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Influence of electrode tip diameter on metallurgical and mechanical aspects of spot welded duplex stainless steel

  • Vivek D. Kalyankar EMAIL logo and Gautam P. Chudasama
Published/Copyright: July 21, 2020
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High Temperature Materials and Processes
From the journal High Temperature Materials and Processes Volume 39 Issue 1

Abstract

In this article, the influence of electrode tip diameter is investigated for spot welded duplex stainless steel (DSS). Electrode tip diameter and welding current are considered as the major influencing parameters and their values are varied within the feasible range, suitable for 0.8 mm thick sheet, whereas other important parameters such as welding time and electrode force are kept constant. DSS with the chosen thickness range is now becoming a useful material in automotive body-in-white applications and in future it will become one of the key materials replacing the existing materials and hence research outcome of the present work may be beneficial from application view point. In this work, the spot welding quality is inspected through metallurgical aspects (microstructure and microhardness), physical aspects (nugget diameter and electrode indentation), mechanical performance (tensile shear strength [TSS]) and failure mode. The obtained result shows that smaller electrode tip diameter limits nugget diameter due to expulsion phenomena and increases electrode indentation due to higher current intensity. TSS decreases with increase in electrode tip diameter for the same welding current but maximum TSS obtained for particular electrode tip diameter increases with increase in electrode tip diameter up to a specific limit and then it remains constant.

Keywords: resistance spot welding; duplex stainless steel; electrode tip diameter; welding current; tensile shear strength; nugget diameter

1 Introduction

Nowadays, automobile industries are making efforts to build safer, lighter and more fuel efficient vehicles. To achieve this goal, materials such as advanced grade of steels, fibres and aluminium alloys are getting used in body-in-white applications [1]. Out of these materials, stainless steel has good potential to improve vehicle performance by reducing vehicle weight because of its excellent strength and formability [2]. Furthermore, next-generation vehicle programme confirmed the possibility of stainless steel as a structural material in automobile sector [3]. This programme revealed that stainless steel not only reduces vehicle weight but also at the same time increases safety, sustainability and environmental resistance of structural automotive systems [2]. Stainless steel can be applicable in subframes, bumper beam, A and B-pillars, door pillar, crash boxes, rollover bars, seat rails, fuel rail assemblies and suspension/wheel housings [2,4,5].

Resistance spot welding (RSW) is a dominant process for joining sheet metal components in automobile industries [6]. Typically, there are 3,000–5,000 spot welded joints in a body-in-white of modern vehicles [7]. RSW is a conventional process, even it is also used in various industries because of its simplicity, narrow heat affected zone (HAZ), energy efficiency and ease of automation [8]. In automotive structural assemblies, load is transferred through groups of spot welds during crash. Furthermore, spot welds can act as fold initiation sites to manage impact energy. Moreover, failure of spot welding is identified as a key failure during the vehicle crash. Hence, strength, stiffness and integrity of car body are greatly affected by the quality of spot welds [7]. Therefore, detailed metallurgical and mechanical study of stainless steel spot welded joint is necessary before use in automotive structural parts.

In the past, detailed study about spot welding of austenitic stainless steel [9,10,11], ferritic stainless steel [2,12,13] and martensitic stainless steel [14,15,16] has been carried out. However, very limited literature is available about the investigation of duplex stainless steel (DSS). It is identified that DSS is an excellent candidate material for automobile structural applications due to the combination of higher mechanical properties and corrosion resistance [17,18]. It is more suitable for crumple zones to absorb the energy during crash due to strain hardening and favourable behaviour at a higher strain rate [19,20]. Also, DSS does not have martensitic transformation and related problem during spot welding. Therefore, the use of DSS is a good solution to avoid welding problems of martensite-containing advanced high strength steel [2,5]. Pouranvari et al. [2] and Alizadeh-Sh et al. [21] concluded that the fast cooling rate of RSW and the presence of TiC particles hindered the post solidification transformation of ferrite to austenite and results in unbalanced phases in the microstructure. Arabi et al. [5] investigated the effect of welding current on microstructure and mechanical behaviour for RSW of 2304 DSS. Arabi et al. [22] suggested downsloping technique and in situ post weld annealing to improve phase balance for DSS, but all the joints failed in the interfacial failure (IF) mode. Keeping in view various advantages of DSS and its possible applicability in automobile sector, it is very essential to have in-depth research on various joining aspects of DSS. Furthermore, mechanical behaviour of spot welded DSS is controlled by ferrite/austenite phase balance and absence of precipitates such as Cr2N, sigma and chi. However, these factors are affected by the fast cooling rate of resistance spot welded joint.

Literature demonstrates that mechanical behaviour of spot welded joint is mostly affected by welding current, followed by welding time and electrode force [23]. Furthermore, some process parameters and material conditions such as holding time [24], surface characteristics [25], preheating [26], post heating [27], alloy content [28] and multi pulse [29] are also investigated. However, there is further scope to improve the mechanical performance of spot welded joint by electrode tip diameter. Mikno and Bartnik [30] studied the effect of electrode diameter and bevel angle on heating of electrodes and tensile shear strength (TSS) for low carbon steel. Bayramoglu et al. [31] studied the effect of electrode tip radius, sheet thickness and welding parameters on TSS and nugget diameter for low carbon steel.

Keeping in view the suitability and applicability of DSS in automotive sector as well as a possible scope to enhance its performance with critical control on electrode tip diameter, attempt is made in this article to present an in-depth study of the influence of electrode tip diameter on mechanical behaviour of spot welded 2205 DSS. Moreover, this study also examined the effect of electrode tip diameter and welding current on microstructure, microhardness, nugget diameter, electrode indentation, TSS and failure mode. Section 2 describes the experimental procedure executed to carry out necessary experimental work.

2 Experimental procedure

A 0.8 mm 2205 DSS is used as a base metal (BM), and its chemical composition is presented in Table 1. The as-received material possesses a yield strength of 655 MPa and an ultimate tensile strength of 777.6 MPa. Spot welding is carried out using a three-phase AC inverter spot welding machine (i4; Prospot). Cu–Cr–Zr electrodes with variable tip diameter and having 45° truncated cone are used to obtain necessary spot joints. Squeeze time, weld time, hold time and electrode pressure are kept constant at 1,999 ms, 240 ms, 1,000 ms and 4.5 bar, respectively. Based on the trial experiments, electrode tip diameter is selected from 5 to 7 mm in increment of 1 mm and welding current from 4 to 7.5 kA in step of 0.5 kA. Three samples are prepared for each run and out of these, two are used for the tensile shear test and one for metallurgical examination. Spot welded joint has more tendency to fail in the IF mode for the tensile shear test compared to other tests such as peel test and cross tension test [6,32]. Furthermore, it is observed that if spot weld joint fails in the pull-out failure (PF) mode during the tensile shear test, then it will also show failure behaviour with the PF mode during the peel test as well as the cross tension test [7]; therefore, the tensile shear test is carried out to investigate the mechanical performance of spot welded joint. Table 2 shows the parameter setting considered during each experiment as well as measured responses, which are based on the average values of two individual experimental runs.

Table 1

Chemical composition of DSS under consideration

BMCCrNiMoMnSiNPS
22050.018%22.27%5.45%3.02%1.27%0.39%0.20%0.025%0.003%
Table 2

Parameter setting and measured responses for various experiments

Expt. no.Electrode tip diameter (mm)Weld current (kA)Peak load (kN)Nugget diameter (mm)
1546.853.572
254.510.773.951
35511.584.229
455.512.074.504
55613.434.8
656.512.424.739
75712.613.862
86410.673.0
964.510.73.848
106510.193.4
1165.512.34.745
126613.164.45
1366.513.265.2
146713.935.6
1567.513.205.382
16749.742.864
1774.59.972.744
187511.053.497
1975.510.853.874
207611.664.1
2176.513.144.644
227712.195.544
2377.513.396.318

Figure 1 shows the standard tensile shear specimen as per AWS D8.9:2012 standard [33], and the same is considered in the present work. The tensile shear test is carried out using universal testing machine (UTES-40; EIE Pvt Ltd) at the speed of 10 mm/min [33]. To study the metallurgical properties of the spot welded sample, it is cut slightly offset from its weld centreline and metallurgical samples are prepared according to the standard metallurgical procedures. To reveal the macrostructure, Marble etchant (50 mL HCl, 50 mL H2O and 10 g CuSO4) is used, whereas for microstructure, Kalling’s No. 1 etchant (1.5 g CuCl2, 33 mL HCl, 33 mL H2O and 33 mL C2H5OH) is used [2,5]. Nugget diameter is measured with the help of a vision measuring system (SDM-TRZS 300; Sipcon, India). Microexamination is carried out on an inverted optical microscope (Observer A1M; Carl Zeiss). Microhardness testing is carried out in the diagonal transverse direction from the BM of top coupon to the BM of bottom coupon using the Vickers microhardness tester (HM-211; Mitutoyo) at constant loads of 200 g and 1 kg [33].

Figure 1 Tensile shear specimen as per AWS D8.9:2012 standard.
Figure 1

Tensile shear specimen as per AWS D8.9:2012 standard.

3 Results and discussion

Welding quality of spot welded joint is assessed though metallurgical aspects (microstructure and microhardness), physical aspects (nugget diameter and electrode indentation), mechanical aspect (TSS as a peak load) and failure mode. Efforts are made in this work to consider all these aspects, and the results obtained for all the individuals are discussed in the following subsections.

3.1 Metallurgical aspects

Figure 2(a) shows the macrostructure of welded joint (electrode tip diameter: 6 mm and welding current: 6 kA), indicating good weld with distinct fusion boundary and narrow HAZ. Figure 2(b) shows the microstructure of BM which consists of 50% ferrite and 50% austenite. Figure 2(c) shows that fusion zone (FZ) microstructure has the columnar grain structure at centre and the equiaxed grain structure in the narrow region near the fusion boundary. This is due to the formation of chilled zone at the fusion boundary, where the cooling rate is higher which results in faster nucleation of small equiaxed grains in the random direction at the nugget edge and forms the equiaxed grains region similar to the chilled zone in the casting process. The columnar grains at the centre of nugget are observed due to possible evolution and growth of equiaxed grains along possible easiest directions, which is generally opposite to the direction of heat flow, towards the centre of the nugget. Figure 2(d) and (e) shows the microstructure of edge of FZ and centre of FZ, respectively, which consist of ferrite (dark portion) and austenite (light portion), indicating less percentage of austenite compared to ferrite. According to chemical composition of 2205 DSS, the chromium to nickel equivalent ratio is 2.51 and solidification and post solidification path for 2205 DSS is summarised as follows from welding research counselling (WRC) – 1998 diagram which is shown in Figure 3 [34].

L→L+F→F→F+A→F+A+Precipitation,

where L = liquid, F = ferrite and A = austenite.

Figure 2 Macro/microstructure of 2205 DSS spot welded joint: (a) macrostructure, (b) BM microstructure, (c) BM/HAZ/FZ interface, (d) equiaxed grain/columnar grain interface and (e) columnar grain structure at FZ centre (lighter phase is austenite and darker one is ferrite).
Figure 2

Macro/microstructure of 2205 DSS spot welded joint: (a) macrostructure, (b) BM microstructure, (c) BM/HAZ/FZ interface, (d) equiaxed grain/columnar grain interface and (e) columnar grain structure at FZ centre (lighter phase is austenite and darker one is ferrite).

Figure 3 Pseudo binary diagram of stainless steel [34].
Figure 3

Pseudo binary diagram of stainless steel [34].

From the WRC diagram, during solidification, 100% ferrite is formed and it is stable at elevated temperature. When temperature falls below the ferrite solvus temperature, post solidification transformation of ferrite to austenite occurred by nucleation and growth process and results in complete coverage of ferrite grain boundaries by austenite. Additional austenite is also formed intragranularly within the ferrite grains, but the fast cooling rate of RSW hindered the post solidification transformation of ferrite to austenite, which results in unbalanced microstructure of FZ.

Figure 4 shows the microstructure for different weld currents with 6 mm electrode tip diameter, indicating that volume fraction of austenite is more and covers entire grain boundaries for 7 kA compared to a lower current of 4 kA. Additionally, intergranular austenite is also observed for high welding current. This is attributed to the fact that with increase in welding current, heat generation in FZ increases, i.e. temperature of FZ that increases total available time for ferrite to austenite transformation; therefore, volume fraction of austenite increases with increase in weld current.

Figure 4 Effect of welding current on microstructure with 6 mm electrode tip diameter: (a) 4 kA, (b) 5 kA, (c) 6 kA and (d) 7 kA.
Figure 4

Effect of welding current on microstructure with 6 mm electrode tip diameter: (a) 4 kA, (b) 5 kA, (c) 6 kA and (d) 7 kA.

Figure 5(a)–(c) shows microstructure obtained for electrode tip diameters of 5, 6 and 7 mm, respectively, for a constant welding current of 6 kA. Volume fraction of austenite shows decreasing trend for electrode tip diameter because with increase in electrode tip diameter, contact area increases, which results in less heat generation for the same welding current and faster cooling of FZ. Therefore, the volume fraction of austenite in FZ decreases with increase in electrode tip diameter.

Figure 5 Effect of electrode tip diameter on microstructure with 6 kA welding current: (a) 5 mm, (b) 6 mm, (c) 7 mm and (d) microhardness profile for 2205 DSS spot welded joint.
Figure 5

Effect of electrode tip diameter on microstructure with 6 kA welding current: (a) 5 mm, (b) 6 mm, (c) 7 mm and (d) microhardness profile for 2205 DSS spot welded joint.

Microhardness profile for resistance spot welded DSS is shown in Figure 5(d). It is observed that FZ possesses higher hardness compared to BM because the individual ferrite phase is slightly harder than the austenite phase [22] and the volume fraction of ferrite in FZ is much higher than austenite. The effect of electrode tip diameter on microhardness is shown in Figure 6, which shows that electrode tip diameter does not have any significant effect on microhardness of FZ.

Figure 6 Effect of electrode tip diameter on microhardness of FZ.
Figure 6

Effect of electrode tip diameter on microhardness of FZ.

3.2 Physical and mechanical aspects

Figures 7 and 8 show the effect of electrode tip diameter and welding current on TSS and nugget diameter of spot welded joint of DSS. It is observed that nugget diameter and TSS increase with increase in welding current irrespective of electrode tip diameter. With increase in welding current, heat generation increases, which results in increase of nugget diameter and TSS. Similar type of effect on nugget diameter and TSS is also noted by Arabi et al. [5] and Pouranvari et al. [2] for their respective materials with the considered values of electrode tip diameter. For constant welding current, with an increase in electrode tip diameter, TSS of welded joint decreases. This is because, with increase in electrode tip diameter total heat available is divided into more area and total heat available per unit area is decreased, i.e. current density reduces, which results in reduction of TSS.

Figure 7 Effect of electrode tip diameter and welding current on peak load of tensile shear test.
Figure 7

Effect of electrode tip diameter and welding current on peak load of tensile shear test.

Figure 8 Effect of electrode tip diameter and welding current on nugget diameter and failure mode.
Figure 8

Effect of electrode tip diameter and welding current on nugget diameter and failure mode.

For 5 mm electrode tip diameter, when the welding current reaches 6 kA, nugget diameter reaches to its maximum value, i.e. 4.8 mm. After this, with increase in current due to high heat generation, expulsion takes place, which reduces nugget diameter and TSS of welded joint. Similarly, for 6 mm electrode tip diameter, the maximum nugget diameter is 5.6 mm and after this it starts decreasing, and for 7 mm electrode tip diameter, the maximum nugget diameter is 6.318 mm. Therefore, it is concluded that maximum nugget diameter and TSS obtained for a particular electrode tip diameter are limited by expulsion phenomena. However, welding current limit observed for this expulsion can be increased by increase in electrode tip diameter.

With the help of 7 mm electrode tip diameter, it is possible to increase the nugget diameter up to 6.318 mm, but a nugget diameter higher than 5.6 mm does not have significant effect on TSS. Furthermore, it is noticed that TSS decreases with increase in electrode tip diameter for the same welding current, but maximum TSS is obtained for particular electrode tip diameter increases with increase in electrode tip diameter up to a specific value and then it remains constant. This signifies that, during the PF mode, material fails via tensile stress at the nugget circumference rather shear stress at the sheet/sheet interface.

Figure 9 shows the effect of electrode tip diameter on indentation, which shows decreasing trend of indentation with increase in electrode tip diameter. For small electrode tip diameter, due to more current intensity, electrode indentation is higher which reduces surface quality and lowers the TSS.

Figure 9 Effect of electrode tip diameter on electrode indentation.
Figure 9

Effect of electrode tip diameter on electrode indentation.

3.3 Failure mode

After performing the tensile shear test, failure mode of each sample is determined based on visual observation of weld fracture surfaces. A total of five different types of failure modes are observed for all experiments run, namely, IF mode, PF mode, double PF mode, partial thickness with PF mode and interfacial fracture with PF mode, which are shown in Figure 10. From Figure 8, it is observed that with an increase in welding current, nugget diameter increases, which results in failure mode transition from the IF mode to the PF mode. For 5 mm electrode tip diameter, when the welding current is in the range of 4–5 kA, spot welds failed through the IF mode and for the current range of 5.5–7 kA, spot welds failed through the PF mode. Similarly, for 6 and 7 mm electrode tip diameter, the PF mode is observed for 6–7.5 and 6.5–7.5 kA, respectively. It is well known documented that there is critical nugget diameter beyond which transition of the IF mode to the PF mode takes place [7]. Critical nugget diameter to ensure the PF mode is around 4.5 mm and above this diameter all samples fail in the PF mode irrespective of electrode tip diameter.

Figure 10 Various failure modes observed: (a) double PF mode, (b) PF mode, (c) partial thickness with PF, (d) interfacial fracture with PF and (e) IF mode.
Figure 10

Various failure modes observed: (a) double PF mode, (b) PF mode, (c) partial thickness with PF, (d) interfacial fracture with PF and (e) IF mode.

Previous research studies investigated the failure mechanism for spot welded joint and concluded that the shear stress at the sheet/sheet interface is responsible for the IF mode, whereas tensile stress at the nugget circumference is responsible for the PF mode. Furthermore, the critical nugget diameter of 3.57 mm, recommended by AWS (obtained from 4√t, where t is the sheet thickness), does not ensure the PF mode for 0.8 mm 2205 DSS, whereas 5√t can provide weld with the PF mode.

4 Conclusions

A detailed experimental investigation is carried out to investigate the effect of electrode tip diameter on metallurgical and mechanical aspects of spot welded joint of 0.8 mm 2205 DSS. Based on the obtained results, the following conclusions are drawn:

  • With increase in welding current, volume fraction of austenite increases. This is because, with increase in welding current, heat generation in FZ increases, i.e. temperature of FZ that increases the total available time for ferrite to austenite transformation; therefore, volume fraction of austenite increases with increase in weld current.

  • With increase in electrode tip diameter, contact area increases, which results in less heat generation for the same welding current and faster cooling of FZ. Therefore, volume fraction of austenite in FZ decreases with increase in electrode tip diameter.

  • Smaller electrode tip diameter limits the increase in welding current and so the increase in nugget diameter and TSS. However, maximum welding current without expulsion increases with increase in electrode tip diameter.

  • TSS decreases with increase in electrode tip diameter for the same welding current, but maximum TSS obtained for particular electrode tip diameter increases with increase in electrode tip diameter up to specific limit and then it remains constant.

  • Electrode indentation decreases with increase in electrode tip diameter. Due to more current intensity, electrode indentation is higher in the case of smaller electrode tip diameter, which reduces surface quality and lowers the TSS.

  • Critical nugget diameter for the PF mode is around 4.5 mm for 0.8 mm 2205 DSS, which confirms that a critical nugget diameter of 3.57 mm as recommended by AWS does not ensure the PF mode for 0.8 mm 2205 DSS, whereas 5√t can provide weld with the PF mode.

Overall, TSS obtained from 6 to 7 mm electrode tip diameter is comparatively similar and higher than 5 mm electrode tip diameter, but welding current requirement for 7 mm electrode tip diameter is higher than 6 mm. Hence, by considering energy consumption, 6 mm electrode tip diameter with 7 kA welding current provides optimum TSS.

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Received: 2018-09-20
Accepted: 2018-12-28
Published Online: 2020-07-21

© 2020 Vivek D. Kalyankar and Gautam P. Chudasama, published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Article
  2. Electrochemical reduction mechanism of several oxides of refractory metals in FClNaKmelts
  3. Study on the Appropriate Production Parameters of a Gas-injection Blast Furnace
  4. Microstructure, phase composition and oxidation behavior of porous Ti-Si-Mo intermetallic compounds fabricated by reactive synthesis
  5. Significant Influence of Welding Heat Input on the Microstructural Characteristics and Mechanical Properties of the Simulated CGHAZ in High Nitrogen V-Alloyed Steel
  6. Preparation of WC-TiC-Ni3Al-CaF2 functionally graded self-lubricating tool material by microwave sintering and its cutting performance
  7. Research on Electromagnetic Sensitivity Properties of Sodium Chloride during Microwave Heating
  8. Effect of deformation temperature on mechanical properties and microstructure of TWIP steel for expansion tube
  9. Effect of Cooling Rate on Crystallization Behavior of CaO-SiO2-MgO-Cr2O3 Based Slag
  10. Effects of metallurgical factors on reticular crack formations in Nb-bearing pipeline steel
  11. Investigation on microstructure and its transformation mechanisms of B2O3-SiO2-Al2O3-CaO brazing flux system
  12. Energy Conservation and CO2 Abatement Potential of a Gas-injection Blast Furnace
  13. Experimental validation of the reaction mechanism models of dechlorination and [Zn] reclaiming in the roasting steelmaking zinc-rich dust process
  14. Effect of substituting fine rutile of the flux with nano TiO2 on the improvement of mass transfer efficiency and the reduction of welding fumes in the stainless steel SMAW electrode
  15. Microstructure evolution and mechanical properties of Hastelloy X alloy produced by Selective Laser Melting
  16. Study on the structure activity relationship of the crystal MOF-5 synthesis, thermal stability and N2 adsorption property
  17. Laser pressure welding of Al-Li alloy 2198: effect of welding parameters on fusion zone characteristics associated with mechanical properties
  18. Microstructural evolution during high-temperature tensile creep at 1,500°C of a MoSiBTiC alloy
  19. Effects of different deoxidization methods on high-temperature physical properties of high-strength low-alloy steels
  20. Solidification pathways and phase equilibria in the Mo–Ti–C ternary system
  21. Influence of normalizing and tempering temperatures on the creep properties of P92 steel
  22. Effect of temperature on matrix multicracking evolution of C/SiC fiber-reinforced ceramic-matrix composites
  23. Improving mechanical properties of ZK60 magnesium alloy by cryogenic treatment before hot extrusion
  24. Temperature-dependent proportional limit stress of SiC/SiC fiber-reinforced ceramic-matrix composites
  25. Effect of 2CaO·SiO2 particles addition on dephosphorization behavior
  26. Influence of processing parameters on slab stickers during continuous casting
  27. Influence of Al deoxidation on the formation of acicular ferrite in steel containing La
  28. The effects of β-Si3N4 on the formation and oxidation of β-SiAlON
  29. Sulphur and vanadium-induced high-temperature corrosion behaviour of different regions of SMAW weldment in ASTM SA 210 GrA1 boiler tube steel
  30. Structural evidence of complex formation in liquid Pb–Te alloys
  31. Microstructure evolution of roll core during the preparation of composite roll by electroslag remelting cladding technology
  32. Improvement of toughness and hardness in BR1500HS steel by ultrafine martensite
  33. Influence mechanism of pulse frequency on the corrosion resistance of Cu–Zn binary alloy
  34. An interpretation on the thermodynamic properties of liquid Pb–Te alloys
  35. Dynamic continuous cooling transformation, microstructure and mechanical properties of medium-carbon carbide-free bainitic steel
  36. Influence of electrode tip diameter on metallurgical and mechanical aspects of spot welded duplex stainless steel
  37. Effect of multi-pass deformation on microstructure evolution of spark plasma sintered TC4 titanium alloy
  38. Corrosion behaviors of 316 stainless steel and Inconel 625 alloy in chloride molten salts for solar energy storage
  39. Determination of chromium valence state in the CaO–SiO2–FeO–MgO–CrOx system by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
  40. Electric discharge method of synthesis of carbon and metal–carbon nanomaterials
  41. Effect of high-frequency electromagnetic field on microstructure of mold flux
  42. Effect of hydrothermal coupling on energy evolution, damage, and microscopic characteristics of sandstone
  43. Effect of radiative heat loss on thermal diffusivity evaluated using normalized logarithmic method in laser flash technique
  44. Kinetics of iron removal from quartz under ultrasound-assisted leaching
  45. Oxidizability characterization of slag system on the thermodynamic model of superalloy desulfurization
  46. Influence of polyvinyl alcohol–glutaraldehyde on properties of thermal insulation pipe from blast furnace slag fiber
  47. Evolution of nonmetallic inclusions in pipeline steel during LF and VD refining process
  48. Development and experimental research of a low-thermal asphalt material for grouting leakage blocking
  49. A downscaling cold model for solid flow behaviour in a top gas recycling-oxygen blast furnace
  50. Microstructure evolution of TC4 powder by spark plasma sintering after hot deformation
  51. The effect of M (M = Ce, Zr, Ce–Zr) on rolling microstructure and mechanical properties of FH40
  52. Phase evolution and oxidation characteristics of the Nd–Fe–B and Ce–Fe–B magnet scrap powder during the roasting process
  53. Assessment of impact mechanical behaviors of rock-like materials heated at 1,000°C
  54. Effects of solution and aging treatment parameters on the microstructure evolution of Ti–10V–2Fe–3Al alloy
  55. Effect of adding yttrium on precipitation behaviors of inclusions in E690 ultra high strength offshore platform steel
  56. Dephosphorization of hot metal using rare earth oxide-containing slags
  57. Kinetic analysis of CO2 gasification of biochar and anthracite based on integral isoconversional nonlinear method
  58. Optimization of heat treatment of glass-ceramics made from blast furnace slag
  59. Study on microstructure and mechanical properties of P92 steel after high-temperature long-term aging at 650°C
  60. Effects of rotational speed on the Al0.3CoCrCu0.3FeNi high-entropy alloy by friction stir welding
  61. The investigation on the middle period dephosphorization in 70t converter
  62. Effect of cerium on the initiation of pitting corrosion of 444-type heat-resistant ferritic stainless steel
  63. Effects of quenching and partitioning (Q&P) technology on microstructure and mechanical properties of VC particulate reinforced wear-resistant alloy
  64. Study on the erosion of Mo/ZrO2 alloys in glass melting process
  65. Effect of Nb addition on the solidification structure of Fe–Mn–C–Al twin-induced plasticity steel
  66. Damage accumulation and lifetime prediction of fiber-reinforced ceramic-matrix composites under thermomechanical fatigue loading
  67. Morphology evolution and quantitative analysis of β-MoO3 and α-MoO3
  68. Microstructure of metatitanic acid and its transformation to rutile titanium dioxide
  69. Numerical simulation of nickel-based alloys’ welding transient stress using various cooling techniques
  70. The local structure around Ge atoms in Ge-doped magnetite thin films
  71. Friction stir lap welding thin aluminum alloy sheets
  72. Review Article
  73. A review of end-point carbon prediction for BOF steelmaking process
https://doi.org/10.1515/htmp-2020-0055
Keywords for this article
resistance spot welding; duplex stainless steel; electrode tip diameter; welding current; tensile shear strength; nugget diameter
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Article
  2. Electrochemical reduction mechanism of several oxides of refractory metals in FClNaKmelts
  3. Study on the Appropriate Production Parameters of a Gas-injection Blast Furnace
  4. Microstructure, phase composition and oxidation behavior of porous Ti-Si-Mo intermetallic compounds fabricated by reactive synthesis
  5. Significant Influence of Welding Heat Input on the Microstructural Characteristics and Mechanical Properties of the Simulated CGHAZ in High Nitrogen V-Alloyed Steel
  6. Preparation of WC-TiC-Ni3Al-CaF2 functionally graded self-lubricating tool material by microwave sintering and its cutting performance
  7. Research on Electromagnetic Sensitivity Properties of Sodium Chloride during Microwave Heating
  8. Effect of deformation temperature on mechanical properties and microstructure of TWIP steel for expansion tube
  9. Effect of Cooling Rate on Crystallization Behavior of CaO-SiO2-MgO-Cr2O3 Based Slag
  10. Effects of metallurgical factors on reticular crack formations in Nb-bearing pipeline steel
  11. Investigation on microstructure and its transformation mechanisms of B2O3-SiO2-Al2O3-CaO brazing flux system
  12. Energy Conservation and CO2 Abatement Potential of a Gas-injection Blast Furnace
  13. Experimental validation of the reaction mechanism models of dechlorination and [Zn] reclaiming in the roasting steelmaking zinc-rich dust process
  14. Effect of substituting fine rutile of the flux with nano TiO2 on the improvement of mass transfer efficiency and the reduction of welding fumes in the stainless steel SMAW electrode
  15. Microstructure evolution and mechanical properties of Hastelloy X alloy produced by Selective Laser Melting
  16. Study on the structure activity relationship of the crystal MOF-5 synthesis, thermal stability and N2 adsorption property
  17. Laser pressure welding of Al-Li alloy 2198: effect of welding parameters on fusion zone characteristics associated with mechanical properties
  18. Microstructural evolution during high-temperature tensile creep at 1,500°C of a MoSiBTiC alloy
  19. Effects of different deoxidization methods on high-temperature physical properties of high-strength low-alloy steels
  20. Solidification pathways and phase equilibria in the Mo–Ti–C ternary system
  21. Influence of normalizing and tempering temperatures on the creep properties of P92 steel
  22. Effect of temperature on matrix multicracking evolution of C/SiC fiber-reinforced ceramic-matrix composites
  23. Improving mechanical properties of ZK60 magnesium alloy by cryogenic treatment before hot extrusion
  24. Temperature-dependent proportional limit stress of SiC/SiC fiber-reinforced ceramic-matrix composites
  25. Effect of 2CaO·SiO2 particles addition on dephosphorization behavior
  26. Influence of processing parameters on slab stickers during continuous casting
  27. Influence of Al deoxidation on the formation of acicular ferrite in steel containing La
  28. The effects of β-Si3N4 on the formation and oxidation of β-SiAlON
  29. Sulphur and vanadium-induced high-temperature corrosion behaviour of different regions of SMAW weldment in ASTM SA 210 GrA1 boiler tube steel
  30. Structural evidence of complex formation in liquid Pb–Te alloys
  31. Microstructure evolution of roll core during the preparation of composite roll by electroslag remelting cladding technology
  32. Improvement of toughness and hardness in BR1500HS steel by ultrafine martensite
  33. Influence mechanism of pulse frequency on the corrosion resistance of Cu–Zn binary alloy
  34. An interpretation on the thermodynamic properties of liquid Pb–Te alloys
  35. Dynamic continuous cooling transformation, microstructure and mechanical properties of medium-carbon carbide-free bainitic steel
  36. Influence of electrode tip diameter on metallurgical and mechanical aspects of spot welded duplex stainless steel
  37. Effect of multi-pass deformation on microstructure evolution of spark plasma sintered TC4 titanium alloy
  38. Corrosion behaviors of 316 stainless steel and Inconel 625 alloy in chloride molten salts for solar energy storage
  39. Determination of chromium valence state in the CaO–SiO2–FeO–MgO–CrOx system by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
  40. Electric discharge method of synthesis of carbon and metal–carbon nanomaterials
  41. Effect of high-frequency electromagnetic field on microstructure of mold flux
  42. Effect of hydrothermal coupling on energy evolution, damage, and microscopic characteristics of sandstone
  43. Effect of radiative heat loss on thermal diffusivity evaluated using normalized logarithmic method in laser flash technique
  44. Kinetics of iron removal from quartz under ultrasound-assisted leaching
  45. Oxidizability characterization of slag system on the thermodynamic model of superalloy desulfurization
  46. Influence of polyvinyl alcohol–glutaraldehyde on properties of thermal insulation pipe from blast furnace slag fiber
  47. Evolution of nonmetallic inclusions in pipeline steel during LF and VD refining process
  48. Development and experimental research of a low-thermal asphalt material for grouting leakage blocking
  49. A downscaling cold model for solid flow behaviour in a top gas recycling-oxygen blast furnace
  50. Microstructure evolution of TC4 powder by spark plasma sintering after hot deformation
  51. The effect of M (M = Ce, Zr, Ce–Zr) on rolling microstructure and mechanical properties of FH40
  52. Phase evolution and oxidation characteristics of the Nd–Fe–B and Ce–Fe–B magnet scrap powder during the roasting process
  53. Assessment of impact mechanical behaviors of rock-like materials heated at 1,000°C
  54. Effects of solution and aging treatment parameters on the microstructure evolution of Ti–10V–2Fe–3Al alloy
  55. Effect of adding yttrium on precipitation behaviors of inclusions in E690 ultra high strength offshore platform steel
  56. Dephosphorization of hot metal using rare earth oxide-containing slags
  57. Kinetic analysis of CO2 gasification of biochar and anthracite based on integral isoconversional nonlinear method
  58. Optimization of heat treatment of glass-ceramics made from blast furnace slag
  59. Study on microstructure and mechanical properties of P92 steel after high-temperature long-term aging at 650°C
  60. Effects of rotational speed on the Al0.3CoCrCu0.3FeNi high-entropy alloy by friction stir welding
  61. The investigation on the middle period dephosphorization in 70t converter
  62. Effect of cerium on the initiation of pitting corrosion of 444-type heat-resistant ferritic stainless steel
  63. Effects of quenching and partitioning (Q&P) technology on microstructure and mechanical properties of VC particulate reinforced wear-resistant alloy
  64. Study on the erosion of Mo/ZrO2 alloys in glass melting process
  65. Effect of Nb addition on the solidification structure of Fe–Mn–C–Al twin-induced plasticity steel
  66. Damage accumulation and lifetime prediction of fiber-reinforced ceramic-matrix composites under thermomechanical fatigue loading
  67. Morphology evolution and quantitative analysis of β-MoO3 and α-MoO3
  68. Microstructure of metatitanic acid and its transformation to rutile titanium dioxide
  69. Numerical simulation of nickel-based alloys’ welding transient stress using various cooling techniques
  70. The local structure around Ge atoms in Ge-doped magnetite thin films
  71. Friction stir lap welding thin aluminum alloy sheets
  72. Review Article
  73. A review of end-point carbon prediction for BOF steelmaking process
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