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A numerical study on the low-velocity impact behavior of the Twaron® fabric subjected to oblique impact

  • Canyi Huang , Lina Cui , Hong Xia , Yiping Qiu and Qing-Qing Ni EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: December 31, 2021
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REVIEWS ON ADVANCED MATERIALS SCIENCE
From the journal REVIEWS ON ADVANCED MATERIALS SCIENCE Volume 60 Issue 1

Abstract

In this study, a finite element low-velocity impact model of Twaron® plain-woven fabric was created and analyzed using the commercial code ANSYS®-AUTODYN, and then was validated by drop-weight impact experiments. As a bullet or a fragment can strike a protective system from any angle in space, it is necessary to investigate fragment impact behavior response to impact threats from all angles of space. Therefore, in-plane obliquity θ, and spatial obliquity φ, were employed in this study and 17 different simulation test impact scenarios with different impact obliquity values were carried out using a standard hemispherical-head impactor. Results showed that the energy absorption of Twaron® fabric decreases with increasing θ, whereas under the same θ, the energy absorption increases with increasing φ. This study also evaluated and compared the low-velocity impact performance of Twaron® fabric as a function of impactor shape, such as hemispherical, flat, and ogival heads, with different θ. The results showed that under the same density, volume, and diameter conditions and at the normal impact scenario of a flat-head impactor, the fracture mechanism of the yarn is the same with all impact scenarios for a hemispherical-head impactor; the contacted yarns of the fabric fractured almost simultaneously. For the other oblique impact scenarios of the flat-head impactor, as well as impact scenarios of the ogival-head impactor, the yarns of the fabric fractured intermittently. Additionally, for the impact scenario with the ogival-head impactor, the effect of impact obliquity on energy absorption of the fabric was completely opposite to that of the hemispherical-head impact scenario. This is because in the hemispherical-head impact scenario, the fabric yarn tends to be damaged by tension, whereas in the ogival-head impact scenario, the fabric tends to be damaged by out-of-plane shear. These findings provide important guidance for the engineering of soft body armor and composite materials.

Graphical abstract

Keywords: low-velocity impact; high-performance fabric; oblique impact; impactor shape

1 Introduction

High-performance fibers, such as carbon, glass, and aramid fiber, are developed with high tensile strength, modulus, and energy-absorbing capability because of their high degree of molecular chain alignment along the fiber direction. These fibers especially aramid is frequently used to produce protective textile material [1]. Twaron® (a registered trademark of Teijin, a type of aramid fabric) is similar to Kevlar® (a registered trademark of DuPont) and is among the high-performance fibers extensively used for flexible personnel ballistic protection armor because of its excellent properties, such as high stiffness, high strength-to-weight ratio, and good chemical and high temperature resistance [2].

For many decades, research on personal protective equipment with high-performance fabric as well as high- performance-fabric-based composite have become hot topics [3,4,5]. And researchers have adopted various methods and approaches to derive and understand the impact behavior of high-performance fabrics, including Twaron®, Kevlar®, and so on [6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21]. Although numerous studies on the ballistic behavior of high-performance fabrics have been conducted, most have focused on the response to projectile impact at normal incidence, whereas investigations into oblique impact are relatively scarce. The limited literature available can be summarized as follows. Shim et al. [22] carried out an experimental investigation into the response of a woven fabric and a pliable laminate of Twaron® CT716 subjected to oblique projectile impact. They reported that an increase in obliquity results in an initial decrease in the ballistic limit, followed by a slight increase. Yong et al. [23] applied both normal and oblique impacts to single plies of Twaron® fabric; their results showed that the ballistic limit increased with impact obliquity and the fabric generally absorbed more energy for a larger impact angle, especially for high-speed impact.

Tan et al. [24] conducted computational simulations of the response of a single ply of woven fabric under oblique impact, whereby the fabric is modeled as a network of pin-jointed viscoelastic elements with lumped masses at the nodes. Yarn crimp and the influence of strain rate on yarn failure were incorporated to improve simulation accuracy. Their results showed that in the low-impact energy regime, energy absorbed by the fabric decreased with an increase in obliquity; however, for high-speed impacts, a larger target inclination tended to result in greater energy absorption. Cunniff [25] compiled ballistic test data for compliant fragmentation protection armor composed of multiple fabric plies (nylon, Kevlar, Spectra, etc.) under normal and oblique impacts by various types of projectiles. Their results showed that compared to normal impact, fabric armor generally absorbed more energy for an oblique impact. Tapie et al. [26] applied normal and oblique impacts to woven fabric by experimental and simulation methods. They reported that in terms of impact obliquity, the ballistic limit increased with impact obliquity; this is because there was greater sliding of the projectile against the fabric as the impact angle increased, which offset the decrease in strain energy absorption.

It is worth noting that almost all existing studies related to high-performance fabrics have focused on medium- to high-velocity (30–1,000 m·s−1) low-mass projectiles. What we need to know is that with the technological development of high-performance-fabric-based composites in recent years [27,28], mechanical research like low-speed impact on these composite materials have also received great attention from researchers. However, research of low-velocity impact on pure high-performance fabrics is almost nonexistent. The reasons for this discrepancy are as follows. From an experimental point of view, when experiments use an impactor with high mass and low velocity, the test sample is always difficult to fix precisely because of the flexibility of the fabric, which results in inaccurate results. From a numerical analysis perspective, the CPU calculation time of low-velocity impacts may be a dozen times longer than that of high-velocity impacts because the low-velocity impactor takes much longer to penetrate the fabric and the time step in the explicit schema is always much lower to ensure calculation precision [29]. Therefore, in this study, the difficulties in low-velocity impacts are challenged first.

In addition, it is observed that most research has been carried out to predict the ballistic response of woven fabrics for normal impacts, whereas in field applications, the probability of a perfectly normal impact is negligible. In the small number of oblique impact studies mentioned above, these impact tests were conducted in only one plane, normal to the fabric and yarn direction, so sufficient analysis on the ballistic response of woven fabric when impacted obliquely has not yet been conducted. In actual situations, a bullet or fragment can strike a protective system at any angle in space; therefore, understanding the effect of the all-around impact obliquity and direction on the ballistic resistance of fabrics is important. In this study, the effects of oblique impact response of high-performance fabrics from different obliquity values and directions in space are also investigated. Furthermore, this study investigates the oblique impact on high-performance fabric under different impactor shapes, which has never before been reported in the literature.

Overall, for the engineering and development of ballistic fabrics with improved all-around impact resistance performance, it is crucial to better understand the low-velocity oblique impact behavior of high-performance Twaron® fabric, using experimental and numerical simulation methods. This work provides deeper insights into the nature of impact events.

2 Experimental and numerical simulation frameworks

2.1 Experimental setup

Drop-weight impact tests were conducted at room temperature using a commercial impact tester, INSTRON™ Pneumatic Dynatup System 9250HV, which is available in Shinshu University and shown in Figure 1. The test system is suitable for a wide variety of applications requiring low- to high-impact energies and uses a falling weight impactor with no energy storage device. The target holder sandwiches the specimen between two rectangular steel plates that have circular central holes (for a 7 cm-diameter test area). The impactor head is hemispherical with a standard diameter of 1.27 cm that was made from 4,340 steel for high rigidity. Once the impact begins, the impactor drops from a predetermined height and the steel hemispherical impactor hits the center of the test sample between the round-clamped plates. The impactor is guided by two smooth columns and can rebound automatically after its initial impact to avoid restrikes. The minimum impact weight was 7.07 kg and was used in all tests.

Figure 1 (Left) INSTRON™ pneumatic dynatup system 9250HV and (top) front and (bottom) side views of the specimen.
Figure 1

(Left) INSTRON™ pneumatic dynatup system 9250HV and (top) front and (bottom) side views of the specimen.

The fabric studied is the high-performance fabric Twaron® CT 612, a plain-woven aramid fabric made of poly(p-phenylene-terephthalamide). This fabric is manufactured using a plain weave of 11 × 11 yarns (per cm2), with each yarn consisting of 500 filaments. The bulk and linear densities are 1.44 g·cm−3 and 550 dtex, respectively. Fabrics, unlike hard materials, are too flexible to be fixed well for drop-weight impact. As a result, specimens used for impact tests need to be specially treated before the experiments. In this work, the fabric was first cut to a size of 10 cm × 10 cm, sandwiched between two treated plywood plates, and then bonded using superglue. The plywood plates were chosen because of their better adhesion to the fabric than other materials, such as metal and acrylic plates. The 5 mm-thick plywood plates were cut to a size of 10 cm × 10 cm, with a 7 cm-diameter hole cut into the middle, the same size as the pneumatic clamp hole. The surface of the plywood plates was sanded before being bonded to the fabric, to enhance adhesion. To ensure complete bonding, specimens were rested for 24 h at room temperature before testing. The front and side views of the specimen are shown in Figure 1.

2.2 Modeling of low-velocity impact on Twaron® fabric

2.2.1 Fabric and impact model

The numerical simulation model of the fabric and low-velocity impact follow the framework of our previous studies [29,30,31] and only aspects relevant to the present study are summarized here. The commercially available finite element (FE) code ANSYS® was used to simulate low-velocity impacts on high-performance Twaron® plain-woven fabric. The yarn was modeled as a lenticular shape in cross section and was considered a continuous solid with the same properties as the fibers, as done by many researchers [32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41].

The density of the yarn was modified from the density of Twaron® fibers using the simple tightest packing approach and by assuming that the fibers in the yarns have a circular cross section. A simple geometry of packing circles creates the tightest volume ratio of 0.91, resulting in ρ yarn = 1,310 kg·m−3, as opposed to ρ fiber = 1,440 kg·m−3. Micrographs of the fabric were obtained, and the dimensions of the fabric structure were measured. The fabric geometrical model was deduced from these measured data. In addition, according to the nature of the clamping used in the experimental tests, the fabric model was designed and created to be circular, with a diameter of 7 cm, and the circumference of the fabric was fixed as a boundary condition. Similarly, the impactor was simulated as a hemisphere head with a diameter of 1.27 cm. Figure 2 shows the impact model, and Table 1 gives the physical characteristics of the fabric material.

Figure 2 Low-velocity impact model.
Figure 2

Low-velocity impact model.

Table 1

Physical characteristics of the fabric

Fabric system Plain woven
Yarn count (yarns·cm−1, weft and warp) 11
Linear density (dtex) 550
Bulk density (kg·m−3) 1,310
Fabric thickness (mm) 0.2
Yarn wavelength (mm) 1.818
Yarn thickness (mm) 0.1
Yarn cross section width (mm) 0.902

Furthermore, a surface-to-surface contact algorithm was applied to the impactor/yarn and yarn/yarn contact in the impact model. Simple Coulomb friction was applied between yarns and between the impactor and the fabric. A friction coefficient of 0.3, which was obtained from our former study [30], was designated for yarn/yarn contact, whereas the friction coefficient of the impactor/yarn was set at 0.2. Standard earth gravity was applied to the model for authenticity. Mesh sensitivity studies for various element sizes have suggested that it is appropriate that the cross section of a single yarn was meshed using 10 elements, while through the yarn wavelength, 18 elements were meshed, which resulted in 138,480 8-node solid brick elements in the impact model.

2.2.2 Constitutive modeling

In most recently conducted research, high-performance yarns were modeled as elastic or transversely isotropic materials. However, polymeric fibers have been confirmed to be viscoelastic and their mechanical properties are rate dependent [42,43,44,45]. These mechanical behaviors cannot be captured by isotropic or transversely isotropic elastic material models. Hence, in this study, a viscoelastic constitutive model based on a five-element Prony series, which comprises two groups of spring-dashpot elements arranged in parallel with a single spring (shown in Figure 3), is used to fit the stress–strain data as it can provide good accuracy and ease of effectuation. The stress–strain relationship and elastic modulus in the Prony series model is defined by the following expressions:

(1) σ = E 1 ε + μ 2 ε ̇ 1 − exp − E 2 ε μ 2 ε ̇ + μ 3 ε ̇ 1 − exp − E 3 ε μ 3 ε ̇ ,

and

(2) E = E 1 + E 2 exp − E 2 ε μ 2 ε ̇ + E 3 exp − E 3 ε μ 3 ε ̇ ,

where σ, ε, and ε ̇ are the stress, strain, and strain rate, respectively. A fit with experimental stress–strain curves was made by Tapie et al. [26] using a least squares algorithm available in MATLAB to obtain E 1, E 2, E 3, µ 2, and µ 3. The parameters have been validated via simulation of actual tensile tests on Twaron® yarns, as well as by modeling of the projectile impact on the fabric. The model parameters followed in this study are given in Table 2.

Figure 3 Five-element Prony series model.
Figure 3

Five-element Prony series model.

Table 2

The model parameters

E 1 (GPa) E 2 (GPa) E 3 (GPa) μ 2 (Pa·s) μ 3 (Pa·s)
65 32 38 7.0 × 105 9.0 × 105

2.2.3 Failure criterion

The damage progression was modeled using the general erosion criteria for solid elements and with the Lagrange processor within ANSYSⓇ. In this study, element erosion considers the criterion of a maximum principal strain failure; that is, when ε ≥ ε f, the element is a failure and removed from the calculation, where ε f demonstrates the strain at the failure of the yarn. Shim et al. [44] investigated the dynamic stress–strain curves obtained from Hopkinson bar tests on Twaron® yarn and observed an increase in the failure stress of Twaron® yarn as the strain rate increased. Two response regimes for the variation of failure strain with strain rate can be proposed by the following equations:

(3) ε f = 0.04393 − 0.0108 ( ε ̇ / ε ̇ 0 ) , 100 s − 1 < ε < 410 s − 1 ,

and

(4) ε f = 0.0192 [ 1 + exp ( − 11.8 ( ε ̇ / ε ̇ 0 − 0.9725 ) ) ] 410 s − 1 < ε < 600 s − 1 ,

where ε ̇ 0 = 410 s−1 is the transition strain rate between the two regimes. In addition, Huang et al. [29] proposed a method of approximately calculating the strain rate for low-velocity drop-weight impacts. The statistical regression equation between the strain rate, ε ̇ , and initial impact velocity, V 0, can be expressed by

(5) ε ̇ = 1.725 V 0 2 + 8.214 .

Therefore, according to the above equations, the failure criterion can be established and applied in this study.

2.3 Model validation

Low-velocity impact tests of a single layer of Twaron® fabric were conducted at velocities between 8 and 16 m·s−1 (with an impact energy between 226.2 J and 905.0 J) in experiments based on the abovementioned experimental setup and with an interval of 2 m·s−1. To ensure repeatability, at least six specimens were tested repeatedly for each velocity specified in the experiment. Figure 4 shows the front and back views of the specimen after impact at 10 m·s−1. It can be clearly seen that the plywood plates play a role in fixing the circular boundary and obvious tensile, as well as fracture phenomenon occurs in the primary yarns (yarns directly in contact with the impactor). Simultaneously, FE simulations of the impact, based on the impact velocity of the experiment, were performed. Therefore, the results of the energy absorption of the fabric from the projectile in the experimental tests and FE simulations were compared. Figure 5 shows the correlation between the FE predictions and the average experimental results in terms of energy absorption and residual velocity. The gradients of the regression lines for energy absorption and residual velocity were 0.9907 and 0.9992, respectively, which indicates the validity of the model.

Figure 4 Both sides of the specimen after impact at 10 m·s−1.
Figure 4

Both sides of the specimen after impact at 10 m·s−1.

Figure 5 Comparison of FE simulation and experimental results for (a) energy absorption and (b) residual velocity.
Figure 5

Comparison of FE simulation and experimental results for (a) energy absorption and (b) residual velocity.

2.4 Simulation of fabric subjected to oblique impact

In this study, the fabric was modeled in the XZ plane and the interlacing warp and weft yarns were exactly parallel to the X and Z axes, whereas the impactor traveled along the Y axis in a normal impact scenario, as shown in Figure 2. When oblique impact events are implemented, the impactor always impacts the center of the fabric (the central axis of the impactor passes through the center point of the fabric), regardless of the impact obliquity. Figure 6 shows a schematic of an oblique impact, where point O is the center of the fabric model, θ is the in-plane obliquity (the angle between the impactor travel direction line and the Y axis), and φ is the spatial obliquity (the angle between the projection of the impact direction line on the XZ plane and the Z axis). In this study, θ was designated as 0°, 15°, 30°, 45°, and 60°, whereas φ was designated as 0°, 15°, 30°, and 45° by considering the symmetry characteristic of the fabric model in the XZ plane. Whatever the degree of φ, θ = 0° represents the normal impact scenario. Thus, 17 different obliquity impact scenarios were used in the present simulation work. In addition, as not all projectiles are going to impact body armor with a relatively blunt end and projectile-like flying fragments with different shapes may impact the armor, we also evaluated the low-velocity impact performance of Twaron® fabric impacted by different impactor head shapes (hemispherical, flat, and ogival). The impactors were designed to have the same density, volume, and diameter. The simulations were implemented in-plane; in other words, φ = 0°, whereas θ was 0°, 15°, 30°, 45°, or 60°. Figure 7 shows the types of impactors used. For an easy comparison, a uniform impact velocity of 10 m·s−1 was applied to all simulations. In other words, all impactors impacted the specimen with a uniform initial impact energy. Typically, it costs an average of 53 h to calculate one impact scenario using an Intel Xeon® 12 core CPU.

Figure 6 Schematic of an oblique impact.
Figure 6

Schematic of an oblique impact.

Figure 7 Different types of impactors used in our simulations.
Figure 7

Different types of impactors used in our simulations.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Effect of impact obliquity on low-velocity impact with a hemispherical impactor

The typical drop-weight penetration impact with a hemispherical-head impactor progresses by the impactor first impacting the fabric at a designated velocity. The yarns of the fabric are then stretched and deformed, and an impact resistance force is applied on the impactor. The impact resistance force increases sharply before eventually reaching a maximum, when the yarns reach their fracture limit and start to break. Subsequently, the fabric reaches complete failure.

3.1.1 Effect of impact obliquity on impact resistance force and resistance time

Resistance force is a key index that refers to the impact performance of a material and it is defined as the reaction force applied by the fabric to the impactor. The impact resistance time in this study refers to the time from the beginning of the impact to the moment the maximum resistance force is reached. The impact resistance force, as well as time duration, can intuitively reflect the ability of the material to resist impact.

In this study, the force–time history was plotted for comparison of the effect of impact obliquity. Figure 8(a)–(d) demonstrates the F–T curve with various impact obliquity values. When φ = 0°, the maximum resistance force dropped from 1287.4 N at the normal impact scenario to 964.1 N (74.9% of the normal impact scenario), when θ = 60° and the impact time duration increased from 0.643 to 1.178 ms (183% of the normal impact scenario). As a whole, when θ increases from 0° to 60°, regardless of φ, the maximum impact resistance force always shows a gradual decreasing trend whereas the impact resistance time shows a gradual increasing trend. To investigate the effect clearly, Figure 9(a) and (b) were also plotted. These plots distinctly reveal that under the same θ, the maximum resistance force and time duration increase when φ increases. In addition, the effect of θ on the maximum resistance force became less significant as φ increases, whereas the effect of θ on the time duration became more significant as φ increases.

Figure 8 Force–time history of impact when φ = (a) 0°, (b) 15°, (c), 30°, and (d) 45°.
Figure 8

Force–time history of impact when φ = (a) 0°, (b) 15°, (c), 30°, and (d) 45°.

Figure 9 Effects of impact obliquity θ and φ on (a) the maximum resistance force and (b) impact duration time.
Figure 9

Effects of impact obliquity θ and φ on (a) the maximum resistance force and (b) impact duration time.

3.1.2 Effect of impact obliquity on failure deflection and energy absorption

When the fabric is impacted obliquely, the velocity of the impactor can be decomposed into a normal component (perpendicular to the fabric plane) and a tangential component (parallel to the fabric plane). This allows the failure deflection of the fabric to be decomposed into normal and tangential components. Failure deflection refers to the deflection of the impactor at the moment of fabric failure and is considered an important index to reflect the impact behavior of soft body armor.

In this study, the total failure deflection (the distance the impactor moves from the beginning of the impact to the second failure of the fabric) and normal failure deflection are investigated. As shown in Figure 10(a) and (b), the total failure deflection increases as θ increases, which indicates that the impactor needs to travel a larger distance to penetrate the fabric when the impact obliquity increases. While it is interesting to find the situation that is completely opposite of normal failure deflection, this result is the normal component of the impactor velocity that drops as the impact obliquity increases.

Figure 10 Effects of impact obliquity θ and φ on (a) total deflection, (b) normal deflection, and (c) energy absorption.
Figure 10

Effects of impact obliquity θ and φ on (a) total deflection, (b) normal deflection, and (c) energy absorption.

Furthermore, under the same θ, the increase in φ causes the increase in both the total and normal failure deflection. The failure deflection in the normal impact scenario is 6.54 mm and at the impact scenarios of θ = 60° and φ = 45°, the largest total failure deflection of 12.32 mm (188.3% of the normal impact scenario) is achieved. The impact scenario of θ = 60° and φ = 0° results in the smallest normal failure deflection of 5.88 mm (89.9% of the normal impact scenario). These results indicated that although the impactor travels a larger distance before the failure of the fabric when θ is larger, the normal distance the impactor travels decreases. Additionally, the increase in φ results in more total and normal failure deflection.

Moreover, during an impact event, energy absorbed by the fabric is converted into strain energy derived from stretching of the yarns and kinetic energy because of transverse deflection of the fabric and inward movement of the yarn material toward the impact point. A portion of the energy is also dissipated through frictional losses. The simulation results of Tan et al. [24] showed that in the low-impact energy regime, the energy absorbed by the fabric decreases with fabric inclination, which concurs in the current observations.

Figure 10(c) shows the effects of θ and φ on energy absorption. This behavior is similar to the effect on the maximum resistance force shown in Figure 9(a) because the energy-absorption capacity is directly proportional to the maximum resistance force. The energy absorption in the normal impact scenario is 1.96 J, which then reduced to 1.30 J (66.3% of the energy absorption of normal impact) and 1.43 J (73.0% of the energy absorption of normal impact) in the θ = 60°, φ = 0° and θ = 60°, and φ = 45° scenarios, respectively. The increase in θ resulted in lower energy-absorption ability, whereas under the same θ, a larger φ (0° < φ < 45°) led to the higher energy-absorption ability of the fabric during the impact event. It is predicted that when the angle exceeds 45°, the energy-absorption ability will begin to fall because of the symmetry of the fabric.

3.1.3 Effect of impact obliquity on stress distribution

The impact response of the fabric is dominated by the propagation of two types of waves. The transverse wave causes fabric deflection in the primary yarns (yarns directly in contact with the impactor) and the longitudinal wave generates stress waves in the material, which propagate at the sound speed of the yarn material down the axis of the yarns. Longitudinal wave travels much faster than the transverse wave. Under the low-velocity impact events in this study, as the time for a longitudinal wave to propagate from the center to the boundary of the specimen is short (a few microseconds) compared to the propagation time for transverse wave (milliseconds), the variation in stress distribution is affected mainly by transverse waves.

Figure 11 shows the variation in the von Mises stress distribution contours of the fabric undergoing different degrees of oblique impact at certain moments and affected by transverse waves before fracture. Figure 11(a) and (b) demonstrates the stress distribution contours at the impact scenarios φ = 0° and φ = 45°, respectively. These stress distribution contours show that when θ increases, the stress response of the fabric to the impactor is slower, while the impact resistance time increases. In other words, the transverse wave travels deeper and the force acting on the normal surface of the fabric becomes smaller at the same moment of the impact process when θ increases.

Figure 11 Variation in von Mises stress distribution contours at different moments: φ = (a) 0°, (b) 45°, and (c) θ = 0°.
Figure 11

Variation in von Mises stress distribution contours at different moments: φ = (a) 0°, (b) 45°, and (c) θ = 0°.

Meanwhile, although the impact direction of the impactor directly faces the center of the fabric specimen, as θ increases, the first contact point between the impactor and the fabric becomes farther away from the specimen center. This phenomenon causes the stress center to deviate from the specimen center at the beginning of the impact. However, as the impact process progresses, the stress center gradually approaches the specimen center.

In additon, from Figure 11(c), it can be concluded that the transverse wave propagates faster when φ increases. The stress response of the fabric to the impactor is stronger and larger at the same moment of the impact process before fracture. From the symmetry of the fabric material, φ = 45° is a turning point, and it is predicted that when the angle exceeds 45°, the situation will be reversed. Under the same θ, the impact stiffness of the plain-woven fabric is best at φ = 45°.

3.2 Effect of impact obliquity with different impactor shapes

3.2.1 Effect of impact obliquity on various impact indicators

Data for four key indicators representing low-velocity impact behavior of the fabric are plotted in Figure 12(a) and (b). Figure 12(a) demonstrates that the fabric subjected to normal impact with a flat-head impactor scenario achieves the largest maximum resistance force (F max) among all impact scenarios. Following the increase in θ, the maximum resistance force shows a rapid downward trend in the flat-head impactor scenario, whereas it shows a slow downward trend in the hemispherical-head impactor scenario, as discussed in Section 3.1.

Figure 12 Effects of impact obliquity on (a) the maximum resistance force and impact resistance time and (b) energy absorption and normal failure deflection.
Figure 12

Effects of impact obliquity on (a) the maximum resistance force and impact resistance time and (b) energy absorption and normal failure deflection.

In contrast, a slow growing trend is observed for the ogival-head impactor scenario, which is consistent with the impact result of a high-velocity impact event with a low-mass projectile concluded by Tan et al. [24]. The main reason for this behavior is that the main failure mode of yarn subjected to low-velocity impact is tensile fracture, whereas that of yarn subjected to high-velocity impact is out-of-plane shearing fracture. Obviously, the fabric suffers a similar fracture mode at the sharp-tip-impactor impact scenario.

In addition, as the maximum resistance force has a direct and positive correlation with energy absorption (E ab), the energy-absorption capacity in all impactor scenarios shows the same trend as the maximum resistance force, which can be seen in Figure 12(b). These results show that for the blunt impactor, the impact resistance ability of the fabric is the best in the normal direction, whereas for the sharp impactor, the fabric is most vulnerable in the normal direction.

In addition, regardless of the type of impactor, a gradually increasing trend following impact obliquity increase is found in the impact resistance time (T). For the normal failure deflection (D), both hemispherical and flat impactor scenarios show a downward trend, whereas the ogival impactor scenario demonstrates a downward trend before θ = 45° and a rebound after θ = 45°. The reason for this phenomenon is that during the impact process, when the impact obliquity is over 45°, obvious slippage occurs and the side part of the ogival-head impactor contacts the fabric before the tip of the impactor. This phenomenon is further analyzed in Section 3.2.2.

3.2.2 Effect of impact obliquity on fabric fracture mechanism

For the hemispherical-head impactor scenario, regardless of the impact obliquity, the fracture of yarns appears almost simultaneously. This can be inferred by the fact that the impact resistance force drops sharply after reaching the maximum value. For impact scenarios of flat- and ogival-head impactors, at all impact scenarios except the normal impact scenario of the flat-head impactor, the yarns of the fabric fracture intermittently, resulting in an unstable and fluctuating state of impact resistance force. Figure 13 demonstrates F–T curves of the normal and θ = 30° impact scenarios with three different types of impactor heads. The failure mode of the fabric in the normal impact scenario with the flat-head impactor is similar to that with the hemispherical-head impactor.

Figure 13 F–T curves of normal and θ = 30° impact scenarios using different types of impactor heads.
Figure 13

F–T curves of normal and θ = 30° impact scenarios using different types of impactor heads.

To investigate the fabric failure mechanism in depth, we divided the entire impact process into three stages. The interval from the beginning of the impact to the moment the fracture begins is called Stage 1. Sequentially, the interval between the beginning of the fracture and reaching the maximum resistance force is Stage 2, and the remaining time interval is Stage 3. The duration of Stage 1 reflects the initial penetration resistance ability of the fabric, whereas the duration of Stage 2 reflects the endurance of the fabric to the fracture process. The durations of Stages 1 and 2 are provided in Table 3.

Table 3

Durations of Stages 1 and 2 at impact obliquity 0°–60° with different impactor shapes (ms)

Hemispherical Flat Ogival
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 1 Stage 2
θ = 0° 0.643 0 0.606 0 0.424 0.048
θ = 15° 0.646 0 0.546 0.04 0.414 0.145
θ = 30° 0.702 0 0.383 0.175 0.353 0.304
θ = 45° 0.853 0 0.331 0.394 0.222 0.594
θ = 60° 1.178 0 0.521 0.247 0.818 0.102

As the primary yarns break at the moment when the contact resistance force reaches its maximum value, the durations of Stage 2 of the hemispherical-head impactor scenarios at all impact obliquity values, as well as the normal impact scenario of the flat-head impactor, are zero. For the other impact scenarios, regardless of the flat or ogival impactor head type, the duration of Stage 1 demonstrates a continuous growth tendency from impact obliquity values of 0° to 45°. The duration began to fall when the impact obliquity was over 45°, whereas the duration of Stage 2 demonstrates a completely opposite trend.

The Stage 2 duration first decreases and then increases at a 45° inflection point. This illustrates that the fabric is most easily initially fractured by sharp objects at θ = 45° impact (judging by the shortest Stage 1). However, this does not mean that the fabric is weakest in energy absorption at this impact obliquity, because the endurance ability of the fracture process is excellent at θ = 45° for the longest duration of Stage 2.

Overall, under the low-velocity impact scenario with the hemispherical-head impactor, as well as the normal impact scenario of the flat-head impactor, the fabric yarn tends to be damaged by tension. For the scenario of the flat-head impactor (excluding the normal impact scenario), the fabric tends to be first damaged by out-of-plane shear and then tension because the obliquity angle makes the edge of the flat-head impactor form a sharp shearing angle with the fabric. For the ogival-head impactor scenario, the fabric tends to be damaged by out-of-plane shear.

3.3 Effect of impact obliquity on fabric initial fracture position and transverse deformation

To discover more details on the effect of impact obliquity, the side views of the impact scenarios with different impactor shapes under different impact obliquity values at the moment fracture begins are plotted in Figure 14. For the impact scenario of the hemispherical-head impactor, the position of the initial fracture of the fabric is located almost at the center of the fabric, regardless of impact obliquity. As in the case of the normal impact scenario of the flat-head impactor, the initial fracture position of the fabric is located around the circumference of the impact contact surface with the flat-head impactor.

Figure 14 Side view comparison of impact scenarios with different impactor shapes under different impact obliquity values at the moment of fracture.
Figure 14

Side view comparison of impact scenarios with different impactor shapes under different impact obliquity values at the moment of fracture.

However, at the other impact scenarios of the flat-head impactor, the position of the initial fracture of the fabric deviates from the center of the fabric. This is because the position at which the bottom edge of the impactor first hits the fabric is not located at the fabric center owing to the influence of impact obliquity. Then, at all impact scenarios of the ogival-head impactor, except at θ = 60°, the position of the initial fracture of the fabric is located in the center of the fabric because the tip of the impactor first hits the fabric, and at the impact scenario of the ogival-head impactor with θ = 60°, obvious slippage occurred during the impact process, causing the initial fracture position to deviate from the center of the fabric.

From Figure 14, we also observe a nipple-shaped transverse deformation at impact scenarios of the hemispherical-head impactor. The deformation amplitude, which can be quantified by the normal failure deflection discussed earlier, decreases with the increase in impact obliquity. Simultaneously, inverted trapezoid-shaped deformation occurred at the normal impact scenario of the flat-head impactor, whereas asymmetric cone-shaped deformation occurred at the other flat-head impactor scenarios.

The deformation amplitude also decreases with the increase in the impact obliquity. As to the impact scenarios of the ogival-head impactor, symmetrical cone-shaped deformation was found in all scenarios, except θ = 60°, whereas approximate nipple-shaped deformation was found at θ = 60° because of impactor slippage and the fact that the side part of the impactor contacts the fabric before the tip. Thus, the deformation amplitude first decreases and then increases, with θ = 45° as the turning point, which is consistent with the analysis discussed previously.

4 Conclusion

In this study, a low-velocity impact model of Twaron® plain-woven fabric was proposed and validated by experiments. The in-plane obliquity θ, and the spatial obliquity φ, were utilized to create 17 different impact scenarios for simulation tests. In addition, the low-velocity impact performance of Twaron® fabric impacted by different impactor head shapes (hemispherical, flat, and ogival) with different θ were evaluated. This study suggests the following findings:

  • FE analysis results of the low-velocity impact of Twaron® fabric agreed well with the experimental results, suggesting that it is valid to apply the proposed model to investigate the following problems.

  • The energy-absorption capacity of the fabric during an impact event is directly proportional to the maximum resistance force. In a low-velocity impact event, the energy absorption of the fabric decreases with the increase in the in-plane obliquity, whereas the impact resistance time shows a gradual increasing trend. In the case with the same θ, both the energy absorption and impact resistance time of the fabric increase with increasing φ (0° < φ < 45°). In addition, the total failure deflection of the fabric increases with increasing θ, whereas the normal failure deflection has the opposite trend. In the case of the same θ, both the total and normal failure deflection increase with increasing φ (0° < φ < 45°). It is predicted that when the angle exceeds 45°, the results will show an opposite trend because of the symmetry of the fabric.

  • For a low-velocity impact event, the variation in stress distribution is affected mainly by transverse waves. The transverse wave travels deeper and the force acting on the normal surface of the fabric becomes smaller at the same moment during the impact process when θ increases. The transverse wave propagates faster when the impact angle φ (0° < φ < 45°) increases.

  • Under the same density, volume, and diameter conditions, the fabric shows excellent energy-absorption ability for the normal impact scenario with the flat-head impactor. The fracture mechanism of the yarn in this scenario with the hemispherical-head impactor is the same for all impact scenarios, i.e., the contacted yarns of the fabric fracture almost simultaneously. For the other oblique impact scenarios of the flat-head impactor, as well as those of the ogival-head impactor, the yarns of the fabric fracture intermittently.

  • At all hemispherical-head impact scenarios, as well as normal impact scenarios of the flat-head impactor, the fabric yarn tends to be damaged by tension. At the scenario of the flat-head impactor (excluding the normal impact scenario), the fabric tends to be first damaged by out-of-plane shear and then by tension, whereas for the scenario of the ogival-head impact, the fabric tends to be damaged by out-of-plane shear. As a result, for the impact scenario of the ogival-head impactor, the effect of impact obliquity on energy absorption of the fabric is completely opposite to that of the hemispherical-head impact scenario; that is, the energy absorption of the fabric increases with increasing θ.

Acknowledgement

The authors would like to thank to Key Laboratory of Textiles Inspection Technology of Fujian Fiber Inspection Center for the financial support of this work.

  1. Funding information: This research was funded by Key Laboratory of Textiles Inspection Technology (Fujian Fiber Inspection Center) Fujian Province (CN)[No. 2020-MXJ-02].

  2. Authors contribution: Conceptualization, Canyi Huang; methodology, Canyi Huang and Lina Cui; formal analysis, Canyi Huang and Lina Cui; investigation, Lina Cui; writing – original draft preparation, Canyi Huang; writing – review and editing, Hong Xia and Qing-Qing Ni; supervision, Qing-Qing Ni and Yiping Qiu.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2021-06-25
Revised: 2021-09-09
Accepted: 2021-10-04
Published Online: 2021-12-31

© 2021 Canyi Huang et al., published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/rams-2021-0077
Keywords for this article
low-velocity impact; high-performance fabric; oblique impact; impactor shape
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

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  50. Structural and hydrogen storage characterization of nanocrystalline magnesium synthesized by ECAP and catalyzed by different nanotube additives
  51. Mechanical property of octahedron Ti6Al4V fabricated by selective laser melting
  52. Physical analysis of TiO2 and bentonite nanocomposite as adsorbent materials
  53. The optimization of friction disc gear-shaping process aiming at residual stress and machining deformation
  54. Optimization of EI961 steel spheroidization process for subsequent use in additive manufacturing: Effect of plasma treatment on the properties of EI961 powder
  55. Effect of ultrasonic field on the microstructure and mechanical properties of sand-casting AlSi7Mg0.3 alloy
  56. Influence of different material parameters on nonlinear vibration of the cylindrical skeleton supported prestressed fabric composite membrane
  57. Investigations of polyamide nano-composites containing bentonite and organo-modified clays: Mechanical, thermal, structural and processing performances
  58. Conductive thermoplastic vulcanizates based on carbon black-filled bromo-isobutylene-isoprene rubber (BIIR)/polypropylene (PP)
  59. Effect of bonding time on the microstructure and mechanical properties of graphite/Cu-bonded joints
  60. Study on underwater vibro-acoustic characteristics of carbon/glass hybrid composite laminates
  61. A numerical study on the low-velocity impact behavior of the Twaron® fabric subjected to oblique impact
  62. Erratum
  63. Erratum to “Effect of PVA fiber on mechanical properties of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete”
  64. Topical Issue on Advances in Infrastructure or Construction Materials – Recycled Materials, Wood, and Concrete
  65. Structural performance of textile reinforced concrete sandwich panels under axial and transverse load
  66. An overview of bond behavior of recycled coarse aggregate concrete with steel bar
  67. Development of an innovative composite sandwich matting with GFRP facesheets and wood core
  68. Relationship between percolation mechanism and pore characteristics of recycled permeable bricks based on X-ray computed tomography
  69. Feasibility study of cement-stabilized materials using 100% mixed recycled aggregates from perspectives of mechanical properties and microstructure
  70. Effect of PVA fiber on mechanical properties of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete
  71. Research on nano-concrete-filled steel tubular columns with end plates after lateral impact
  72. Dynamic analysis of multilayer-reinforced concrete frame structures based on NewMark-β method
  73. Experimental study on mechanical properties and microstructures of steel fiber-reinforced fly ash-metakaolin geopolymer-recycled concrete
  74. Fractal characteristic of recycled aggregate and its influence on physical property of recycled aggregate concrete
  75. Properties of wood-based composites manufactured from densified beech wood in viscoelastic and plastic region of the force-deflection diagram (FDD)
  76. Durability of geopolymers and geopolymer concretes: A review
  77. Research progress on mechanical properties of geopolymer recycled aggregate concrete
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