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Electric discharge method of synthesis of carbon and metal–carbon nanomaterials

  • Natalya Ivanivna Kuskova , Olha Mykolaivna Syzonenko and Andrii Serhiyovuch Torpakov EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: August 10, 2020
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High Temperature Materials and Processes
From the journal High Temperature Materials and Processes Volume 39 Issue 1

Abstract

The current state and prospective of electric discharge methods of synthesis of carbon and metal–carbon nanomaterials (CNMs) in different areas of science, technology and industry are considered in the present paper. It was shown that as a result of electric discharge treatment of liquid hydrocarbons, the productivity of CNMs (namely, onion-like carbon, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers and carbon thin films) in terms of the percentage of carbon, released from initial liquid as a nanomaterial, was 6.1% for pentane, 10.2% for hexane, 8.7% for cyclopentane, 14.4% for cyclohexane, 12.0% for benzene and 16.8% for kerosene. Component and phase composition of obtained products depends on the electrode material and composition of initial hydrocarbon liquid.

Keywords: high-voltage electric discharge; carbon nanomaterial; metal–carbon nanomaterial; organic liquids; metal powders

1 Introduction

Unique electric, strength, optical and magnetic properties of such carbon nanomaterials (CNMs), as fullerenes, onion-like carbon (OLC), carbon nanotubes (CNTs), carbon nanofibers (CNFs) and carbon thin films allow their usage in different areas of science, technology and industry. Recently new nanoforms of carbon as well as the so-called carbon–carbon nanocomposites, which have their own atomic structures, sizes and morphology and display a large variety of physical and chemical properties, were predicted and synthesized [1,2,3,4,5,6].

The main areas of CNM applications are electronics, medicine, chemistry, pharmaceutics and biology. Nevertheless, the issue of the selection method of obtaining CNMs becomes very important while considering the prospective of different applications of CNMs. The following criteria for evaluating the methods of different CNM synthesis can be highlighted, namely, low cost of CNMs, the efficiency of processing raw materials and the controllability of the synthesis process. All these criteria are met in the application of electric discharge methods, which are based on plasmochemical and thermodynamic processes of synthesis of carbon nanostructures from the plasma that contains carbon.

Compared to other known methods of obtaining CNMs (electric arc, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), detonation, etc.), the electric discharge method is characterized by the easiness of electric discharge parameter variation, which allows changing the synthesis conditions in a wide range as well as by the fact that there is no need to create special conditions in the reactors (vacuum, usage of inert gases, etc.). It is worth noting that the creation of effective technologies of OLC is of high practical interest. different methods of OLC formation are known, namely, physical vapor deposition, nanodiamond annealing, carbon black irradiation by electrons, implantation of carbon ions in the metallic matrix and explosion. However, all of them either have low productivity or have high cost of obtained OLC.

For example, according to [7], the productivity of CNM synthesis using CVD method varies from 0.45 to 100 g/h depending on the peculiarities of the used technology, catalysts, precursors and equipment. As the power consumption of CVD devices varies from 300 W to 4 kW, the energy cost of CNM synthesized by CVD varies ranging from 1 MJ/kg to 32 GJ/kg.

The possibility of the usage of high-voltage electric discharge treatment (EDT) method of metal powders in organic liquids aimed at their dispersion and change of their phase composition, namely, the synthesis of metal carbides, was shown in [8,9,10]. The characteristic feature of this method is the multifactoriality of treatment [8], which includes thermal impact of low-temperature plasma of discharge channel and hydrodynamic impact on processed medium. Energy cost of CNM synthesis using the EDT method is ∼10 MJ/kg, which is less than the energy cost of most CNM synthesized by CVD. Moreover, the EDT method uses less costly equipment and reagents and does not require catalyzers, making it even more economically effective compared to CVD in all known cases [7,11].

The tasks of process control aimed at the increase in productivity and the increase in raw material processing efficiency are urgent for the development of technology of electric discharge synthesis of carbon and metal-CNMs. The solution of these tasks is possible by the development of ideas on the mechanisms of electric discharge synthesis of different nanomaterials as well as by conduction of studies of the regularities of production of synthesized materials based on the selected organic raw materials and the technological conditions of synthesis.

The goal of the present work is to analyze the possibility of aimed synthesis of carbon and metal-CNMs of a given phase composition as a result of EDT of organic liquids, metal powders and formed gases.

2 Experimental

Organic liquids, which belong to aromatic compounds (benzene), cycloalkanes (cyclopentane and cyclohexane), alkanes (pentane and hexane) as well as the mixture of aromatic compounds, alkanes and cycloalkanes (kerosene), were selected as a raw material for these studies.

The energy of σ bond in C–C molecules of cycloalkanes is few times higher than the energy of C–H bond; thus, the process of dehydrogenation (the removal of hydrogen) is more possible as a result of EDT, while the destruction of molecules (breaking of C–C bonds) leads to the formation of alkanes. Alkanes break apart at the temperature of 450–700°C due to the breakage of C═C π bonds, which leads to the formation of alkanes and alkenes with fewer carbon atoms. EDT of alkanes leads to the formation of large variety of gaseous hydrocarbons. Higher temperature (over 1,000°C) leads to not only the breakage of the C═C π bonds but the breakage of more durable C–H bonds as well.

Dissociation of hydrocarbon molecules with the formation of charged clusters and hydrogen ions occurs in strong electric fields, while the thermal impact of electric discharge currents leads to changes in orbital hybridization of carbon atoms from sp3 to sp2. Part of C–C σ bonds can remain after the EDT of cycloalkanes, which can lead to the formation of sp2/sp3 nanocomposites.

Results of gas chromatography and the measurement of refractive indexes of treated alkanes and aromatic compounds show the presence of intermediate compounds. They can be arranged in following sequences by order of their concentration decrease:

hexane (C6H14) → toluene (C7H8) → phenylacetylene (C8H6) → styrene (C8H8) → ethylbenzene (C8H10) → benzene (C6H6) → naphthalene (C10H8);

benzene (C6H6) → biphenyl (C12H10) → 1.4-biethynyl-benzene (C10H6) → fluorene (C13H10) → fluoranthene (C16H10) [10].

The structures of the molecules of such intermediate EDT products, as naphthalene and anthracene, contain benzene rings, while the atom bonds in molecules of fluorene and fluoranthene form pentagons and hexagons that are similar to fullerenes structure. Their subsequent dehydrogenation and enlargement of similar structures during EDT lead to the formation of graphite-like or fullerene-like CNM, respectively.

Thus, EDT of hydrocarbon liquids leads to the series of chemical transformations, which include destruction, dehydrogenation and polymerization (formation of new C–C bonds). Qualitative and quantitative composition of all EDT products (gaseous, insoluble solid CNM and compounds, dissolved in initial liquid) can vary in wide range and is largely dependent on the type of raw materials.

As the EDT of liquid hydrocarbons results in the formation of lower acyclic gaseous hydrocarbons mixture, in order to achieve the higher utilization of raw materials, simultaneous treatment of liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons in two discharge chambers, connected with venting pipeline, was realized (see Figure 1).

Figure 1 The schematic of the experimental setup for the synthesis of CNM: 1 – container with organic liquid; 2 – discharge chamber for treatment of liquid phase; 3 – filter for filtering liquid phase; 4 – discharge chamber for treatment of gaseous phase; 5 – filter for filtering gaseous phase; 6 – pyrolysis reactor.
Figure 1

The schematic of the experimental setup for the synthesis of CNM: 1 – container with organic liquid; 2 – discharge chamber for treatment of liquid phase; 3 – filter for filtering liquid phase; 4 – discharge chamber for treatment of gaseous phase; 5 – filter for filtering gaseous phase; 6 – pyrolysis reactor.

Organic liquid was transferred from the container (see Figure 1, pos. 1) to the discharge chamber (see Figure 1, pos. 2), where the series of electric discharges with fixed frequency of pulses was realized. Gaseous phase, which formed in this chamber during treatment, was transferred to the second discharge chamber (see Figure 1, pos. 4), where EDT of gaseous phase was performed with the same frequency of pulses. Carbon materials formed in both chambers during the treatment were deposited on filters (see Figure 1, pos. 3 and 5). Depleted gaseous phase was transferred to the pyrolysis reactor (see Figure 1, pos. 6).

The efficient regimes for EDT of organic liquids in the flow through mode (continuous flow of the liquid at a rate ranging from 1 to 3 dm3/s, voltage ranging from 40 to 50 kV, pulses passing frequency ranging from 4 to 15 Hz and stored energy of single pulse ranging from 0.02 to 0.2 kJ), as well as for EDT of produced gases (voltage ranging from 30 to 40 kV, pulses passing frequency ranging from 10 to 25 Hz and stored energy of single pulse ranging from 0.05 to 0.1 kJ), are found [12].

3 Results and discussion

3.1 EDT of organic liquids

CNMs with developed surface (SBET ∼ 50–300 m2/g) were synthesized as a result of liquid hydrocarbons EDT on this setup. Individual particles had a spherical shape and sizes ranging from 10 to 20 nm. High-definition electron microscopy indicates complex morphology of individual particles, which depends on the carbon source type. For example, microphotographs of CNM, obtained from the EDT of benzene, clearly show layered structure with characteristic distance between separate layers of ∼3.5 nm (see Figure 2a). However, in case of using cyclohexane, the morphology of particles becomes noticeably more complicated. It can be clearly seen in Figure 2b that in the structure consists of a core with a size of ∼5 nm, which is surrounded by shell that consists of ∼5 layers with a distance of (0.332 ± 0.001) nm between them (graphite interlayer distance is 0.3354 nm). Such a “core–shell” structure is characteristic of OLC [13].

Figure 2 Typical high-resolution microphotographs of the products of hydrocarbons EDT: a – benzene; b – cyclohexane.
Figure 2

Typical high-resolution microphotographs of the products of hydrocarbons EDT: a – benzene; b – cyclohexane.

Electric discharges are inevitably accompanied by electrode erosion and, as a result, by inclusion of electrode material metal particles into the products used for synthesis.

Analysis of the microphotographs of thin sections of electrodes (see Figure 3a), the roughness of surface of which is caused by microprotrusions (dm ∼ 160 µm), was performed in work [14]. When the voltage is applied to positive electrode, the presence of microprotrusion leads to significant local increase in electric field intensity E (see Figure 3b). It was found that at the voltage of U0 = 50 kV, the electric intensity near the positive electrode reaches the value of E > 5 × 107 V/m, which ensures the development of plasma channels from microprotrusions that lead to a discharge. Release of heat energy in the discharge channel and the rise of temperature (T > 10,000 K) during the time of few microseconds lead to melting and explosive evaporation of microprotrusions.

Figure 3 The impact of microprotrusions on electrode surface on the electric field intensity: (a) microphotograph of thin section of electrode and (b) the dependence of electric field intensity on the distance from microprotrusion.
Figure 3

The impact of microprotrusions on electrode surface on the electric field intensity: (a) microphotograph of thin section of electrode and (b) the dependence of electric field intensity on the distance from microprotrusion.

In order to study the impact of erosion on the composition of the products of cyclohexane EDT (stored energy of W = 28.8 J), electrodes, made from different materials (titanium, aluminum, cuprum, niobium), were used.

SEM photographs and composition of composite materials obtained by cyclohexane EDT using electrodes made of aluminum are shown in Figure 4. It can be seen that these specimens are relatively homogeneous (see Figure 4 and Table 1) due to their elementary composition and are the disperse system of “solid sol” type with nanosized carbon matrix and polydisperse metal phase. Maximal size of erosion products is not higher than 10 µm.

Figure 4 Microphotograph of nanocarbon–aluminum composite material.
Figure 4

Microphotograph of nanocarbon–aluminum composite material.

Table 1

Chemical composition (mass%) of areas noted in Figure 4

MemoCAlTotal
2053.8346.17100
2132.4367.57100
2226.1673.84100
2341.1558.85100
2443.7056.30100
2540.3459.66100
2658.4041.60100
2751.6848.32100
2842.4857.52100

Microphotographs and chemical composition of the obtained nanomaterials indicate the significant content of particles with shape, close to spherical, which are formed as a result of electrode erosion. Results of X-ray diffraction phase analysis (see Figure 5) indicate the phase composition of nanomaterial obtained while using aluminum-made electrodes – amorphous carbon, Al and its Al4C3 carbide.

Figure 5 X-ray diffraction pattern of the products of cyclohexane EDT while using aluminum-made electrodes.
Figure 5

X-ray diffraction pattern of the products of cyclohexane EDT while using aluminum-made electrodes.

Photographs of nanocomposite material, obtained by EDT of cyclohexane using Niobium-made electrodes, are shown in Figure 6. Chemical composition of the obtained powder are given in Table 2.

Figure 6 Microphotographs of powder obtained by EDT of cyclohexane using niobium-made electrodes with different magnification. (a) Microstructure, (b) nanostructure.
Figure 6

Microphotographs of powder obtained by EDT of cyclohexane using niobium-made electrodes with different magnification. (a) Microstructure, (b) nanostructure.

Table 2

Chemical composition (mass%) of areas noted in Figure 6a

MemoCNbTotal
3668.4331.57100
3766.8633.14100
3873.3026.70100
3992.827.18100

X-ray diffraction pattern of products of cyclohexane EDT (see Figure 7), obtained while using niobium-made electrodes, indicates the synthesis of amorphous carbon and niobium carbide.

Figure 7 X-ray diffraction pattern of the products of cyclohexane EDT while using niobium-made electrodes.
Figure 7

X-ray diffraction pattern of the products of cyclohexane EDT while using niobium-made electrodes.

While using electrodes made of aluminum and titanium, the X-ray diffraction phase analysis (see Figure 8) indicates that the electric discharge processes in cyclohexane lead to the synthesis of aluminum and titanium carbides. Phase composition of the obtained nanomaterials are amorphous carbon, Al, Al4C3 and TiC carbides.

Figure 8 X-ray diffraction pattern of the products of cyclohexane EDT while using electrodes made from aluminum and titanium.
Figure 8

X-ray diffraction pattern of the products of cyclohexane EDT while using electrodes made from aluminum and titanium.

According to results of X-ray diffraction phase analysis, the use of electrodes made of cuprum and titanium electric discharge processes in cyclohexane only lead to the synthesis of titanium carbide, as cuprum is not one of carbide-forming elements (see Figure 9). Phase composition of obtained nanomaterial are amorphous carbon, Cu, TiC and titanium carbide.

Figure 9 X-ray diffraction pattern of the products of cyclohexane EDT while using electrodes made from cuprum and titanium.
Figure 9

X-ray diffraction pattern of the products of cyclohexane EDT while using electrodes made from cuprum and titanium.

Thus, component and phase compositions of EDT products largely depend on electrodes material, the content of which in treatment products depends on stored energy. Synthesis of metal–carbon materials in the process of EDT of liquid hydrocarbons, which is connected to electrode erosion, shows the possibility of chemical reactions between carbide-forming metals and carbon clusters.

3.2 EDT of formed gases

Ck carbon clusters are the products of gases EDT, and agglomeration of which in discharge chamber volume leads to the synthesis of amorphous carbon. Different structures of CNM (namely CNF, CNT or thin films), which are synthesized from the mixture of formed gases on the substrates, are obtained from different materials. Catalytically active nickel nanoparticles were deposited by electric explosion of conductors on brass mesh of 0.1 mm thickness and cell size of 1 × 1 mm in order to synthesize CNTs. Silicon and quartz were used as a catalytic surface for the synthesis and deposition of carbon thin films [15].

CNMs, synthesized on nickel-made catalyzer, consist of CNTs and CNFs (see Figures 10 and 11), which fully cover the surface of the catalyzer. The size of the obtained nanotubes and nanofibers depends on the dispersity of the catalyzer.

Figure 10 Electron microphotograph of CNT obtained from gases that are synthesized during cyclohexane EDT.
Figure 10

Electron microphotograph of CNT obtained from gases that are synthesized during cyclohexane EDT.

Figure 11 Electron microphotograph of CNT obtained from gases that are synthesized during kerosene EDT.
Figure 11

Electron microphotograph of CNT obtained from gases that are synthesized during kerosene EDT.

Synthesis of nanocarbon from gases that are formed during EDT of liquid alkanes and cycloalkanes also occurs on quartz surface; nanocarbon is synthesized as films with a thickness of up to 1 mm (see Figure 12). External (darker) surface of the film (see Figure 12) only contains carbon, while internal (lighter) surface alsocontains silicon (from 10 to 20%), which means that growth of obtained films occurs by carbidization of quartz.

Figure 12 Electron microphotograph of CNT obtained from gases that are synthesized during hexane EDT.
Figure 12

Electron microphotograph of CNT obtained from gases that are synthesized during hexane EDT.

Films with thickness ranging from 5 to 10 µm can fold up, forming scroll-like structure, whose internal surface is covered by globules with size of up to 0.1 mm, while their external surface is covered by crystallites with size up to 1 µm. Chemical composition of the area, marked in Figure 12a, is as follows – 96 mass% C and 4 mass% O. In macroscopic area (see Figure 12b and c), the scrolls of film have column-layered structure.

Thus, EDT of liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons leads to the formation of carbon clusters Ck and hydrogen according to the following scheme:

(1)CnHk=nCk+0.5kH2.

The molar masses of raw materials Mr= 12n + k, as well as of obtained product Mp= 12n, were calculated in order to theoretically evaluate maximal mass mth of CNM, which can be synthesized as a result of the plasmochemical reaction by scheme (1) as a result of EDT of raw materials of mr mass. Then

(2)mth=mrMp/Mr=mr×12n/(12n+k).

The practical CNM productivity γ = γ1 + γ2 was calculated by the experimental measurement of mass mp1 and productivity γ1 of CNM obtained by full EDT of organic liquid, as well as of the mass mp2 and productivity γ2 of CNM, obtained by PDT of the mixture of gases, given that carbon was released from all the volumes of raw materials without any leftovers

(3)γ1,2=mp1,2/mth=(1+k/12n)(mp1,2/mr).

It was shown that as a result of EDT of liquid hydrocarbons, the productivity of CNM γ1 was 6.1% for pentane, 10.2% for hexane, 8.7% for cyclopentane, 14.4% for cyclohexane, 12.0% for benzene and 16.8% for kerosene. Gases are formed from the rest of the liquid hydrocarbons. The productivity of CNM γ2 as a result of EDT of gases was up to 10% without catalyzer and over 50% when the Fe group catalyzers were used.

Obtained results should be taken into account in order to implement targeted synthesis of CNM and, accordingly, to optimize the technological parameters of EDT process.

3.3 EDT of metal powders in kerosene

Theoretical study of inhomogeneity of electric field in the volume of discharge chamber, caused by the presence of metal powder particles in liquid, was performed in order to evaluate the conditions of discharge development in disperse medium. Analysis of electric field distribution around metal particle of 100 µm diameter has shown that local values of electric field intensity near the particle can be higher than E = 107 V/m; and thus, the processes of dissociation, ionization and plasma formation are possible in this area. Thermal impact of plasma leads to melting and evaporation of particles on the surface layer, ejection of metal vapor into the liquid, which contains carbon clusters, as well as to exothermal reactions between metal and carbon ions. In turn, as a result of the rapid expansion of the discharge channel, processed medium is impacted by compression–decompression waves and hydro flows, which intensively mix the treated powders.

Thus, during EDT of metal powders in organic liquids, simultaneous grinding and mixing of powders can be achieved, as well as the synthesis of nanosized metal carbides. However, further development of the method is possible only after solving a number of issues related to the control of percentage of components of the resulting product and ensuring the stability of the process [8,16], which is possible only after studying the physical processes that occur during EDT of disperse systems.

Video registration of physical processes that occur during EDT of Ti powder of dm = 100 µm dispersity was performed in order to evaluate the processes of EDT in “kerosene–nanocarbon–Ti powder” disperse system (see Figure 13) [16].

Figure 13 Integral microphotographs of electric discharges in “kerosene–nanocarbon–Ti powder” disperse system (stored energy W1 = 90 J): (a) 5th pulse; (b) 10th pulse; (c) 50th pulse; (d) 100th pulse.
Figure 13

Integral microphotographs of electric discharges in “kerosene–nanocarbon–Ti powder” disperse system (stored energy W1 = 90 J): (a) 5th pulse; (b) 10th pulse; (c) 50th pulse; (d) 100th pulse.

Integral photographs of high-voltage electric discharges show the distribution of plasma in discharge chamber volume. At the initial stage of treatment, plasma formations were only located in the areas situated near the electrode (see Figure 13a and b), which leads to the increase in the distance between the powder layer and positive electrode. Also, on the photograph of 10th pulse (see Figure 13b), the relative increase can be noted in the diameter of plasma formation near the positive electrode, which indicates the increase in the fraction of energy, released at this area, and as a result, the increase in hydrodynamic impact of gas–vapor cavity on the medium.

We should also pay attention to the position of the powder relative to the electrode system (see Figure 13c and d). Cyclic formation of gas–vapor cavity in near-electrode area leads to ejection of powder from the central part of the chamber, which leads to intensification of hydrodynamic impact on the medium. However, the intensification of hydrodynamic impact leads to the decrease in the destruction efficiency of electric erosion particles, as the concentration of solid phases in the central part of discharge chamber decreases. Therefore, the frequency of pulse passage was selected in such a way that it is equal to the inverse evaluated time of particle sedimentation, which are constantly located in the treatment as a suspension [17].

As it can be seen from the photographs of 50th and 100th pulses (see Figure 13c and d respectively), maintaining such a frequency promotes the formation of suspended particles of titanium in kerosene and provides mixing of the powder during processing. Also the increase in kerosene opacity should be noted in this two photographs, which indicates the synthesis of nanocarbon and nanosized titanium carbide.

Physical modeling allowed obtaining qualitative description of a set of physical processes that take place during the EDT of “kerosene–nanocarbon–titanium powder” disperse system. Experimental proof was found for the hypothesis of the impact of the complex factors on “kerosene–nanocarbon–titanium powder” disperse system, namely, electric erosion and hydrodynamic impact.

Experimental studies have shown that EDT of Ti powder of 60 µm initial mean diameter allows obtaining the Ti–TiC mixture powders in the range of submicrometer and nanosize [18,19]. Results of X-ray diffraction analysis of the obtained powders indicate the increase in titanium carbide content from 22 to 60% when specific treatment energy is increased from 5 to 20 MJ/kg (see Figure 14).

Figure 14 X-ray diffraction patterns of the products of Ti powder EDT in kerosene: (a) Ws = 5 MJ/kg; (b) Ws = 10 MJ/kg; (c) Ws = 20 MJ/kg.
Figure 14

X-ray diffraction patterns of the products of Ti powder EDT in kerosene: (a) Ws = 5 MJ/kg; (b) Ws = 10 MJ/kg; (c) Ws = 20 MJ/kg.

4 Conclusions

Electric discharge synthesis of carbon and metal–carbon materials has firmly occupied its niche among other methods. Realization of different technological schemes of treatment of organic liquids, powders and formed gases allows increasing the efficiency of processing raw materials as well as combining few different technological operations and achieving the aimed synthesis of CNMs (OLC, CNT, CNF or carbon thin films) and of metal–carbon materials of given phase composition.

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Received: 2019-06-07
Revised: 2019-10-02
Accepted: 2019-11-02
Published Online: 2020-08-10

© 2020 Natalya Ivanivna Kuskova et al., published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  9. Effect of Cooling Rate on Crystallization Behavior of CaO-SiO2-MgO-Cr2O3 Based Slag
  10. Effects of metallurgical factors on reticular crack formations in Nb-bearing pipeline steel
  11. Investigation on microstructure and its transformation mechanisms of B2O3-SiO2-Al2O3-CaO brazing flux system
  12. Energy Conservation and CO2 Abatement Potential of a Gas-injection Blast Furnace
  13. Experimental validation of the reaction mechanism models of dechlorination and [Zn] reclaiming in the roasting steelmaking zinc-rich dust process
  14. Effect of substituting fine rutile of the flux with nano TiO2 on the improvement of mass transfer efficiency and the reduction of welding fumes in the stainless steel SMAW electrode
  15. Microstructure evolution and mechanical properties of Hastelloy X alloy produced by Selective Laser Melting
  16. Study on the structure activity relationship of the crystal MOF-5 synthesis, thermal stability and N2 adsorption property
  17. Laser pressure welding of Al-Li alloy 2198: effect of welding parameters on fusion zone characteristics associated with mechanical properties
  18. Microstructural evolution during high-temperature tensile creep at 1,500°C of a MoSiBTiC alloy
  19. Effects of different deoxidization methods on high-temperature physical properties of high-strength low-alloy steels
  20. Solidification pathways and phase equilibria in the Mo–Ti–C ternary system
  21. Influence of normalizing and tempering temperatures on the creep properties of P92 steel
  22. Effect of temperature on matrix multicracking evolution of C/SiC fiber-reinforced ceramic-matrix composites
  23. Improving mechanical properties of ZK60 magnesium alloy by cryogenic treatment before hot extrusion
  24. Temperature-dependent proportional limit stress of SiC/SiC fiber-reinforced ceramic-matrix composites
  25. Effect of 2CaO·SiO2 particles addition on dephosphorization behavior
  26. Influence of processing parameters on slab stickers during continuous casting
  27. Influence of Al deoxidation on the formation of acicular ferrite in steel containing La
  28. The effects of β-Si3N4 on the formation and oxidation of β-SiAlON
  29. Sulphur and vanadium-induced high-temperature corrosion behaviour of different regions of SMAW weldment in ASTM SA 210 GrA1 boiler tube steel
  30. Structural evidence of complex formation in liquid Pb–Te alloys
  31. Microstructure evolution of roll core during the preparation of composite roll by electroslag remelting cladding technology
  32. Improvement of toughness and hardness in BR1500HS steel by ultrafine martensite
  33. Influence mechanism of pulse frequency on the corrosion resistance of Cu–Zn binary alloy
  34. An interpretation on the thermodynamic properties of liquid Pb–Te alloys
  35. Dynamic continuous cooling transformation, microstructure and mechanical properties of medium-carbon carbide-free bainitic steel
  36. Influence of electrode tip diameter on metallurgical and mechanical aspects of spot welded duplex stainless steel
  37. Effect of multi-pass deformation on microstructure evolution of spark plasma sintered TC4 titanium alloy
  38. Corrosion behaviors of 316 stainless steel and Inconel 625 alloy in chloride molten salts for solar energy storage
  39. Determination of chromium valence state in the CaO–SiO2–FeO–MgO–CrOx system by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
  40. Electric discharge method of synthesis of carbon and metal–carbon nanomaterials
  41. Effect of high-frequency electromagnetic field on microstructure of mold flux
  42. Effect of hydrothermal coupling on energy evolution, damage, and microscopic characteristics of sandstone
  43. Effect of radiative heat loss on thermal diffusivity evaluated using normalized logarithmic method in laser flash technique
  44. Kinetics of iron removal from quartz under ultrasound-assisted leaching
  45. Oxidizability characterization of slag system on the thermodynamic model of superalloy desulfurization
  46. Influence of polyvinyl alcohol–glutaraldehyde on properties of thermal insulation pipe from blast furnace slag fiber
  47. Evolution of nonmetallic inclusions in pipeline steel during LF and VD refining process
  48. Development and experimental research of a low-thermal asphalt material for grouting leakage blocking
  49. A downscaling cold model for solid flow behaviour in a top gas recycling-oxygen blast furnace
  50. Microstructure evolution of TC4 powder by spark plasma sintering after hot deformation
  51. The effect of M (M = Ce, Zr, Ce–Zr) on rolling microstructure and mechanical properties of FH40
  52. Phase evolution and oxidation characteristics of the Nd–Fe–B and Ce–Fe–B magnet scrap powder during the roasting process
  53. Assessment of impact mechanical behaviors of rock-like materials heated at 1,000°C
  54. Effects of solution and aging treatment parameters on the microstructure evolution of Ti–10V–2Fe–3Al alloy
  55. Effect of adding yttrium on precipitation behaviors of inclusions in E690 ultra high strength offshore platform steel
  56. Dephosphorization of hot metal using rare earth oxide-containing slags
  57. Kinetic analysis of CO2 gasification of biochar and anthracite based on integral isoconversional nonlinear method
  58. Optimization of heat treatment of glass-ceramics made from blast furnace slag
  59. Study on microstructure and mechanical properties of P92 steel after high-temperature long-term aging at 650°C
  60. Effects of rotational speed on the Al0.3CoCrCu0.3FeNi high-entropy alloy by friction stir welding
  61. The investigation on the middle period dephosphorization in 70t converter
  62. Effect of cerium on the initiation of pitting corrosion of 444-type heat-resistant ferritic stainless steel
  63. Effects of quenching and partitioning (Q&P) technology on microstructure and mechanical properties of VC particulate reinforced wear-resistant alloy
  64. Study on the erosion of Mo/ZrO2 alloys in glass melting process
  65. Effect of Nb addition on the solidification structure of Fe–Mn–C–Al twin-induced plasticity steel
  66. Damage accumulation and lifetime prediction of fiber-reinforced ceramic-matrix composites under thermomechanical fatigue loading
  67. Morphology evolution and quantitative analysis of β-MoO3 and α-MoO3
  68. Microstructure of metatitanic acid and its transformation to rutile titanium dioxide
  69. Numerical simulation of nickel-based alloys’ welding transient stress using various cooling techniques
  70. The local structure around Ge atoms in Ge-doped magnetite thin films
  71. Friction stir lap welding thin aluminum alloy sheets
  72. Review Article
  73. A review of end-point carbon prediction for BOF steelmaking process
https://doi.org/10.1515/htmp-2020-0078
Keywords for this article
high-voltage electric discharge; carbon nanomaterial; metal–carbon nanomaterial; organic liquids; metal powders
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Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Article
  2. Electrochemical reduction mechanism of several oxides of refractory metals in FClNaKmelts
  3. Study on the Appropriate Production Parameters of a Gas-injection Blast Furnace
  4. Microstructure, phase composition and oxidation behavior of porous Ti-Si-Mo intermetallic compounds fabricated by reactive synthesis
  5. Significant Influence of Welding Heat Input on the Microstructural Characteristics and Mechanical Properties of the Simulated CGHAZ in High Nitrogen V-Alloyed Steel
  6. Preparation of WC-TiC-Ni3Al-CaF2 functionally graded self-lubricating tool material by microwave sintering and its cutting performance
  7. Research on Electromagnetic Sensitivity Properties of Sodium Chloride during Microwave Heating
  8. Effect of deformation temperature on mechanical properties and microstructure of TWIP steel for expansion tube
  9. Effect of Cooling Rate on Crystallization Behavior of CaO-SiO2-MgO-Cr2O3 Based Slag
  10. Effects of metallurgical factors on reticular crack formations in Nb-bearing pipeline steel
  11. Investigation on microstructure and its transformation mechanisms of B2O3-SiO2-Al2O3-CaO brazing flux system
  12. Energy Conservation and CO2 Abatement Potential of a Gas-injection Blast Furnace
  13. Experimental validation of the reaction mechanism models of dechlorination and [Zn] reclaiming in the roasting steelmaking zinc-rich dust process
  14. Effect of substituting fine rutile of the flux with nano TiO2 on the improvement of mass transfer efficiency and the reduction of welding fumes in the stainless steel SMAW electrode
  15. Microstructure evolution and mechanical properties of Hastelloy X alloy produced by Selective Laser Melting
  16. Study on the structure activity relationship of the crystal MOF-5 synthesis, thermal stability and N2 adsorption property
  17. Laser pressure welding of Al-Li alloy 2198: effect of welding parameters on fusion zone characteristics associated with mechanical properties
  18. Microstructural evolution during high-temperature tensile creep at 1,500°C of a MoSiBTiC alloy
  19. Effects of different deoxidization methods on high-temperature physical properties of high-strength low-alloy steels
  20. Solidification pathways and phase equilibria in the Mo–Ti–C ternary system
  21. Influence of normalizing and tempering temperatures on the creep properties of P92 steel
  22. Effect of temperature on matrix multicracking evolution of C/SiC fiber-reinforced ceramic-matrix composites
  23. Improving mechanical properties of ZK60 magnesium alloy by cryogenic treatment before hot extrusion
  24. Temperature-dependent proportional limit stress of SiC/SiC fiber-reinforced ceramic-matrix composites
  25. Effect of 2CaO·SiO2 particles addition on dephosphorization behavior
  26. Influence of processing parameters on slab stickers during continuous casting
  27. Influence of Al deoxidation on the formation of acicular ferrite in steel containing La
  28. The effects of β-Si3N4 on the formation and oxidation of β-SiAlON
  29. Sulphur and vanadium-induced high-temperature corrosion behaviour of different regions of SMAW weldment in ASTM SA 210 GrA1 boiler tube steel
  30. Structural evidence of complex formation in liquid Pb–Te alloys
  31. Microstructure evolution of roll core during the preparation of composite roll by electroslag remelting cladding technology
  32. Improvement of toughness and hardness in BR1500HS steel by ultrafine martensite
  33. Influence mechanism of pulse frequency on the corrosion resistance of Cu–Zn binary alloy
  34. An interpretation on the thermodynamic properties of liquid Pb–Te alloys
  35. Dynamic continuous cooling transformation, microstructure and mechanical properties of medium-carbon carbide-free bainitic steel
  36. Influence of electrode tip diameter on metallurgical and mechanical aspects of spot welded duplex stainless steel
  37. Effect of multi-pass deformation on microstructure evolution of spark plasma sintered TC4 titanium alloy
  38. Corrosion behaviors of 316 stainless steel and Inconel 625 alloy in chloride molten salts for solar energy storage
  39. Determination of chromium valence state in the CaO–SiO2–FeO–MgO–CrOx system by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
  40. Electric discharge method of synthesis of carbon and metal–carbon nanomaterials
  41. Effect of high-frequency electromagnetic field on microstructure of mold flux
  42. Effect of hydrothermal coupling on energy evolution, damage, and microscopic characteristics of sandstone
  43. Effect of radiative heat loss on thermal diffusivity evaluated using normalized logarithmic method in laser flash technique
  44. Kinetics of iron removal from quartz under ultrasound-assisted leaching
  45. Oxidizability characterization of slag system on the thermodynamic model of superalloy desulfurization
  46. Influence of polyvinyl alcohol–glutaraldehyde on properties of thermal insulation pipe from blast furnace slag fiber
  47. Evolution of nonmetallic inclusions in pipeline steel during LF and VD refining process
  48. Development and experimental research of a low-thermal asphalt material for grouting leakage blocking
  49. A downscaling cold model for solid flow behaviour in a top gas recycling-oxygen blast furnace
  50. Microstructure evolution of TC4 powder by spark plasma sintering after hot deformation
  51. The effect of M (M = Ce, Zr, Ce–Zr) on rolling microstructure and mechanical properties of FH40
  52. Phase evolution and oxidation characteristics of the Nd–Fe–B and Ce–Fe–B magnet scrap powder during the roasting process
  53. Assessment of impact mechanical behaviors of rock-like materials heated at 1,000°C
  54. Effects of solution and aging treatment parameters on the microstructure evolution of Ti–10V–2Fe–3Al alloy
  55. Effect of adding yttrium on precipitation behaviors of inclusions in E690 ultra high strength offshore platform steel
  56. Dephosphorization of hot metal using rare earth oxide-containing slags
  57. Kinetic analysis of CO2 gasification of biochar and anthracite based on integral isoconversional nonlinear method
  58. Optimization of heat treatment of glass-ceramics made from blast furnace slag
  59. Study on microstructure and mechanical properties of P92 steel after high-temperature long-term aging at 650°C
  60. Effects of rotational speed on the Al0.3CoCrCu0.3FeNi high-entropy alloy by friction stir welding
  61. The investigation on the middle period dephosphorization in 70t converter
  62. Effect of cerium on the initiation of pitting corrosion of 444-type heat-resistant ferritic stainless steel
  63. Effects of quenching and partitioning (Q&P) technology on microstructure and mechanical properties of VC particulate reinforced wear-resistant alloy
  64. Study on the erosion of Mo/ZrO2 alloys in glass melting process
  65. Effect of Nb addition on the solidification structure of Fe–Mn–C–Al twin-induced plasticity steel
  66. Damage accumulation and lifetime prediction of fiber-reinforced ceramic-matrix composites under thermomechanical fatigue loading
  67. Morphology evolution and quantitative analysis of β-MoO3 and α-MoO3
  68. Microstructure of metatitanic acid and its transformation to rutile titanium dioxide
  69. Numerical simulation of nickel-based alloys’ welding transient stress using various cooling techniques
  70. The local structure around Ge atoms in Ge-doped magnetite thin films
  71. Friction stir lap welding thin aluminum alloy sheets
  72. Review Article
  73. A review of end-point carbon prediction for BOF steelmaking process
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