and limitations
  113. A review of genetic classification and characteristics of soil cracks
  114. Potential CO2 forcing and Asian summer monsoon precipitation trends during the last 2,000 years
  115. Erratum
  116. Erratum to “Calibration of the depth invariant algorithm to monitor the tidal action of Rabigh City at the Red Sea Coast, Saudi Arabia”
  117. Rapid Communication
  118. Individual tree detection using UAV-lidar and UAV-SfM data: A tutorial for beginners
  119. Technical Note
  120. Construction and application of the 3D geo-hazard monitoring and early warning platform
  121. Enhancing the success of new dams implantation under semi-arid climate, based on a multicriteria analysis approach: Case of Marrakech region (Central Morocco)
  122. TRANSFORMATION OF TRADITIONAL CULTURAL LANDSCAPES - Koper 2019
  123. The “changing actor” and the transformation of landscapes
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