Land use management solutions in response to climate change: Case study in the central coastal areas of Vietnam
-
Tran Trong Phuong
and
Tran Duc Vien
Abstract
Vietnam is highly susceptible to climate change, which has significantly affected its agricultural production. Therefore, sustainable land use that adapts to climate change is a crucial research topic. This study was conducted in Loc Ha district, Ha Tinh province in central Vietnam, an area particularly vulnerable to climate change. The results indicate an increasing trend in temperature and rainfall, with flooding being the primary impact of climate change on agriculture, while drought has a moderate impact. This study assessed the suitability of land in the Loc Ha district to facilitate land use planning in line with climate change conditions until 2035. The land suitability analysis in Loc Ha district reveals that the district has 12 soil types across 8 soil groups, divided into 55 land units with varying characteristics. Adapting land use management to the climate change situation is an effective solution for agricultural development in the research area and across Vietnam in the future.
1 Introduction
Vietnam is an emerging country that is extremely affected by climate change because of its distinctive topography, with a long coast of approximately 3,260 km [1,2,3,4]. Climate change significantly impacts all facets of Vietnam’s economy and social life [5]. Specifically, a 1-m rise in sea level could result in Vietnam losing 5% of its land area, primarily agricultural land. This could lead to a 7% reduction in agricultural production, affecting 11% of the population, and cause up to a 10% decrease in gross domestic product [6]. Climate change directly raises atmospheric temperature, alters rainfall patterns, increases sea levels, and escalates the risk of various natural disasters such as droughts, heatwaves, floods, and tropical storms [7]. Additionally, it has secondary and synergistic impacts when combined with other economic, political, and social factors. Climate change influences almost all aspects of socio-economic life, but it most severely impacts agricultural production. This affects the livelihoods of millions of farmers and directly threatens national food security [8,9].
Over the past 60 years (from 1958 to 2018), climate change in Vietnam has shown a complex pattern of increasing temperatures and rainfall. The maximum temperature and the average number of hot days have risen across all regions of the country, particularly in recent years. Conversely, the average number of cold days per year has decreased. However, more severe cold spells and instances of snowfall have occurred in Vietnam, with snowfall observed in some northern mountainous provinces during the winters of 2008, 2015, and 2016. Heavy rain has increased in both quantity and intensity, especially with an unpredictable trend in recent years [10]. These changes in climate have significantly impacted Vietnam’s agricultural production. They have altered natural cultivation conditions and crop seasons and have led to an increase in diseases and other adverse factors. These changes present challenges to the entire agricultural production system of Vietnam, causing heavy losses and threatening the sustainability of the agriculture sector in the future.
Statistics show that agricultural land in Vietnam spans 26,439,300 ha, comprising 79.82% of the total natural land area. Land degradation is prevalent across various regions. As of 2016, the total degraded land area stands at about 1,307,000 ha, which is 4% of the total area. Land showing signs of degradation covers 2,398,200 ha or 7.3% of the natural land area. Land at risk of degradation is 6,695,000 ha, making up 20.3% of the natural land area [11]. So, over 10 million ha, or 31% of the total natural area, are affected by land degradation. Many factors contribute to this degradation, with climate change noted as a significant cause [10]. Various studies in Vietnam reveal that hot weather and water shortages accelerate the drying and desertification of agricultural land [12]. Moreover, floods and inundation result in nutrient leaching, decreasing soil fertility [13].
Vietnam is among the countries most severely impacted by sea level rise, particularly the Mekong Delta, which is one of the three most vulnerable deltas worldwide [6]. Estimates suggest that without effective preventive measures, a 1-m sea level rise would submerge about 40% of the Mekong Delta, 11% of the Red River Delta, and 3% of other coastal provinces. Such flooding would inundate nearly 50% of the Mekong Delta’s agricultural land, rendering it uncultivable [10]. Additionally, rising sea levels and mainland freshwater shortages will exacerbate the salinization process in estuarine and coastal areas. The most significant risk of agricultural land salinization is in the Red River Delta, Mekong Delta, and central coastal plains due to their low elevation relative to sea level. Increased salinization can reduce the land use rate from 3 to 4 times per year to just 1–1.5 times [14]. In the 2020 dry season, salinization affected nearly 340,000 ha of rice and 136,000 ha of fruit trees in the Mekong Delta provinces. Central Vietnam was also severely impacted, with salinization affecting over 57% of its agricultural land [15].
It is believed that adapting traditional agricultural practices to be environmentally sustainable can help Vietnam’s agriculture sector tackle the challenges posed by climate change. It is crucial to use existing land resources wisely to develop agriculture under these complex conditions. This study proposes solutions for the effective management of land resources, laying a sustainable foundation for the restructuring of agriculture and rural areas in Vietnam. Therefore, this research contributes to the sustainable development of Vietnam’s agriculture and its adaptability to climate change.
2 Materials and methods
2.1 Description of the study area
This study took place in Loc Ha District, situated in the northern part of Ha Tinh province in central Vietnam. With a total natural area of 11697.31 ha (as of 2022), Loc Ha District comprises 12 administrative units. These include Loc Ha town, the district capital, and 11 communes: Binh An, Ho Do, Hong Loc, Ich Hau, Mai Phu, Phu Luu, Tan Loc, Thach Chau, Thach Kim, Thach My, and Thinh Loc (Figure 1). Loc Ha district, a coastal area in Ha Tinh province, has the potential for developing agriculture and aquaculture. However, it frequently suffers from climate change and natural disasters. In recent years, Loc Ha district has been advancing agricultural restructuring and sustainable land use management to adapt to the intricate climate change situation in Vietnam.
Geographic location map of Loc Ha district, Ha Tinh province. Source: Map retrieved from consensus data, 2022.
2.2 Data collection
2.2.1 Secondary data collection
Data on natural and socio-economic conditions, meteorological and hydrological information, and land management and land use during 2000–2020 were collected from relevant authorities [16,17]. These include the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, the Ha Tinh Department of Natural Resources and Environment, the Loc Ha District Department of Natural Resources and Environment, and other specialized agencies.
2.2.2 Greenhouse gas emission
In 2013, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change released updated scenarios, with Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) being used to replace the Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES). The RCPs are selected to represent emission scenario groups and ensure a reasonable coverage of the range of future greenhouse gas concentrations. The RCPs also ensure consistency with the SRES scenarios [18]. The criteria for developing RCPs include the following:
RCPs must be based on previously published scenarios, independently developed by different modeling groups, and “representative” in terms of emission levels and greenhouse gas concentrations. At the same time, each RCP must describe the future in a reasonable and consistent manner (without overlap between RCPs).
RCPs must provide information on all components of radiative forcing necessary as input for climate models and atmospheric modeling (greenhouse gas emissions, air pollution, and land use). Moreover, this information is available for geographic regions.
RCPs can be defined according to baseline data for emissions and land use, allowing for conversion between baseline and future analyses.
RCPs can be constructed for the period up to 2100 and several centuries beyond 2100.
Based on the above criteria, four RCP scenarios (RCP8.5, RCP6.0, RCP4.5, and RCP2.6) have been developed. The names of the scenarios are formed by combining RCP and the magnitude of the total radiative forcing of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere by the year 2100. In this study, RCP 8.5 and RCP 4.5 were applied.
2.2.3 Flood assessment method
The identification of flood-prone areas due to sea-level rise relies on two main data sources: the digital elevation model (DEM) and sea-level rise values from the 2016 climate change scenario. The process involves the following steps:
Step 1: Using the DEM, classify pixels into two groups based on sea-level rises of 22, 50, and 100 cm. Group 1 consists of pixels with elevation values less than the sea-level rise (Gridcode = 1). Group 2 comprises pixels with elevations higher than the sea-level rise (Gridcode = 0).
Step 2: Convert the classification results from Step 1 from raster to vector format (polygon). Remove polygons with a Gridcode value of 0.
Step 3: Exclude current river and lake areas from zones flooded due to sea-level rise. Use the Erase function to remove these duplicated areas.
Step 4: Use commune and town boundary data along with the spatial analysis tools within ArcGIS to calculate flood area statistics.
2.3 Method for land suitability evaluation
2.3.1 Land suitability classification
The assessment or classification of land suitability for a specific type of land use depends on that use’s requirements and constraints. This study primarily focuses on agricultural land use, specifically annual and perennial crops, as determined through data collection and field surveys.
The matching process leads to a ranking of land potential for a specific purpose. The final result of the land evaluation is a map dividing the selected area into suitability levels or land unit indices for the proposed land use. This process uses two methods: the classification system and the land suitability assessment method.
Two important groups of land attributes for analyzing land suitability are land characteristics and external features. In this study, soil characteristics, topographic factors, and management represent all groups.
Land use factors are the characteristics of land use in the study area, such as land use types or land cover, which determine appropriate soil attribute requirements. This study focuses on agricultural land use (annual and perennial crops), identified through data collection and field surveys.
Step 1: Determine individual rankings of land characteristics.
Soil, topography, and management, variables in each group are first examined and evaluated independently from the collected data.
Soil property assessment is based on available soil maps with clear boundaries.
Irrigated areas are identified from water resource data, and topography is based on DEM.
Step 2: Group rankings of land characteristics.
The soil attributes in each group are then combined using the “combination” function.
The result is land capability or soil mapping units indicating areas.
Step 3: Calculate land suitability indices
Land use requirements are described by the soil qualities necessary for sustainable production.
Soil quality is a complex attribute that directly influences land use.
At this stage, based on the operation of each cell/plot in the GIS database, all soil variable groups and land requirements are used to generate overall indices of land suitability for cultivation. This study uses four commonly used levels of land suitability classification based on the scoring method:
Highly suitable (S1): >75 points,
Moderately suitable (S2): 50–75 points,
Marginally suitable (S3): 25–50 points,
Not suitable (N): <25 points.
2.3.2 Multi-criteria analysis
The analytical hierarchy process combined with the pairwise comparison method is used in land suitability classification to calculate the suitability score for land units.
2.3.3 Land use efficiency assessment methods
The efficiency of agricultural land use in the research area is evaluated based on economic, social, and environmental aspects. Experts assess the efficiency of each aspect at three levels: high, medium, and low. In this research, a total of 20 experts of whom 5 experts with the field of land management, 8 experts with the background in agriculture, 4 experts with the background of agricultural economics, and three experts with the background of planning policy were interviewed. The questionnaires were analyzed and integrated with land use data for better linkage.
From an economic aspect, the efficiency of agricultural land use reflects the profitability of land resources, such as generating income and profit per unit of land area within a specific production cycle. From a social perspective, land use efficiency reflects the extent to which social issues are addressed, such as poverty alleviation, job creation, and improving the educational level of the population [19].
3 Results and discussion
3.1 Drought and flood risk of Loc Ha district
3.1.1 Risk of drought
According to both the RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 scenarios, rainfall in Loc Ha district is projected to increase significantly. Rainfall will rise by 72–140% at the beginning of the century, 123–144% by mid-century, and 11–177% by the end of the century. Under the RCP8.5 scenario, average annual rainfall is expected to increase by 125–167% at the start of the century, 81–150% by mid-century, and 54–149% by the end of the century. Figure 2 shows that temperature, both scenarios predict a common increase of 0.7°C at the beginning of the century, 1.3–1.4°C by mid-century, and 1.7–1.8°C by the end of the century. This is anticipated to increase the district’s evaporation rate by 26–34% and 26–134% for the RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 scenarios, respectively, from 2016 to 2035.
Temperature variation according to the RCP4.5 and RCP8.5.
3.1.2 Drought risk assessment according to RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 scenarios
The drought index Ky (formula 1), calculated based on rainfall (R) and temperature (T), indicates a decreasing trend in drought for Loc Ha district from 2016 to 2035. Only 1.19% of the area is expected to experience light drought, and 12.03% will experience moderate drought.
3.1.3 Flood risk assessment
Under a sea level rise scenario of 50 cm (RCP4.5), nine communes in the district face a flooding risk, covering a total area of 5266.77 ha or 44.9% of the district’s natural area. This area is primarily concentrated in the Ho Do and Thach Kim communes, which span 1427.70 and 1117.16 ha, respectively. The communes of Ích Hậu and Thạch Châu have flooded areas about half that of Thach Kim, measuring 585.24 and 571.57 ha, respectively. Meanwhile, Thinh Loc commune has the smallest flooded area of 12.26 ha.
In the 100 cm sea level rise scenario (RCP8.5), three additional communes – Binh Loc, Hong Loc, and Tan Loc – are at risk of flooding. Binh Loc and Tan Loc communes face relatively small flooded areas, covering 25.41 ha and 11.17 ha, respectively. In this scenario, Ich Hau and Ho Do become the two communes with the largest flooded areas, encompassing 3791.55 ha and 3767.97 ha, respectively. Thach My (2726.38 ha), Phu Luu (2232.38 ha), and Mai Phu (2051.31 ha) are the three communes with flooded areas of over 200 ha. The remaining communes have flooded areas ranging from 100 to 200 ha. Climate change is projected to increase rainfall and temperature in Loc Ha district, Ha Tinh province, significantly impacting agricultural production conditions. The district’s drought trend is expected to decrease slightly, while the flood risk is set to increase from 2016 to 2035 in both low-emission (RCP4.5) and medium-emission (RCP8.5) scenarios.
3.2 Land suitability classification
3.2.1 Soil characteristics and distribution in Loc Ha district
Soil type indicates the fundamental physical and chemical characteristics of the soil, giving a broad sense of its appropriateness for crops. The survey and evaluation indicate that the Loc Ha district has 12 distinct soil types, falling into 8 primary soil groups (Table 1).
Area structure of land units in Loc Ha district
| Group | Soil type | Symbol | Area (ha) | Structure (%) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| I | 1.1 | Luvic arenosols | Cc | G01 | 686.54 | 5.87 |
| 1.2 | Dystric arenosols | C | G02 | 2017.63 | 17.25 | |
| II | 2.1 | Molli salic fluvisols | M | G03 | 96.42 | 0.82 |
| 2.2 | Hyper salic fluvisols | Mn | G04 | 179.65 | 1.54 | |
| III | 3.1 | Molli endo orthi thionic gleysols | Sj | G05 | 1879.40 | 16.07 |
| IV | 4.1 | Dystric fluvisol | Pc | G06 | 517.27 | 4.42 |
| 4.2 | Gleyic fluvisols | Pg | G07 | 421.97 | 3.61 | |
| 4.3 | Stagni dystric fluvisols | Pj | G08 | 319.01 | 2.73 | |
| V | 5.1 | Nitisols | Ba | G09 | 65.24 | 0.56 |
| VI | 6.1 | Ferralic acrisols | Fa | G10 | 953.62 | 8.15 |
| VII | 7.1 | Leptosols | E | G11 | 963.71 | 8.24 |
| VIII | 8.1 | Rock | Ô | 259.37 | 2.22 | |
| Water body | W | 957.57 | 8.19 | |||
| Non-agricultural land (not investigated) | Pnn | 2379.90 | 20.35 | |||
| Total area | 11697.31 | |||||
In Loc Ha district, the 12 soil types, which belong to 8 soil groups, are divided into 55 land units (Figure 3). This division is based on characteristics such as soil type (G), soil thickness (D), mechanical composition (T), fertility (DP), slope (DH), irrigation regime (I), and waterlogging (F). Here’s a breakdown: the sandy soil group has 13 land units; the saline soil group has 3; the acid sulfate soil group has 14; the alluvial soil group has 14; the brownish-purple soil group has 1; the yellowish-red soil group has 3; the eroded rocky soil group has 5; and there are 2 land units on rocky mountains. The specific characteristics of the soil groups are as follows:
Map of land use suitability in Loc Ha district, Ha Tinh. Source: Map retrieved from Land use data of Loc Ha district People committee, 2023.
Group I – Sandy soil (C): This group consists of 16 land units with a soil thickness of more than 100 cm. These units have flat terrain with gentle slopes, a light mechanical composition ranging from sand to sandy loam, low fertility, and varied irrigation and waterlogging regimes depending on location.
Group II – Saline soil: This group includes 3 land units, all with a soil thickness of more than 100 cm. These units have light mechanical composition, moderate to high fertility, flat terrain with gentle slopes, and are located in irrigated and waterlogged areas.
Group III – Acid sulfate soil (S): This group is made up of 14 land units, all with flat terrain. They have a soil thickness of more than 100 cm, a medium to heavy mechanical composition, varying fertility, and different irrigation and waterlogging regimes depending on location.
Group IV – Alluvial soil (P): This group contains 14 land units with a soil thickness of more than 100 cm. These units have medium to heavy mechanical composition, moderate to high fertility, flat terrain with gentle slopes, varying irrigation regimes, and are mostly non-waterlogged.
Group V – Brownish-purple soil (B): This group includes only 1 land unit (G09D1T1DP2SL1I3F1) with a slope of less than 30°, light mechanical composition (T1), moderate fertility (DP2), soil thickness of more than 100 cm (D1), non-irrigated (I3), and non-waterlogged (F1).
Group VI – Yellowish-red soil (F): This group consists of 3 land units, located on slopes greater than 15°. They have a soil thickness of more than 50 cm, medium mechanical composition and fertility, and are non-irrigated and non-waterlogged.
Group VII – Eroded rocky soil (E): This group contains 5 land units with slopes greater than 30° and soil thickness of less than 50 cm. These units have light and heavy mechanical composition, low fertility, and are mostly found in irrigated and non-waterlogged areas.
Group VIII – Rocky mountains (Ô): This group includes 2 land units with steep slopes greater than 20° and poor soil quality.
Identifying the characteristics and specific distribution of soil types by land unit significantly aids in assessing land suitability for various crops. This helps in crafting suitable and effective agricultural development strategies.
3.2.2 Land suitability classification results
3.2.2.1 Identification of main agricultural land use types (LUTs)
Based on the current land use status, distribution, and area of crops in Loc Ha district, eight main LUTs were identified as follows (Table 2).
Main LUTs in Loc Ha district
| No. | LUT | Type tree | MLD | Area (ha) | Structure (%) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | LUT 01 | Rice | LUA | 3379.56 | 28.89 |
| 2 | LUT 02 | Rice – crop (mainly peanuts) | LUA | 247.38 | 2.11 |
| 3 | LUT 03 | Specialized vegetables | CHN | 63.55 | 0.54 |
| 4 | LUT 04 | Specialized peanuts | CHN | 163.03 | 1.39 |
| 5 | LUT 05 | Peanuts – crop | CHN | 255.43 | 2.18 |
| 6 | LUT 06 | Other crops (melon, beans, maize, potatoes, etc.) | CHN | 312.24 | 2.67 |
| 7 | LUT 07 | Fruit trees (guava, jackfruit, etc.) | CLN | 313.93 | 2.68 |
| 8 | LUT 08 | Industrial crops (tea) | CLN | 651.26 | 5.57 |
| Total cultivated area | 5386.37 | ||||
| Other agricultural land (farms, livestock…) | NKH | 128.68 | 1.10 | ||
| Aquaculture land | NTS | 318.83 | 2.73 | ||
| Salt production land | LMU | 196.14 | 1.68 | ||
| Forestry land | LNP | 2093.10 | 17.89 | ||
| Unused land | CSD | 555.56 | 4.75 | ||
| Non-agricultural land | PNN | 2379.90 | 20.35 | ||
| Water surface | SMN | 638.74 | 5.46 | ||
| Total natural area | 11697.31 |
LUT: Land-use type; MLD: Land-use type abbreviation.
3.2.2.2 Land suitability classification results for each LUT on each land unit
Table 3 shows the results of the land suitability classification for each Land Use Type (LUT) in the entirety of Loc Ha district reveal that 5386.37 ha of cultivated land are currently in use. A negligible portion of this land (0.48% of the total cultivated area) is unsuitable under current conditions. The majority of the cultivated area is moderately suitable or S2 (50.73% of the total cultivated area). The largest portion of this area, 2156.73 ha, is utilized for rice cultivation, followed by other crops and fruit trees.
Current agricultural land use status in Loc Ha district
| LUT | Fit | Inappropriate | Total | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| S1 | S2 | S3 | Sum | % | N | % | ||
| LUT 01 | 1190.47 | 2156.73 | 20.08 | 3367.28 | 99.64 | 12.28 | 0.36 | 3379.56 |
| LUT 02 | 12.49 | 234.21 | 246.69 | 99.72 | 0.69 | 0.28 | 247.38 | |
| LUT 03 | 18.77 | 44.77 | 63.55 | 100.00 | — | 63.55 | ||
| LUT 04 | 145.82 | 17.17 | 162.98 | 99.97 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 163.03 | |
| LUT 05 | 250.63 | 250.63 | 98.12 | 4.80 | 1.88 | 255.43 | ||
| LUT 06 | 222.37 | 11.32 | 70.39 | 304.08 | 97.39 | 8.16 | 2.61 | 312.24 |
| LUT 07 | 28.23 | 285.70 | 313.93 | 100.00 | — | 313.93 | ||
| LUT 08 | 158.83 | 492.43 | 651.26 | 100.00 | — | 651.26 | ||
| Total | 2027.60 | 2732.73 | 600.06 | 5360.39 | 99.52 | 25.97 | 0.48 | 5386.37 |
Land units are combined with land use requirements to assess the current land use status in the research area. This results in a classification ranging from marginally suitable to highly suitable. Of the 5,386 ha of cultivated land currently in use, the proportion of unsuitable land is minimal, accounting for only 0.48% of the total cultivated area. The majority of the cultivated area is moderately suitable (S2), making up 50.73%, and highly suitable (S1), comprising 37.64%. The largest portion of this area is used for rice cultivation. A small portion is only marginally suitable (S3), accounting for 11.14% of the total area.
3.2.2.3 Identify some effective land use models in Loc Ha district
We evaluated the land-use efficiency of key LUTs in the Loc Ha district to identify effective crops. This evaluation was based on economic, social, and environmental criteria. After assessing the economic, social, and environmental efficiency of these LUTs, we conducted a comprehensive efficiency assessment. The results are shown in Table 4.
Some effective agricultural land use models in Loc Ha district
| LUT | Economic efficiency | Social efficiency | Environmental efficiency | SDBV capability |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2 Rice | ** | *** | ** | ** |
| 2 Rice – 1 crop (peanuts) | *** | *** | ** | *** |
| Specialized crops | ** | ** | *** | ** |
| 1 Rice – crop/vegetable | ** | ** | * | * |
| Fruit trees/perennial crops | *** | *** | ** | *** |
High ***; Average **; Low *.
The evaluation criteria results indicate that the district’s land and climate conditions are highly suitable for crops, yielding relatively high agricultural land use efficiency. This presents the potential for developing commercial production. Most short-term industrial crops and crop plants are highly efficient. The majority of land use models in the district, starting with the LUT 1 rice-crop model, have the potential for sustainable use in the future. Despite the diversity of crops, the area of monoculture rice is currently very high, and crop rotation is low. The land area dedicated to three crops per year is minimal, highlighting a need to develop this structure as it represents the most sustainable land use model in the cropping system. Crop rotation of food crops and vegetables should be implemented to meet soil protection and improvement requirements. The usage of organic fertilizers should be increased, while the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides should be limited.
3.2.2.4 Developing land use master plan map until 2035 for Loc Ha district
The land use orientation in Loc Ha district is based on two foundations: (1) the results of land suitability evaluation, which involves selecting appropriate land use models; and (2) prioritizing highly suitable land use models to propose land use orientations for the research area. This orientation proposes to maintain the areas currently used with high (S1) and moderate (S2) suitability levels. These areas correspond to the land use models and account for a total area of 4760.33 ha (representing 88.38% of the total cultivated area) (Table 5).
Area of land use models with suitability levels S1 and S2
| LUT | Type tree | Appropriate level | Total(ha) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| S1 | S2 | |||
| LUT 01 | Rice | 1190.47 | 2156.73 | 3347.20 |
| LUT 02 | Rice – crop (mainly peanuts) | 12.49 | 234.21 | 246.69 |
| LUT 03 | Specialized vegetables | 18.77 | 44.77 | 63.55 |
| LUT 04 | Specialized peanuts | 145.82 | — | 145.82 |
| LUT 05 | Peanuts – crop | 250.63 | — | 250.63 |
| LUT 06 | Other crops (melon, beans, maize, potatoes, etc.) | 222.37 | 11.32 | 233.69 |
| LUT 07 | Fruit trees (guava, jackfruit, etc.) | 28.23 | 285.70 | 313.93 |
| LUT 08 | Industrial crops (tea) | 158.83 | — | 158.83 |
| Total | 11063.97 | 3793.22 | 4760.33 | |
Table 6 shows that land classified as S3 (marginally suitable) needs either enhancement of limiting characteristics for production or conversion to crops that are more suitable. If these limiting characteristics cannot be improved or are difficult to enhance quickly, a switch to more fitting crops is advised. In Loc Ha, there are 600.06 ha of marginally suitable land for various land use models. This includes 200.08 ha for rice (LUT 01), 17.17 ha for peanuts (LUT 04), 70.39 ha for other crops (LUT 06), and 492.43 ha for industrial crops (LUT 08).
Area of land use types appropriately classified at level S3
| LUT | Appropriate classification | Points correspond to the suitability level of each land characteristic | Number of land plots | Area (ha) | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| G | D | T | DP | SL | I | F | No. | ||||
| LUT 01 | S3 | 0 | 100 | 70 | 30 | 60 | 60 | 100 | 1 | 16 | 8.29 |
| LUT 01 | S3 | 0 | 100 | 70 | 70 | 60 | 20 | 100 | 3 | 2 | 0.92 |
| LUT 01 | S3 | 0 | 50 | 0 | 0 | 15 | 100 | 100 | 49 | 9 | 10.86 |
| LUT 04 | S3 | 5 | 60 | 5 | 5 | 0 | 100 | 100 | 53 | 1 | 17.17 |
| LUT 06 | S3 | 5 | 60 | 5 | 5 | 70 | 100 | 100 | 49 | 4 | 3.80 |
| LUT 06 | S3 | 5 | 60 | 5 | 5 | 50 | 100 | 100 | 50 | 42 | 60.93 |
| LUT 06 | S3 | 5 | 60 | 5 | 5 | 0 | 100 | 100 | 53 | 18 | 5.66 |
| LUT 08 | S3 | 15 | 20 | 15 | 15 | 70 | 100 | 100 | 50 | 4 | 201.80 |
| LUT 08 | S3 | 15 | 20 | 15 | 15 | 30 | 100 | 100 | 53 | 1 | 184.20 |
| LUT 08 | S3 | 15 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 30 | 100 | 100 | 55 | 1 | 106.43 |
| Total | 98 | 600.06 | |||||||||
G (soil type), D (soil depth), T (soil composition), DP (fertility), SL (slope), I (irrigation), F (flood). The scores are given based on weighting of land suitable classification for each position as indicated in 2.2.
Table 7 shows that the remaining 492.43 ha of marginally suitable land currently used for perennial crops (LUT 08) are limited by eroded rocky soil, making them unsuitable for agricultural production. The recommended course of action is to convert these areas into forests. The land currently in use and classified as unsuitable (N) should also be converted to more suitable crops or forests. In Loc Ha district, there are 259.7 ha of land unsuitable for various land use models, including 122.8 ha for rice (LUT 01), 0.69 ha for rice – crop (LUT 02), 0.05 ha for peanuts (LUT 04), 4.80 ha for peanuts – crop (LUT 05), and 8.16 ha for other crops (LUT 06). The unsuitable land is characterized by eroded rocky soil and rocky mountains, which are unfit for agricultural production. The recommended course of action is to convert the entire 259.7 ha to forest. The unused land in Loc Ha district amounts to 555.56 ha. Based on the land potential evaluation of the district, the unused land should be converted to suitable land use models, prioritizing high-efficiency models.
Area of land use models with suitability level N
| LUT | Appropriate classification | Points correspond to the suitability level of each land characteristic | Number of land plots | Area (ha) | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| G | D | T | DP | SL | I | F | No. | ||||
| LUT 01 | N | 0 | 50 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 100 | 50 | 10 | 5.44 |
| LUT 01 | N | 0 | 50 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 20 | 100 | 51 | 1 | 1.50 |
| LUT 01 | N | 0 | 50 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 100 | 53 | 1 | 0.29 |
| LUT 01 | N | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 60 | 100 | 54 | 2 | 1.96 |
| LUT 01 | N | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 100 | 55 | 12 | 3.09 |
| LUT 02 | N | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 100 | 55 | 1 | 0.69 |
| LUT 04 | N | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 100 | 55 | 2 | 0.05 |
| LUT 05 | N | 5 | 60 | 5 | 5 | 0 | 70 | 100 | 52 | 2 | 0.34 |
| LUT 05 | N | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 70 | 100 | 54 | 3 | 2.93 |
| LUT 05 | N | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 100 | 55 | 8 | 1.53 |
| LUT 06 | N | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 100 | 55 | 1 | 8.16 |
| Total | 43 | 25.97 | |||||||||
G (soil type), D (soil depth), T (soil composition), DP (fertility), SL (slope), I (irrigation), F (flood). The scores are given based on weighting of land suitable classification for each position as indicated in 2.2.
Loc Ha district retains 4760.33 ha (88.38% of the total cultivated area) currently used with suitability levels of highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) for land use models. For marginally suitable land, the following changes are recommended: convert 92.2 ha of rice land to specialized peanuts, 171.7 ha of peanuts to industrial crops, 108.6 ha of rice to other crops, 70.39 ha of other crops, and 492.43 ha of perennial crops to forests. The entire 259.7 ha of unsuitable land should also be converted to forest. Investments should continue for the unused land area, with an orientation towards agricultural and forestry purposes: plant 50.809 ha of peanuts, 91.3 ha of peanuts – crop, 31.5 ha of fruit trees, 31.0 ha of rice – crop, 27.1 ha of industrial crops, and 293.9 ha of forest.
3.3 Discussion
It was reported that the highest land conversion rate occurs in the North Central and Central Coast regions [20]. Solutions for land use conversion to adapt to climate change in Loc Ha district, Ha Tinh province include converting ineffective rice land to annual crops such as vegetables, peanuts, cucumbers, and beans. This increases economic efficiency by 2–5 times and improves the soil’s organic matter content through intercropping legumes with perennial crops and covering the soil with agricultural by-products. The shifting and fluctuating nature of land use [16] necessitates the evaluation of land potential [21] and the adoption of appropriate land use planning strategies [22].
Management solutions involve reviewing and adjusting plans, identifying key products for project development, strengthening management and supervision, and enhancing state management’s effectiveness over planning [23]. It is essential to clearly plan specialized production areas according to sub-regions with strict implementation and management mechanisms. Adjusting land use planning promptly and allocating crop structures reasonably is also crucial.
Technical solutions include planning production areas suitable for the region’s land potential and climate change adaptation. Examples are large field models, agricultural production models that adapt to climate change, intercropping and intensive farming models, perennial crop models, and agroforestry models. Loc Ha district should also apply scientific advancements, such as developing drought and pest-resistant new varieties with a short growth period for quick crop rotation. The adaptation of diversified crops could enhance livelihood while reducing the vulnerability of local communities [9]. At large scale, high technological applications such as remote sensing and GIS should be considered [24].
Policy-wise, incentives should be established for enterprises to distribute directly in supermarket chains, diversify products and markets, invest in high-value, high-quality segments, and limit raw material exports. A comprehensive policy framework should be developed for each product group, region, market, and production object to support diverse value chains’ development. In the context of climate change, land use planning plays an important role such as the arrangement of suitable infrastructure for a specific area for local authorities, decision-making managers based on the assessment of input impact factors [25].
4 Conclusion
Climate change trends in Loc Ha district, Ha Tinh province, under both low emission (RCP4.5) and medium emission (RCP8.5) scenarios, indicate an increase in average annual rainfall and temperature. This suggests a heightened risk of future drought and floods. However, the assessment results mainly attribute the impending climate change impacts in the Loc Ha district to flooding, with drought having minimal effect.
The land suitability analysis in Loc Ha district reveals that the district has 12 soil types across 8 soil groups, divided into 55 land units with varying characteristics. Out of the 5,386 ha of cultivated land currently in use, the portion considered unsuitable under present conditions is negligible (0.48% of the total cultivated area). The majority of the cultivated area is moderately suitable (S2) (50.73%) and highly suitable (S1) (37.64%), with the largest area being rice land. Only a small portion of the area is marginally suitable (S3) (11.14%).
For effective land resource utilization under future climate change conditions, Loc Ha district needs to upgrade or transition to other suitable crops for marginally suitable land (S3) and shift to other suitable crops or forests for unsuitable land (N). Specifically, this involves converting 92.2 ha of rice land to specialized peanuts, 171.7 ha of peanuts to industrial crops, 108.6 ha of rice to other crops, 70.39 ha of other crops, and 492.43 ha of perennial crops to the forest. The plan also involves converting the entire 259.7 ha of unsuitable land to forest. It is recommended to continue investing in unused land for agricultural and forestry uses: planting 50.809 ha of peanuts, 91.3 ha of mixed peanut crops, 31.5 ha of fruit trees, 31.0 ha of mixed rice crops, 27.1 ha of industrial crops, and 293.9 ha of forest.
Acknowledgements
We acknowledge the financial assistance from the World Bank Group for the project of “Agricultural land use and management to adapt climate change serving the goal of agriculture reconstruction in North Central Coast of Vietnam – Project No: ĐTKHCN.WB.02/20” in the program “Strengthening scientific and technological capacity and training human resources for agricultural restructuring and new rural construction.”
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Funding information: This research was supported by the World Bank Group via project number ĐTKHCN.WB.02/20.
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Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and consented to its submission to the journal, reviewed all the results and approved the final version of the manuscript. TTP: conceptualization, writing the original manuscript, and revision of the manuscript; TDV: review and revision of the manuscript.
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Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.
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Data availability statement: The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
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This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
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- Information technology adoption in Indonesia’s small-scale dairy farms
- Draft genome of a biological control agent against Bipolaris sorokiniana, the causal phytopathogen of spot blotch in wheat (Triticum turgidum L. subsp. durum): Bacillus inaquosorum TSO22
- Assessment of the recurrent mutagenesis efficacy of sesame crosses followed by isolation and evaluation of promising genetic resources for use in future breeding programs
- Fostering cocoa industry resilience: A collaborative approach to managing farm gate price fluctuations in West Sulawesi, Indonesia
- Field investigation of component failures for selected farm machinery used in small rice farming operations
- Near-infrared technology in agriculture: Rapid, simultaneous, and non-destructive determination of inner quality parameters on intact coffee beans
- The synergistic application of sucrose and various LED light exposures to enhance the in vitro growth of Stevia rebaudiana (Bertoni)
- Weather index-based agricultural insurance for flower farmers: Willingness to pay, sales, and profitability perspectives
- Meta-analysis of dietary Bacillus spp. on serum biochemical and antioxidant status and egg quality of laying hens
- Biochemical characterization of trypsin from Indonesian skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) viscera
- Determination of C-factor for conventional cultivation and soil conservation technique used in hop gardens
- Empowering farmers: Unveiling the economic impacts of contract farming on red chilli farmers’ income in Magelang District, Indonesia
- Evaluating salt tolerance in fodder crops: A field experiment in the dry land
- Labor productivity of lowland rice (Oryza sativa L.) farmers in Central Java Province, Indonesia
- Cropping systems and production assessment in southern Myanmar: Informing strategic interventions
- The effect of biostimulants and red mud on the growth and yield of shallots in post-unlicensed gold mining soil
- Effects of dietary Adansonia digitata L. (baobab) seed meal on growth performance and carcass characteristics of broiler chickens: A systematic review and meta-analysis
- Analysis and structural characterization of the vid-pisco market
- Pseudomonas fluorescens SP007s enhances defense responses against the soybean bacterial pustule caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. glycines
- A brief investigation on the prospective of co-composted biochar as a fertilizer for Zucchini plants cultivated in arid sandy soil
- Supply chain efficiency of red chilies in the production center of Sleman Indonesia based on performance measurement system
- Investment development path for developed economies: Is agriculture different?
- Power relations among actors in laying hen business in Indonesia: A MACTOR analysis
- High-throughput digital imaging and detection of morpho-physiological traits in tomato plants under drought
- Converting compression ignition engine to dual-fuel (diesel + CNG) engine and experimentally investigating its performance and emissions
- Structuration, risk management, and institutional dynamics in resolving palm oil conflicts
- Spacing strategies for enhancing drought resilience and yield in maize agriculture
- Composition and quality of winter annual agrestal and ruderal herbages of two different land-use types
- Investigating Spodoptera spp. diversity, percentage of attack, and control strategies in the West Java, Indonesia, corn cultivation
- Yield stability of biofertilizer treatments to soybean in the rainy season based on the GGE biplot
- Evaluating agricultural yield and economic implications of varied irrigation depths on maize yield in semi-arid environments, at Birfarm, Upper Blue Nile, Ethiopia
- Chemometrics for mapping the spatial nitrate distribution on the leaf lamina of fenugreek grown under varying nitrogenous fertilizer doses
- Pomegranate peel ethanolic extract: A promising natural antioxidant, antimicrobial agent, and novel approach to mitigate rancidity in used edible oils
- Transformative learning and engagement with organic farming: Lessons learned from Indonesia
- Tourism in rural areas as a broader concept: Some insights from the Portuguese reality
- Assessment enhancing drought tolerance in henna (Lawsonia inermis L.) ecotypes through sodium nitroprusside foliar application
- Edible insects: A survey about perceptions regarding possible beneficial health effects and safety concerns among adult citizens from Portugal and Romania
- Phenological stages analysis in peach trees using electronic nose
- Harvest date and salicylic acid impact on peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) properties under different humidity conditions
- Hibiscus sabdariffa L. petal biomass: A green source of nanoparticles of multifarious potential
- Use of different vegetation indices for the evaluation of the kinetics of the cherry tomato (Solanum lycopersicum var. cerasiforme) growth based on multispectral images by UAV
- First evidence of microplastic pollution in mangrove sediments and its ingestion by coral reef fish: Case study in Biawak Island, Indonesia
- Physical and textural properties and sensory acceptability of wheat bread partially incorporated with unripe non-commercial banana cultivars
- Cereibacter sphaeroides ST16 and ST26 were used to solubilize insoluble P forms to improve P uptake, growth, and yield of rice in acidic and extreme saline soil
- Avocado peel by-product in cattle diets and supplementation with oregano oil and effects on production, carcass, and meat quality
- Optimizing inorganic blended fertilizer application for the maximum grain yield and profitability of bread wheat and food barley in Dawuro Zone, Southwest Ethiopia
- The acceptance of social media as a channel of communication and livestock information for sheep farmers
- Adaptation of rice farmers to aging in Thailand
- Combined use of improved maize hybrids and nitrogen application increases grain yield of maize, under natural Striga hermonthica infestation
- From aquatic to terrestrial: An examination of plant diversity and ecological shifts
- Statistical modelling of a tractor tractive performance during ploughing operation on a tropical Alfisol
- Participation in artisanal diamond mining and food security: A case study of Kasai Oriental in DR Congo
- Assessment and multi-scenario simulation of ecosystem service values in Southwest China’s mountainous and hilly region
- Analysis of agricultural emissions and economic growth in Europe in search of ecological balance
- Bacillus thuringiensis strains with high insecticidal activity against insect larvae of the orders Coleoptera and Lepidoptera
- Technical efficiency of sugarcane farming in East Java, Indonesia: A bootstrap data envelopment analysis
- Comparison between mycobiota diversity and fungi and mycotoxin contamination of maize and wheat
- Evaluation of cultivation technology package and corn variety based on agronomy characters and leaf green indices
- Exploring the association between the consumption of beverages, fast foods, sweets, fats, and oils and the risk of gastric and pancreatic cancers: Findings from case–control study
- Phytochemical composition and insecticidal activity of Acokanthera oblongifolia (Hochst.) Benth & Hook.f. ex B.D.Jacks. extract on life span and biological aspects of Spodoptera littoralis (Biosd.)
- Land use management solutions in response to climate change: Case study in the central coastal areas of Vietnam
- Evaluation of coffee pulp as a feed ingredient for ruminants: A meta-analysis
- Interannual variations of normalized difference vegetation index and potential evapotranspiration and their relationship in the Baghdad area
- Harnessing synthetic microbial communities with nitrogen-fixing activity to promote rice growth
- Agronomic and economic benefits of rice–sweetpotato rotation in lowland rice cropping systems in Uganda
- Response of potato tuber as an effect of the N-fertilizer and paclobutrazol application in medium altitude
- Bridging the gap: The role of geographic proximity in enhancing seed sustainability in Bandung District
- Evaluation of Abrams curve in agricultural sector using the NARDL approach
- Challenges and opportunities for young farmers in the implementation of the Rural Development Program 2014–2020 of the Republic of Croatia
- Yield stability of ten common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) genotypes at different sowing dates in Lubumbashi, South-East of DR Congo
- Effects of encapsulation and combining probiotics with different nitrate forms on methane emission and in vitro rumen fermentation characteristics
- Phytochemical analysis of Bienertia sinuspersici extract and its antioxidant and antimicrobial activities
- Evaluation of relative drought tolerance of grapevines by leaf fluorescence parameters
- Yield assessment of new streak-resistant topcross maize hybrids in Benin
- Improvement of cocoa powder properties through ultrasonic- and microwave-assisted alkalization
- Potential of ecoenzymes made from nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) leaf and pulp waste as bioinsecticides for Periplaneta americana
- Analysis of farm performance to realize the sustainability of organic cabbage vegetable farming in Getasan Semarang, Indonesia
- Revealing the influences of organic amendment-derived dissolved organic matter on growth and nutrient accumulation in lettuce seedlings (Lactuca sativa L.)
- Identification of viruses infecting sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas Lam.) in Benin
- Assessing the soil physical and chemical properties of long-term pomelo orchard based on tree growth
- Investigating access and use of digital tools for agriculture among rural farmers: A case study of Nkomazi Municipality, South Africa
- Does sex influence the impact of dietary vitD3 and UVB light on performance parameters and welfare indicators of broilers?
- Design of intelligent sprayer control for an autonomous farming drone using a multiclass support vector machine
- Deciphering salt-responsive NB-ARC genes in rice transcriptomic data: A bioinformatics approach with gene expression validation
- Review Articles
- Impact of nematode infestation in livestock production and the role of natural feed additives – A review
- Role of dietary fats in reproductive, health, and nutritional benefits in farm animals: A review
- Climate change and adaptive strategies on viticulture (Vitis spp.)
- The false tiger of almond, Monosteira unicostata (Hemiptera: Tingidae): Biology, ecology, and control methods
- A systematic review on potential analogy of phytobiomass and soil carbon evaluation methods: Ethiopia insights
- A review of storage temperature and relative humidity effects on shelf life and quality of mango (Mangifera indica L.) fruit and implications for nutrition insecurity in Ethiopia
- Green extraction of nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) phytochemicals: Prospective strategies and roadblocks
- Potential influence of nitrogen fertilizer rates on yield and yield components of carrot (Dacus carota L.) in Ethiopia: Systematic review
- Corn silk: A promising source of antimicrobial compounds for health and wellness
- State and contours of research on roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) in Africa
- The potential of phosphorus-solubilizing purple nonsulfur bacteria in agriculture: Present and future perspectives
- Minor millets: Processing techniques and their nutritional and health benefits
- Meta-analysis of reproductive performance of improved dairy cattle under Ethiopian environmental conditions
- Review on enhancing the efficiency of fertilizer utilization: Strategies for optimal nutrient management
- The nutritional, phytochemical composition, and utilisation of different parts of maize: A comparative analysis
- Motivations for farmers’ participation in agri-environmental scheme in the EU, literature review
- Evolution of climate-smart agriculture research: A science mapping exploration and network analysis
- Short Communications
- Music enrichment improves the behavior and leukocyte profile of dairy cattle
- Effect of pruning height and organic fertilization on the morphological and productive characteristics of Moringa oleifera Lam. in the Peruvian dry tropics
- Corrigendum
- Corrigendum to “Bioinformatics investigation of the effect of volatile and non-volatile compounds of rhizobacteria in inhibiting late embryogenesis abundant protein that induces drought tolerance”
- Corrigendum to “Composition and quality of winter annual agrestal and ruderal herbages of two different land-use types”
- Special issue: Smart Agriculture System for Sustainable Development: Methods and Practices
- Construction of a sustainable model to predict the moisture content of porang powder (Amorphophallus oncophyllus) based on pointed-scan visible near-infrared spectroscopy
- FruitVision: A deep learning based automatic fruit grading system
- Energy harvesting and ANFIS modeling of a PVDF/GO-ZNO piezoelectric nanogenerator on a UAV
- Effects of stress hormones on digestibility and performance in cattle: A review
- Special Issue of The 4th International Conference on Food Science and Engineering (ICFSE) 2022 - Part II
- Assessment of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acid profiles and ratio of omega-6/omega-3 of white eggs produced by laying hens fed diets enriched with omega-3 rich vegetable oil
- Special Issue on FCEM - International Web Conference on Food Choice & Eating Motivation - Part II
- Special Issue on FCEM – International Web Conference on Food Choice & Eating Motivation: Message from the editor
- Fruit and vegetable consumption: Study involving Portuguese and French consumers
- Knowledge about consumption of milk: Study involving consumers from two European Countries – France and Portugal
