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Evaluating agricultural yield and economic implications of varied irrigation depths on maize yield in semi-arid environments, at Birfarm, Upper Blue Nile, Ethiopia

  • Dessie G. Amare EMAIL logo , Fasikaw A. Zimale and Guchie G. Sulla
Published/Copyright: August 22, 2024
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Open Agriculture
From the journal Open Agriculture Volume 9 Issue 1

Abstract

The agricultural crop that is particularly important to the world is maize, and its development is frequently impacted by a crucial factor known as moisture stress. It is crucial to understand how maize reacts to different irrigation depths, especially in dry and semi-arid locations where it has high irrigation requirements and is sensitive to water stress. Using the furrow irrigation method, an experiment at Birr Farm in the irrigation seasons of 2022–2023 examined the effects of varying irrigation depths (from 50% ETc to 150% ETc) on maize yields and related components. The experiment is set as a randomized complete block design with three replications. The outcomes showed that different irrigation depths had a substantial (P < 0.001) impact on yield characteristics. The highest grain yield, reaching 6.08 t/ha and 5.83 t/ha, occurred at 100% ETc in the second and first seasons, respectively. Similarly, the peak above-biomass yield, at 14.28 and 14.94 t/ha, was observed at 100% ETc in the second and first seasons, respectively, diminishing with further deviations in irrigation depth. From an economic standpoint, applying 100% ETc proved financially viable for small-scale farmers. Notably, utilizing a 50% ETc irrigation depth allowed for water savings of 4345.95 m3/ha, subsequently enabling the irrigation of an additional 0.43 ha, demonstrating a practical water-saving approach for downstream users in irrigation schemes, even if it was 8.9 kg m−3 yield reductions.

Keywords: furrow; irrigation; maize; water requirement; yield

1 Introduction

Irrigation depth has a major effect on the amount of water provided for plant roots and affects agricultural output [1,2]. Crops that receive enough moisture are guaranteed by optimal irrigation depth, which encourages healthy growth and maximizes harvests [3,4]. While excessive irrigation can result in waterlogging, root infections, and nutrient leaching, inadequate irrigation results in stress due to lack of water, which can stunt the growth of plants and productivity [5,6]. For optimal outcomes, varied crops and soil types require varied watering depths. For these reasons, maintaining environmentally friendly farming practices and increasing crop output needs careful regulation of irrigated depth [5,7].

One of the key factors that influence the growth of maize is irrigation, which is essential for achieving the best possible development, growth, and yield [8,9]. One important factor that directly affects the performance of the maize crop throughout its various growth stages is the depth of irrigation or the amount of water applied [3,10]. Maintaining sustainable agricultural practices and optimizing resource efficiency require careful management of irrigation depth [11,12]. The germination process and the growth of young seedlings during the early stages of maize cultivation necessitate careful consideration of irrigation depth. During this stage, sufficient moisture is essential for seed emergence and the development of a strong root system [13]. At this stage, shallow irrigation helps avoid waterlogging and promotes the delicate balance needed for the development of seedlings [10,14]. As maize moves through its vegetative stage, which is marked by the fast growth of its leaves and stems, its requirement for transpiration increases [15]. An appropriate irrigation depth needs to be applied during this stage to sustain the growing biomass and encourage vigorous plant development [16,17]. To minimize stress and encourage the best possible photosynthesis, the soil must be kept consistently moist. This will guarantee that the maize plants are in an ideal position for development [14,16]. Tasselling and silking indicate the reproductive stage, which is an important stage when irrigation depth becomes essential for effective pollination and grain formation [18,19].

During this time, insufficient water supply can result in poor kernel development and lower yield [20]. By ensuring that the proper amount of water is supplied directly to the root zone, precision irrigation techniques like drip or pivot systems can be used to reduce waste and maximize resource utilization [21,22]. The amount of water required by maize, as it gets closer to the grain-filling stage, decreases but does not completely stop [23,24]. Proper formation and filling of maize kernels during this phase depend on strategically placed irrigation depth [23,25]. To improve the quality of grains and efficiency in utilizing water, regulated deficit irrigation, in which water is purposefully withheld to encourage stress-induced hormonal responses, can be used [26,27]. It has been reported that harvest maturity denotes the end of maize cultivation and that as the crop gets closer to maturity, irrigation should be gradually decreased [23,28]. This strategy reduces water consumption in the later stages of crop growth while assisting the plant in focusing its resources on grain development [28,29].

Efficient irrigation techniques not only make maize farming more profitable but also help preserve water resources and ensure the long-term sustainability of agriculture in a variety of climate environments. The purpose of this study is to better understand and control irrigation depth, which is an essential component of productive maize farming.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Site description

The experiment was conducted in the irrigation season of October to February (2022–2023), the dry season of Ethiopia, and March to May, the spring season of Ethiopia (2023–2024), at Birr Sheleko Agricultural Development Farm (Birfarm), which is found in Jabitehnan District, Amhara, Ethiopia, located at a latitude of 10.78 N and a longitude of 37.59 E with an altitude of 1,263 masl and 412 km far from Addis Ababa in the northwest direction (Figure 1). The study area has a mean annual rainfall of 826.2 mm and is classified under the semi-arid region. The mean monthly maximum and minimum temperatures were 28.6 and 13.8°C, respectively. The dominant soil type in the area is loam-textured soil. Furrow irrigation is a widely used method for irrigation, and the source of irrigation water is groundwater.

Figure: 1 Location map of the study site (extract from UTM coordinates with WGS 1984 datum and Google Earth using ArcGIS 10.3, 2024).
Figure: 1

Location map of the study site (extract from UTM coordinates with WGS 1984 datum and Google Earth using ArcGIS 10.3, 2024).

2.2 Experimental design and layout

The treatments of the experiment are five irrigation application depths (50% ETc, 75% ETc, 100% ETc, 125% ETc, and 150% ETc), which are assigned to each plot randomly. The experiment is set as a randomized complete block design with three replications. The total plot size of the experiment was 4 m × 120 m (480 m2) with a net plot size of 2.4 m × 120 m = 288 m2. The layout of an experimental design illustrates the flow and structure of how an experiment is typically conducted (Figure 2). The distance between blocks (block spacing) is 1 m, with plot spacing of 0.5 m, crop spacing of 0.25 m, and spacing between rows is 0.80 m. Land leveling and preparation of plots, weeding, pest and disease control, application of fertilizer, and all other agronomic crop management activities were based on the recommended production package of maize for the district, which local farmers are using to improve crop yields.

Figure 2 Layout of the experimental design.
Figure 2

Layout of the experimental design.

2.3 Data collection

2.3.1 Weather data

Daily and monthly weather variables such as solar radiation, maximum and minimum temperature, maximum and minimum relative humidity, wind speed, and rainfall for the experimental period were obtained from the Finote-Selam Meteorological Station, the nearest station of the National Meteorological Agency to the experimental site. For unusual rain during experimentation on the site and to adjust irrigation scheduling, a locally constructed standard non-recording rain gauge was installed. The daily rainfall was recorded, and effective rain was determined (Figure 3).

Figure 3 Long-term average monthly rainfall and effective rainfall graph (2000–2021 GC).
Figure 3

Long-term average monthly rainfall and effective rainfall graph (2000–2021 GC).

2.3.2 Soil physical properties

Soil samples grabbed from the experimental field were taken to the Soil Laboratory to determine the physical characteristics of the soil. According to Mirsaeedghazi et al. [30], an effective root depth of 0.75 m was taken for the maize crop in this study, with incremental depths of 0–0.2, 0.2–0.4, and 0.4–0.75 m. The moisture content at both field capacity and wilting point conditions was measured using a pressure plate apparatus, and the bulk densities of the soil were determined using an oven-drying method. Using the USDA soil texture classification method and a hydrometer, the percentages of silt, clay, and sand were calculated for textural classification. Individual soil samples were taken from the three selected points in the above depth ranges. In all the experimental plots, loam soil texture was the most dominant type.

2.3.3 Soil moisture content determination

Using a soil moisture meter (IRROMETER) Figure 4 at three different points along the furrow length the upper, middle, and lower end, the soil moisture contents of the experimental plots were measured throughout the growing season. At each point, soil moistures were measured through an effective root zone depth of 0.75 m with incremental depths of 0–20, 20–40, and 40–75 cm both before and after irrigation.

2.3.4 Agronomic data

Crop parameters were measured at various phases of development. For each experimental treatment plot, crop data such as sowing date, harvest date, crop yield, and yield components at various stages of crop growth and development were recorded. Treatments were compared based on the grain yield (GY) and yield components, which include the plant height (PH), number of leaves (NL), leaf area (LA), LA index, stem diameter (SD), cob length (CL), number of ears, weight of 1,000-grain, GY, above biomass GY, and harvest index (HI).

2.4 Data analyses

2.4.1 Estimation of reference evapotranspiration

Estimation of reference evapotranspiration is important in crop water requirements (CWRs) and the development of irrigation scheduling. The general knowledge of the spatial distribution of reference evapotranspiration (ETo) is still unclear despite its importance for global ecosystem research. One reason is that ETo is difficult to observe directly as it depends on several meteorological parameters, which are observed only at major stations [31]. Reference evapotranspiration can be calculated from the actual temperature, humidity, sunshine/radiation, and wind speed data, according to the FAO penman-Monteith method:

(1) ET O = 0.48 Δ ( R n − G ) + Y 900 T + 273 U 2 ( e s − e a ) Δ + Y ( 1 + 0.34 U 2 ) ,

where ETo is the reference evapotranspiration in mm/day, R n is the net radiation at the top surface (MJ/m2/day), G is the soil heat flux density (MJ/m2/day), T is the mean daily air temperature (°C), U 2 is the wind speed at 2 m height (m/s), e s–e a is the saturation vapor pressure deficit (kPa), Δ is the slope vapor pressure curve (kPa/°C), and Y is the psychrometric constant (kPa/°C).

The CWR (ETc) over the growing season was determined from ETo and estimates of crop evaporation rates, expressed as crop coefficient (K c), using the following equation:

(2) ET c ( CWR ) = K c × ET o ,

where ETc is the crop evapotranspiration, K c is the crop coefficient, and ETo is the reference evapotranspiration in mm/day

2.4.2 Net-irrigation water requirement

Net-irrigation water requirement is the amount of irrigation water required to meet the evapotranspiration needed for a crop during its full growth and it was computed as the difference between CWR and effective precipitation (Pe).

(3) NIWR = CWR − Pe ,

where NIWR is the net-irrigation water requirement, and Pe is the effective precipitation calculated based on the FAO CROPWAT computer model [32] as a daily soil water balance, which is determined from the following empirical formula:

(4) Pe = P − ( C × P ) or Pe = f × P ,

where P is the daily rainfall (mm), and f and C are constants with values of 0.2 and 0.8, respectively.

2.4.3 Water use efficiency (WUE)

Physical water productivity or WUE and irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE) were determined by dividing the yield by seasonal evapotranspiration and total seasonal irrigation water applied and calculated by the following equations:

(5) WUE = Y m ET c ,

(6) IWUE = Y m I ,

where IWUE denotes the irrigation water use efficiency (kg ha−1), WUE denotes the water use efficiency (kg ha−1), Y is the yield of maize, I is the irrigation depth, and ETc is the seasonal CWR.

2.4.4 Irrigation depth determination

Initial soil water content was measured using both a digital moisture meter and laboratory method (gravimetric method). Irrigation water was applied to bring the soil moisture up to field capacity, considering the effective root zone depth. Soil moisture at every 10-day interval, prior to irrigation and at the time of harvest, was determined by the same method. The furrow irrigation method was applied to each plot using a gravity system. Irrigation water depth was calculated using the following equation [33]:

(7) d = F c − M ci 100 × A s × D ,

where d is the depth of water applied, mm; F c is the moisture content, %; M ci is the moisture content of the soil at the time of irrigation, %; A s is the apparent specific gravity of the soil; and D is the depth of the root zone, mm.

2.4.5 Irrigation time and discharge measurement

Water was diverted to the furrow using a calibrated Parshall flume with an acceptable opening diameter of 3 inches (3″), a length of 2 m, and an appropriate head range of 3–33 cm. It was estimated, as suggested by Hart et al. [33]:

(8) T = d net × w × l q × 6 ,

where d is the gross depth of water applied (cm), T is the application time (h) L is the furrow length (m), W is the furrow spacing (m), and q is the flow rate (discharge) (l/s).

2.5 Crop data collection and measurement

2.5.1 Phenological parameters

2.5.1.1 Days to 50% tasseling

Days were counted from sowing to the day when 50% of the maize plants shed pollen grains from the main branch of the tassel and a few other branches in each plot by visual observation.

2.5.1.2 Days to 50% silking

It was recorded as the number of days required from sowing to the silk emergence on 50% of the plants or when 50% of the maize plants showed extrusion of silking at each plot by visual observation.

2.5.1.3 Days to 90% physiological maturity

The days to physiological maturity was recorded as the duration from the date of sowing up to a stage when 90% of plants formed a black layer at the base of the kernel (at the point where the kernel attaches with the cob), and kernels were difficult to be broken by thumbnail.

2.5.2 Growth parameters

2.5.2.1 LA and LAI

The LA, at the stage of tasselling, was determined first from five randomly selected plants in the net plot by multiplying the leaf length and maximum leaf width at the middle section of the leaf and adjusted by a correction factor of 0.75 (0.75 × leaf length × leaf width), as suggested in previous studies [33,34,35]. Then, the LAI was determined by dividing the total LA of a plant by the ground area covered by that plant in 1 m2 [36]:

(9) LAI = Area of green leaf per plant 1 m 2 area covered by plant .

2.5.2.2 PH

It was measured as the height from the soil surface to the tip, excluding the tassel, of five randomly selected plants from the net plot area during physiological maturity.

2.5.2.3 Stem diameter

It was measured at 50 cm from the ground level on five randomly selected plants using a caliper during the end of the development stage.

2.5.3 Yield and yield-related components

2.5.3.1 Thousand-grain weight

It was determined from 1,000 randomly taken grains (by hand counting) from each plot and weighed using a digital balance.

2.5.3.2 GY

The total number of plants in the net plot was harvested, and grains were shelled from the ears of each plot. Then, the field weight of grains and the moisture content were immediately measured using an electronic balance and moisture tester, respectively, in each plot. The measured values were adjusted to the standard moisture content of 12.5% [37], and then it was multiplied by the field weight of the actual yield of each plot to determine the adjusted yield of the plot and finally converted into per unit area using the following formula:

(10) C o rrection factor = 100 − actual moisture content 100 − standard moisture content ,

(11) GY ( kg plo t − 1 ) = 100 − actual moisture content 100 − standard moisture content × Field weight ,

(12) GY ( kg ha − 1 ) = Yield ( kg ha − 1 ) Plot size × 10 , 000 .

2.5.3.3 Above-ground dry biomass yield

All plants with ears attached from the net plot were harvested at harvest maturity and weighed after sun drying to determine above-ground dry biomass (biological yield) [37].

2.5.3.4 HI

It was calculated as the ratio of GY to total above-ground dry biomass yield multiplied by 100 at harvest from the respective treatments [38].

(13) Harvest index ( HI % ) = Grain yield ( kg ha − 1 ) Above − ground biological yield × 100 .

2.6 Statistical analysis

For each measured response variable, an analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted. Data were analyzed for variability using SAS version 9 statistical packages. Mean separation was calculated using the least significance difference (LSD) method at 1 and 5% level of probability.

Figure 4 Partial view of the experimental site (photo captured during the experiment).
Figure 4

Partial view of the experimental site (photo captured during the experiment).

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Effects of deficit irrigation on the phenological parameter of maize

3.1.1 Days to tasselling, silking, and maturity

Significant variations were observed in days to tasselling, silking, and maturity among different irrigation application depths, with a significance level (P < 0.001), as illustrated in Table S1. Notably, 50% ETc (50% deficit irrigation) exhibited significantly higher durations, approximately 74.1 and 73.7 days to tasselling and 81.6 and 81.1 days to silking (Table 1) in the first and second growth seasons, respectively. Conversely, 150% ETc (50% over-irrigation) recorded longer durations of 112.91 and 111.52 days to maturity. Additionally, 75% ETc and 150% ETc showed about 71.5 and 72.4 days to tasselling and 72.5 and 71.7 days to silking in the first and second growing seasons, respectively. The irrigation applied depth of 100% ETc exhibited the shortest durations, approximately 67.7 and 67.9 days to tasselling, 73.8 and 73.9 days to silking, while 50% ETc recorded 105.8 and 104.4 days to maturity. Longer tassel flowering periods were observed with increasing water stress, as indicated by Radford [36], while over-irrigation was linked to delayed crop maturity, according to Abaza et al. [39]. Gadédjisso-Tossou et al. [40] reported that corn GY is sensitive to water deficits during the tasselling-silking period, leading to delayed tassel emergence. Similarly, it was noted in previous studies [41,42] that water stress conditions extended the tassel flowering period. Table 1 presents data on the growth of maize under different irrigation depths across two seasons: the dry season of 2022–2023 and the spring season of 2023–2024. Key metrics observed are days to 50% tasseling (DT), days to 90% maturity (DPM), and days to 50% silking (DS). The spring season generally shows a slight decrease in days to tasseling, maturity, and silking across most irrigation depths compared to the dry season, suggesting more favorable growing conditions in spring. CV values are low for all metrics, indicating low variability within the treatments. The CV for DPM is particularly low (0.64) for both seasons, showing very consistent maturity times across treatments.

Table 1

Means of day to DT, DPM, and DS of maize, as influenced by applied irrigation depth

TRT 2022–2023 2023–2024
DT DPM DS DT DPM DS
50% 74.10a 105.77d 81.60a 73.68a 104.40d 81.05a
75% 71.48a 109.15c 79.45b 72.45ba 107.78c 79.30cb
100% 67.65b 109.94cb 73.82d 67.94c 108.58cb 73.94d
125% 71.383a 110.53b 77.2167c 70.83b 109.17b 78.55c
150% 72.37a 112.91a 79.67b 71.72ba 111.52a 79.78b
LSD 2.31 1.32 3.04 2.01 1.31 3.72
CV 1.72 0.64 2.06 1.5 0.64 2.55

Mean values denoted by the same letters (a, b, c, d) in the same column are not statistically different at the 5% level for the least significant difference test.

3.2 Growth parameter

3.2.1 PH

In both the 2022–2023 and 2023–204 irrigation seasons, the maximum PH was reached in the irrigation applied depth of 100% ETc (full irrigation), reaching 285.13 and 287.51 cm, respectively, as shown in Table 2. There were notable variations at P < 0.001 (Tables S2 and S3) in PH across the different irrigation depths, with 50% ETc and 150% ETc registering the lowest PHs, respectively, at 144.61 and 143.61 cm. These were above the mean height indicated by a deviation of 13.35 cm [42,43]. According to Pinnamaneni et al. [29], water stress and excessive irrigation caused waterlogging, which was the cause of this decrease in PH. The variation that has been observed highlights the significance of accurate irrigation management in determining the height of maize plants, as variations from ideal water levels can be clearly felt in the overall growth of the plants. The dry season (2022/23) slightly lowered PHs due to higher evapotranspiration rates and potential water stress, and during the spring season (2023/24), on the other hand, slightly higher PHs due to more favorable temperatures and better water availability. Statistically, CV indicates slight variations between seasons, with the spring season (2023–2024) showing slightly taller plants across most treatments, suggesting more favorable growing conditions.

Table 2

PH, LA, LAI, NL, and SD of maize, as influenced by applied irrigation depth

TRT 2022–2023 2023–2024
PH (cm) LA (cm2) LAI NL SD (cm) PH (cm) LA (cm2) LAI NL SD (cm)
50% 163.6b 522.70d 20.96d 11.27b 2.55c 156.44b 524.07d 20.91d 11.46c 3.02c
75% 272.99a 640.68b 25.68b 15.78a 3.58b 275.12a 642.04b 25.63b 14.97b 3.42b
100% 285.13a 850.54a 34.08a 17.51a 4.55a 287.51a 851.98a 34.02a 17.65a 4.69a
125% 171.38b 613.204c 24.59c 11.87b 3.24b 172.52b 614.77c 24.53c 12.20c 3.48b
150% 144.61b 432.30e 17.35e 10.96b 2.62c 143.52b 433.66e 17.29e 10.67c 2.99c
LSD 30.49 21.87 0.88 2.292 0.38 32.54 21.87 0.87 1.83 0.26
CV 7.80 1.89 1.9 9.03 6.14 8.35 1.89 1.90 7.24 3.86

Mean values denoted by the same letters (a, b, c, d, e) in the same column are not statistically different at the 5% level for the least significant difference test.

3.2.2 LA

As shown in Table 2, the maximum LA was recorded in the irrigation seasons 2022–2023 and 2023–2024 at a depth of 100% ETc (full irrigation), reaching 851.98 and 850.54 cm², respectively. They were significant at P < 0.001, as shown in Tables S2 and S3, indicating differences between the various irrigation depths for LA; in both seasons, 150% ETc registered the lowest PH values, measuring 433.66 and 432.30 cm², respectively. Over-irrigation and waterlogging, which are known to obstruct canopy photosynthesis by reducing LA and stomatal conductance, were causes for this drop in PH. Reduced carbon dioxide consumption is the outcome of stomata closing as a protective measure in response to moisture stress, as explained by De Bruyn [44]. The process of expanding the LA, which is essential for plant growth, is determined by various factors such as temperature, assimilate supply, and leaf turgor. These factors can all be negatively impacted by drought conditions [28]. Additionally, studies like those by Jin et al. [45] and Weight [46] showed that water stress altered the morphology of the leaves and stems, producing fewer, smaller leaves with more compact, smaller cells and higher specific leaf weight. The spring season (2023/24) generally shows slightly improved growth metrics compared to the dry season (2022/23), indicating more favorable growing conditions during the spring. Reduced LA due to water conservation strategies by plants and increased LA as plants utilize better climatic conditions. Table 2 shows that the coefficient of variation (CV) of the LAs was generally consistent across seasons, with a slight increase in the spring season, indicating better growth conditions.

3.2.3 NL per plant

There was a noticeable effect of irrigation depth on leaf number; the NL peaked at 100% ETc and decreased with over-irrigation. Tables S2 and S3 showed that, during different growth seasons, there were significant differences (P < 0.001) in the NL across different treatments. In particular, the highest values (17.65 and 17.51) during the second and first growth seasons were recorded at 100% ETc (full irrigation), while the lowest values (10.67 and 10.96) were recorded at 150% ETc (Table 2). Notably, for the NL in the second season, there were no discernible variations between 50% ETc, 125% ETc, and 150% ETc. There was no discernible difference between 75% ETc (deficit irrigation) and 100% ETc (full irrigation) during the first season. The trend that was seen showed that when irrigation was applied to a depth of 100% ETc, the NL increased, and when irrigation was applied too deeply, the NL decreased. This is in line with earlier research by Karasu et al. [23], which highlighted the interaction between irrigation depth and leaf dynamics and how weather affects both. The dry season (2022–2023) showed fewer leaves due to stress conditions, and the spring season (2023–2024) had more leaves due to optimal growing conditions. The NL shows a minor seasonal CV, with a slight increase in the spring season for most treatments (Table 2).

3.2.4 LA index

There were notable variations in the irrigation depth applied (P < 0.001), as shown in Tables S2 and S3. The treatment with 100% ETc of irrigation water had the highest value of 0.34, while treatments with 50% and 150% ETc of irrigation water had the lowest value of 0.17 (Table 2). This emphasizes how different irrigation levels affect the LAI. In line with research studies [47,48], it is evident that water stress and over-irrigation play crucial roles in influencing the LA Index. In addition, as shown by Earl and Davis [49], there is a positive correlation between increased LA and sufficient photosynthesis, plant growth, and leaf retention under ideal moisture conditions. This suggests that accurate irrigation management plays a crucial role in affecting the leaf dynamics of maize crops. Similar to the other growth parameters, LAI in the dry season (2022–2023) was lower due to smaller LAs and fewer leaves. In the second spring irrigation season (2023–2024), higher LAI with better leaf development is observed. The CV of the LAI shows consistent trends across seasons, with slightly higher LAI in the spring season, reflecting improved environmental conditions for leaf development, as indicated in Table 2.

3.2.5 SD

Table 2 displays the significant differences in stem diameter between the various irrigation applied depths at a significant significance level of P < 0.001 (Tables S2 and S3). At the irrigation water applied depth of 100% ETc (full irrigation), the irrigation seasons 2022–2023 and 2023–204 showed the largest stem diameters, measuring roughly 4.55 and 4.69 cm, respectively. On the other hand, during the first and second irrigation seasons, the lowest stem diameters were measured at 50% ETc and 150% ETc irrigation depths, or 2.55 and 2.99 cm, respectively. The potential effects of water stress and over-irrigation on maize are suggested by the inverse relationship between stem diameter and irrigation depth. This observation is consistent with research conducted by Alishash et al. [50], who observed that early indicators of water stress are reductions in turgor, which result in decreased cell development and growth, particularly in the stem and leaves.

The variations in maize growth parameters across the dry and spring seasons can be attributed to differences in climatic conditions, soil moisture levels, irrigation efficiency, and plant physiological responses. The spring season offers more favorable conditions for maize growth, resulting in slightly higher values for PH, LA, LAI, NL, and stem diameter compared to the dry season. Understanding these seasonal impacts is crucial for optimizing irrigation practices and improving crop productivity. Stem diameter remains relatively less variability across seasons, with slight increases in the spring season, indicating consistent growth patterns (Table 2).

3.3 Effects of deficit irrigation on maize yield and yield component

3.3.1 CL

Tables S4 and S5 show that significant differences were found between the irrigation-applied depths with respect to CL, with a significant significance level of P < 0.001. The greatest CLs were observed in the irrigation seasons 2022–2023 and 2023–204 at the irrigation water applied depth of 100% ETc (full irrigation; Table 3), measuring roughly 33.74 and 33.21 cm, respectively. Optimal irrigation provides sufficient water for maximum growth, resulting in the longest cobs [24]. On the other hand, during the first and second irrigation seasons, the lowest CLs were 19.23 and 19.44 cm, respectively, measured at 50% ETc and 150% ETc irrigation depth. CL was significantly lower under deficit irrigation due to insufficient water, which limits plant growth and cob development, and over-irrigation leads to waterlogging, which can reduce oxygen availability to roots, thus inhibiting growth and reducing CL [48,49]. Comparing the results of 2022/23 and 2023/24, the first irrigation season had slightly higher values in CL and number of ears, possibly due to more favorable growing conditions in the spring irrigation season (2023–2024). Generally, values for CL and number of ears are slightly lower compared to the spring season. The dry season’s severe conditions likely stress the plants more, leading to slightly higher values in CL and number of ears, possibly due to more favorable growing conditions in the spring. Statistically, CV for CL is 9.23 in the dry season and 8.72 in the spring, indicating slightly more consistent CL measurements in the spring season. These results emphasize the relationship between the irrigation depth and CL, illustrating the significance of accurate water management for the best possible cob development in maize farming.

Table 3

CL, number of ears per plant (NE), and HI of maize, as influenced by the applied irrigation depth

TRT 2022–2023 2023–2024
CL (cm) NE HI CL (cm) NE HI
50% 21.28c 1.25c 0.246a 21.56cb 1.11c 0.256a
75% 31.40a 1.49b 0.180b 31.74a 1.556b 0.183b
100% 33.74a 1.72a 0.176b 33.91a 1.74a 0.193b
125% 26.97b 1.45b 0.170b 25.36b 1.23c 0.196b
150% 19.23c 1.22c 0.176b 19.44c 1.08c 0.196b
LSD 4.11 0.13 0.032 4.56 0.18 0.015
CV 9.23 6.99 8.96 8.72 4.89 3.77

Mean values denoted by the same letters (a, b, c) in the same column are not statistically different at the 5% level for the least significant difference test.

3.3.2 Thousand grains weight (TGY)

Tables S4 and S5 show that there was a highly significant (P < 0.001) effect of the applied irrigation depth on thousand grain weights (TGW). Notably, in both irrigation seasons, TGW showed a declining trend when irrigation depth increased above 100% ETc, or decreased below 100% ETc. At 100% ETc irrigation depth, the maximum TGW was observed during the first and second seasons (Table 4), reaching approximately 682.51 and 685.12 g, respectively. This suggests an ideal water supply for grain development. On the other hand, TGW decreased in response to either higher or lower deviations from this threshold. The first and second growing seasons’ 50% ETc (50% ETc deficit irrigation) yielded the lowest TGW readings, at about 382.95 and 397.06 g, respectively. This shows how sensitive grain weight is to variations in ideal irrigation levels. The study revealed that there were no significant differences (P < 0.001) between treatments with irrigation depths of 50% ETc and 150% ETc, as well as 75% ETc and 125% ETc. This highlights the importance of precise irrigation management in achieving optimal TGWs in maize cultivation. The spring season (2022/23) typically has more favorable growing conditions (e.g., temperature, sunlight) than the dry season (2023/24), which might contribute to slightly higher TGY values at similar irrigation depths. The CV in thousand GY during the dry season is about 5.28% of the mean, showing moderate variability across different irrigation depths. During the spring season, the variation is 5.72%, similar to the dry season’s variability.

Table 4

Total ABY, GY, and TGY of maize, as influenced by the applied irrigation depth

TRT 2022–2023 2023–2024
GY (t ha−1) TGY (g) ABY(t ha−1) GY (t ha−1) TGY (g) ABY(t ha−1)
50% 3.52d 382.95d 14.28d 3.82e 397.06d 14.94d
75% 4.82c 542.28c 27.37c 5.12d 540.36c 27.79c
100% 5.83a 685.12a 32.74a 6.08a 682.51a 31.41a
125% 5.31b 602.43b 30.99ba 5.7b 620.56b 29.46b
150% 5.11cb 584.59cb 29.07bc 5.45c 593.12cb 27.91c
LSD 0.38 55.65 2.92 0.19 61.01 1.181
CV 4.15 5.28 5.76 1.92 5.72 2.39

Mean values denoted by the same letters (a, b, c, d, e) in the same column are not statistically different at the 5% level for the least significant difference test.

3.3.3 GY

The results shown in Tables S4 and S5 reveal that the applied irrigation depth had a highly significant (P < 0.001) influence on GY. In both irrigation seasons, GY showed a declining trend when irrigation depths deviated from the ideal 100% ETc, both above and below. The maximum GY was attained at the 100% ETc irrigation depth in the first and second seasons, respectively, reaching 5.83 and 6.08 tons per hectare (Table 4), illustrating the crucial role that accurate water management plays in optimizing crop productivity [51]; GY was, however, decreased when this ideal irrigation level was not met. On the other hand, during the 2022–2023 growing season, the lowest GY, roughly 3.52–3.82 tons per hectare, was recorded under 50% ETc, which is consistent with findings from earlier research [4,52]. Remarkably, maize GY is highly susceptible to water stress, especially from the time right before silking until grain filling [24]. This highlights how crucial it is to maintain the right amount of irrigation for the best possible maize production. Ethiopia experiences distinct seasonal variations that significantly affect agricultural practices and outcomes. The dry season, with minimal rainfall and higher temperature characteristics, extends from October to February 2022/2023. This period often presents challenges for crop growth due to water scarcity and increased evapotranspiration rates. During the dry season, the GY at 100% ETc was 5.83 t/ha. This season was characterized by higher temperatures and lower humidity, which can increase evapotranspiration rates and potentially stress the crop if irrigation is not managed precisely. In the spring season 2023/24 March to May (‘Belg’), the GY at 100% ETc increased to 6.08 t/ha. The spring season typically has more favorable growing conditions with moderate temperatures and higher humidity, which can reduce evapotranspiration rates and allow the crop to use water more efficiently (Figure 5). The variation (CV) in GY during the dry season is 4.15% of the mean, indicating relatively low variability across different irrigation depths. In the spring season, the variation was even lower at 1.92%, suggesting greater consistency in GY compared to the dry season (Table 4).

Figure 5 Irrigation depth and GY of 2022/23 and 2023/24.
Figure 5

Irrigation depth and GY of 2022/23 and 2023/24.

3.3.4 Above-ground biomass yield (ABY)

The recorded depth of applied irrigation significantly influenced ABY, with a distinct difference observed at a significance level of P < 0.001 (Tables S4 and S5), as outlined in Table 4. The ABY demonstrated a declining trend when irrigation depth deviated from the optimal 100% ETc, both above and below, across both irrigation seasons. The highest ABY, reaching approximately 32.74 and 31.41 tons per hectare (Table 4) in the first and second irrigation seasons, respectively, was achieved at the 100% ETc irrigation depth. However, deviations from this optimal irrigation level resulted in a reduction in the ABY. Conversely, the lowest ABY, about 14.28 and 14.94 tons per hectare, was recorded at 50% ETc deficit irrigation during the first and second irrigation seasons, respectively. The correlation between reduced biomass accumulation and GY suggests that soil water stress may contribute to these outcomes, potentially leading to early senescence of lower leaves and a reduction in photosynthetically active radiation interception, as documented in previous studies [23,53,54]. These findings underscore the importance of precise irrigation management in mitigating the impact of water stress on biomass production and overall crop yield. The study was conducted in the irrigation season of the dry season (Bega) of 2022–2023 and the spring season (Belg) of 2023–2024, October to February and March to May, respectively. In the spring season, biomass yield at 100% ETc was slightly lower at 31.41 t/ha (Figure 6). This might seem counterintuitive given the higher GY, but it can be attributed to the plant allocating more resources to grain filling rather than vegetative growth [14]. The ABY in the dry season at 100% ETc was 32.74 t/ha. The high temperatures and potential water stress can limit vegetative growth despite optimal irrigation. The CV in ABY during the dry season is about 5.76% of the mean, indicating moderate variability. In the spring season, it drops to 2.39%, showing significantly less variability (Table 4).

Figure: 6 Irrigation depth and above biomass yield of 2022/23 and 2023/24.
Figure: 6

Irrigation depth and above biomass yield of 2022/23 and 2023/24.

3.3.5 HI

The applied irrigation depth exhibited significant variations in HI, with a notable difference at a significance level of P < 0.001, as detailed in Tables S4 and S5. In the 2023–2024 irrigation seasons, the highest HI values were achieved at an irrigation application depth of 150% ETc, registering 0.31 and 0.33 (Table 3), respectively. Conversely, during the 2022–2023 irrigation seasons, the lowest HI values were observed at 100% ETc and 75% ETc irrigation depths, recording 0.17 and 0.722, respectively. The HI was consistently higher across all treatments, indicating more efficient grain production relative to total biomass. Both in 2022/23 and 2023/24, HI was highest at 50% ETc. The highest HI was observed here, indicating that while overall biomass was lower, a larger proportion of it was grain, possibly due to the plant focusing on reproductive structures under stress. These findings align with the results reported by Eshete et al. [15], indicating a consistent trend of lower HI values associated with higher irrigation levels. The HI was lower than 50% ETc because vegetative growth was also maximized. This emphasizes the significance of careful irrigation management in optimizing HI and, consequently, overall crop productivity.

3.4 WUE, IWUE, and crop productivity

Evaluation of the economics of water use units in maize production under different irrigation regimes is crucial, and the metric employed for this assessment is IWUE, as presented in Table 5. The IWUE, along with crop productivity, was significantly influenced by varied irrigation depths during the 2022–2023 and 2023–2024 irrigation seasons, with a notable significance level of P < 0.001. The highest WUE and IWUE, measuring approximately 6.39 and 12.88 kg m−3, were recorded at 50% ETc in the 2022–2023 seasons, while the lowest values of 1.97 and 3.98 kg m−3 were observed at 150% ETc. This aligns with the proportional decrease in WUE and IWUE with an increase in the applied depth of irrigation, consistent with findings in previous studies [55,56,57]. Notably, there were no significant differences between T1 (50% ETc) and T2 (75% ETc), aligning with results reported by Yenesew and Tilahun [58]. However, 50% ETc and 150% ETc exhibited lower crop productivity, indicating less efficient performances. The water-saving potential ranged from 25% to 50% compared to the control treatment, emphasizing the importance of optimizing irrigation practices for enhanced WUE in maize cultivation. The study was conducted in the dry irrigation season (Bega) of 2022 Yenesew M, Tilahun 2023, and spring season (Belg) of 2023–2024 from October to February and March to May, respectively. During the dry season, WUE and IWUE were generally lower due to higher evapotranspiration rates. At 100% ETc, the WUE was 5.55 kg/m³ and IWUE was 11.43 kg/m³. In the spring season, WUE and IWUE were higher due to more favorable growing conditions [15,53]. At 100% ETc, the WUE was 5.65 kg/m³ and IWUE was 10.49 kg/m³. The differences indicate slightly better WUE in the spring season, though the IWUE was somewhat lower, potentially due to higher water availability (Figure 7).

Table 5

WUE and IWUE of different depths of irrigation

TRT 2022–2023 2023–2024
WUE (kg m−3) IWUE (kg m−3) Ws (m3/ha) WUE (kg m−3) IWUE (kg m−3) Ws (m3/ha)
50% 6.39a 12.88a 541.00e 6.19a 12.09a 5425.05e
75% 6.23a 12.55a 811.50d 6.39a 11.48a 810.52d
100% 5.55b 11.43b 1082.00c 5.65b 10.49b 1079.10c
125% 3.06c 7.21c 1352.50b 3.96c 7.24c 1351.54b
150% 1.77d 3.98d 1623.00a 1.97d 4.13d 1615.08a
LSD 0.36 0.74 0.46 0.78 0.57 8.98
CV 5.09 5.08 4.09 6.09 3.45 9.90

Mean values denoted by the same letters in the same column (a, b, c, d, and e) are not statistically different at the 5% level for the least significant difference test.

Figure 7 WUE (left) and IWUE (right of different depths of irrigation).
Figure 7

WUE (left) and IWUE (right of different depths of irrigation).

3.5 Statistical analysis

The statistical analysis of maize growth parameters between the dry season (2022–2023) and spring season (2023–2024) under varying irrigation depths reveals notable variations influenced by both seasonal and treatment factors. For phenological traits, such as days to 50% tasseling (DT), DPM, and Days to 50% Silking (DS), significant differences were observed, with the lowest values recorded for 100% irrigation treatment. LSD and CV values indicate that these variations are statistically significant with high precision (Table 1). In terms of plant morphology, parameters like PH, LA, and LAI showed maximum growth of fewer than 100% irrigation, with consistent trends across both seasons. Notably, the LSD values highlight significant differences among treatments, while the CV values reflect low variability, underscoring reliable results (Table 2). Yield components such as CL, NE, and HI demonstrated higher performance at optimal irrigation levels (100%), with minimal differences between seasons, as reflected by low CV values (Table 3). Similarly, GY, TGY, and total ABY peaked at 100% irrigation, with LSD values confirming significant differences among treatments and low CV values indicating consistent data across seasons (Table 4). Finally, WUE and IWUE were highest at lower irrigation levels (50 and 75%), emphasizing the efficiency of these treatments. Overall, the data suggest that 100% irrigation is optimal for most growth and yield parameters, with minimal seasonal variation, as indicated by consistent LSD and CV (Table 5).

3.6 Partial budget analysis

Data related to economic comparison are presented in Table 6. All the variable costs, except the irrigation costs, were the same in all the treatments. The maximum benefit–cost ratio (BCR) of about 1.94 was found in the application depth of 100% ETc, while the minimum BCR of about 1.05 and 1.37 was obtained from the treatment of 150% ETc and 50% ETc, respectively. This might be due to the fact that the treatment T5 and T1 experienced excess irrigation (water logging) and water stress in the vegetative and silking formation stages during the growing season of maize.

Table 6

Partial budget analysis of maize production under different irrigation treatments during the years 2022–2023

Treatment
50% 75% 100% 125% 150%
Land preparation 8,000 8,000 8,000 8,000 8,000
Labor (Birr ha−1) 54,500 54,500 54,500 54,500 54,500
Fertilizers (Birr ha−1) 9,380 9,380 9,380 9,380 9,380
Maize (Birr ha−1) 6,000 6,000 6,000 6,000 6,000
Pesticide (Birr ha−1) 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000
Irrigation (Birr ha−1) 42,378 55,089 56,863 57,706 69,574
Total cost (Birr ha−1) 122,258 134,969 136,743 137,586 149,454
Yield (kg/ha) 3,720 5,015 5,890 4,835 3,515
Price per 100 kg 4,500 4,500 4,500 4,500 4,500
Gross return (Birr ha−1) 126162.68 184387.5 223,776 176544.23 116897.63
BCR 1.37 1.67 1.94 1.58 1.05

4 Conclusions

This study demonstrated the significant impact of different irrigation application depths on the growth and yield parameters of maize. The findings indicate that both deficit and over-irrigation lead to suboptimal maize performance, while optimal irrigation (100% ETc) significantly enhances growth and yield metrics. Specifically, 100% ETc resulted in the shortest durations to tasseling, silking, and maturity, along with the highest PH, LA, NL, and stem diameter. These optimal water conditions also produced the greatest CL, TGW, GY, and ABY, highlighting the critical role of proper irrigation management in maize cultivation. On the other hand, both 50% ETc (deficit irrigation) and 150% ETc (over-irrigation) significantly delayed tasseling, silking, and maturity, reduced PH, LA, LAI, NL, and stem diameter, and led to lower GY and ABY. This underscores the detrimental effects of water stress and waterlogging on maize growth and productivity. Seasonal variations were observed, with the spring season (2023–2024) generally showing slightly improved growth metrics compared to the dry season (2022–2023). Maize growth and productivity are significantly influenced by irrigation practices and seasonal variations. Optimal irrigation at 100% ETc consistently results in the best growth parameters and highest yields in both the dry and spring seasons. Suboptimal irrigation, whether deficit or excess, negatively impacts plant growth, cob development, grain weight, and overall productivity. Therefore, precise irrigation management tailored to seasonal conditions was essential for maximizing maize yield and ensuring sustainable water use. Farmers should aim for 100% ETc irrigation depth to achieve the best growth and yield outcomes for maize. This level of irrigation ensures optimal durations for tasseling, silking, and maturity and maximizes PH, LA, LAI, NL, and stem diameter. WUE and IWUE were maximized at 50% ETc, but this came at the cost of reduced crop productivity. The 100% ETc irrigation depth achieved the optimal balance between WUE and GY

The highest BCR of 1.94 was obtained under the 100% ETc irrigation treatment, indicating optimal economic returns. Deficit (50% ETc) and over-irrigation (150% ETc) resulted in lower BCR values, demonstrating the importance of precise irrigation management for maize production.

This study highlights the critical role of accurate irrigation management in optimizing maize phenology, growth, yield, and WUE. Maintaining the 100% ETc irrigation depth emerged as the most effective strategy to balance crop productivity and WUE. Recognizing seasonal variations in growing conditions is also crucial for improving irrigation practices and enhancing maize performance.

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge Bahir Dar Institute of Technology, Bahir Dar University for providing instruments for measurement of soil moisture and discharge data.

  1. Funding information: Authors state no funding involved.

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and consented to its submission to the journal, reviewed all the results and approved the final version of the manuscript. DGA: conceptualization, data curation, formal analysis, investigation, methodology, software, visualization, writing – original draft, writing – review and editing. FAZ: supervision, validation, writing – review and editing. GGS: supervision.

  3. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflicts of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: The data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding authors.

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Received: 2024-04-27
Revised: 2024-07-03
Accepted: 2024-07-29
Published Online: 2024-08-22

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Regular Articles
  2. Supplementation of P-solubilizing purple nonsulfur bacteria, Rhodopseudomonas palustris improved soil fertility, P nutrient, growth, and yield of Cucumis melo L.
  3. Yield gap variation in rice cultivation in Indonesia
  4. Effects of co-inoculation of indole-3-acetic acid- and ammonia-producing bacteria on plant growth and nutrition, soil elements, and the relationships of soil microbiomes with soil physicochemical parameters
  5. Impact of mulching and planting time on spring-wheat (Triticum aestivum) growth: A combined field experiment and empirical modeling approach
  6. Morphological diversity, correlation studies, and multiple-traits selection for yield and yield components of local cowpea varieties
  7. Participatory on-farm evaluation of new orange-fleshed sweetpotato varieties in Southern Ethiopia
  8. Yield performance and stability analysis of three cultivars of Gayo Arabica coffee across six different environments
  9. Biology of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on different types of plants feeds: Potency as a pest on various agricultural plants
  10. Antidiabetic activity of methanolic extract of Hibiscus sabdariffa Linn. fruit in alloxan-induced Swiss albino diabetic mice
  11. Bioinformatics investigation of the effect of volatile and non-volatile compounds of rhizobacteria in inhibiting late embryogenesis abundant protein that induces drought tolerance
  12. Nicotinamide as a biostimulant improves soybean growth and yield
  13. Farmer’s willingness to accept the sustainable zoning-based organic farming development plan: A lesson from Sleman District, Indonesia
  14. Uncovering hidden determinants of millennial farmers’ intentions in running conservation agriculture: An application of the Norm Activation Model
  15. Mediating role of leadership and group capital between human capital component and sustainability of horticultural agribusiness institutions in Indonesia
  16. Biochar technology to increase cassava crop productivity: A study of sustainable agriculture on degraded land
  17. Effect of struvite on the growth of green beans on Mars and Moon regolith simulants
  18. UrbanAgriKG: A knowledge graph on urban agriculture and its embeddings
  19. Provision of loans and credit by cocoa buyers under non-price competition: Cocoa beans market in Ghana
  20. Effectiveness of micro-dosing of lime on selected chemical properties of soil in Banja District, North West, Ethiopia
  21. Effect of weather, nitrogen fertilizer, and biostimulators on the root size and yield components of Hordeum vulgare
  22. Effects of selected biostimulants on qualitative and quantitative parameters of nine cultivars of the genus Capsicum spp.
  23. Growth, yield, and secondary metabolite responses of three shallot cultivars at different watering intervals
  24. Design of drainage channel for effective use of land on fully mechanized sugarcane plantations: A case study at Bone Sugarcane Plantation
  25. Technical feasibility and economic benefit of combined shallot seedlings techniques in Indonesia
  26. Control of Meloidogyne javanica in banana by endophytic bacteria
  27. Comparison of important quality components of red-flesh kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis) in different locations
  28. Efficiency of rice farming in flood-prone areas of East Java, Indonesia
  29. Comparative analysis of alpine agritourism in Trentino, Tyrol, and South Tyrol: Regional variations and prospects
  30. Detection of Fusarium spp. infection in potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) during postharvest storage through visible–near-infrared and shortwave–near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy
  31. Forage yield, seed, and forage qualitative traits evaluation by determining the optimal forage harvesting stage in dual-purpose cultivation in safflower varieties (Carthamus tinctorius L.)
  32. The influence of tourism on the development of urban space: Comparison in Hanoi, Danang, and Ho Chi Minh City
  33. Optimum intra-row spacing and clove size for the economical production of garlic (Allium sativum L.) in Northwestern Highlands of Ethiopia
  34. The role of organic rice farm income on farmer household welfare: Evidence from Yogyakarta, Indonesia
  35. Exploring innovative food in a developing country: Edible insects as a sustainable option
  36. Genotype by environment interaction and performance stability of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) cultivars grown in Dawuro zone, Southwestern Ethiopia
  37. Factors influencing green, environmentally-friendly consumer behaviour
  38. Factors affecting coffee farmers’ access to financial institutions: The case of Bandung Regency, Indonesia
  39. Morphological and yield trait-based evaluation and selection of chili (Capsicum annuum L.) genotypes suitable for both summer and winter seasons
  40. Sustainability analysis and decision-making strategy for swamp buffalo (Bubalus bubalis carabauesis) conservation in Jambi Province, Indonesia
  41. Understanding factors affecting rice purchasing decisions in Indonesia: Does rice brand matter?
  42. An implementation of an extended theory of planned behavior to investigate consumer behavior on hygiene sanitation-certified livestock food products
  43. Information technology adoption in Indonesia’s small-scale dairy farms
  44. Draft genome of a biological control agent against Bipolaris sorokiniana, the causal phytopathogen of spot blotch in wheat (Triticum turgidum L. subsp. durum): Bacillus inaquosorum TSO22
  45. Assessment of the recurrent mutagenesis efficacy of sesame crosses followed by isolation and evaluation of promising genetic resources for use in future breeding programs
  46. Fostering cocoa industry resilience: A collaborative approach to managing farm gate price fluctuations in West Sulawesi, Indonesia
  47. Field investigation of component failures for selected farm machinery used in small rice farming operations
  48. Near-infrared technology in agriculture: Rapid, simultaneous, and non-destructive determination of inner quality parameters on intact coffee beans
  49. The synergistic application of sucrose and various LED light exposures to enhance the in vitro growth of Stevia rebaudiana (Bertoni)
  50. Weather index-based agricultural insurance for flower farmers: Willingness to pay, sales, and profitability perspectives
  51. Meta-analysis of dietary Bacillus spp. on serum biochemical and antioxidant status and egg quality of laying hens
  52. Biochemical characterization of trypsin from Indonesian skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) viscera
  53. Determination of C-factor for conventional cultivation and soil conservation technique used in hop gardens
  54. Empowering farmers: Unveiling the economic impacts of contract farming on red chilli farmers’ income in Magelang District, Indonesia
  55. Evaluating salt tolerance in fodder crops: A field experiment in the dry land
  56. Labor productivity of lowland rice (Oryza sativa L.) farmers in Central Java Province, Indonesia
  57. Cropping systems and production assessment in southern Myanmar: Informing strategic interventions
  58. The effect of biostimulants and red mud on the growth and yield of shallots in post-unlicensed gold mining soil
  59. Effects of dietary Adansonia digitata L. (baobab) seed meal on growth performance and carcass characteristics of broiler chickens: A systematic review and meta-analysis
  60. Analysis and structural characterization of the vid-pisco market
  61. Pseudomonas fluorescens SP007s enhances defense responses against the soybean bacterial pustule caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. glycines
  62. A brief investigation on the prospective of co-composted biochar as a fertilizer for Zucchini plants cultivated in arid sandy soil
  63. Supply chain efficiency of red chilies in the production center of Sleman Indonesia based on performance measurement system
  64. Investment development path for developed economies: Is agriculture different?
  65. Power relations among actors in laying hen business in Indonesia: A MACTOR analysis
  66. High-throughput digital imaging and detection of morpho-physiological traits in tomato plants under drought
  67. Converting compression ignition engine to dual-fuel (diesel + CNG) engine and experimentally investigating its performance and emissions
  68. Structuration, risk management, and institutional dynamics in resolving palm oil conflicts
  69. Spacing strategies for enhancing drought resilience and yield in maize agriculture
  70. Composition and quality of winter annual agrestal and ruderal herbages of two different land-use types
  71. Investigating Spodoptera spp. diversity, percentage of attack, and control strategies in the West Java, Indonesia, corn cultivation
  72. Yield stability of biofertilizer treatments to soybean in the rainy season based on the GGE biplot
  73. Evaluating agricultural yield and economic implications of varied irrigation depths on maize yield in semi-arid environments, at Birfarm, Upper Blue Nile, Ethiopia
  74. Chemometrics for mapping the spatial nitrate distribution on the leaf lamina of fenugreek grown under varying nitrogenous fertilizer doses
  75. Pomegranate peel ethanolic extract: A promising natural antioxidant, antimicrobial agent, and novel approach to mitigate rancidity in used edible oils
  76. Transformative learning and engagement with organic farming: Lessons learned from Indonesia
  77. Tourism in rural areas as a broader concept: Some insights from the Portuguese reality
  78. Assessment enhancing drought tolerance in henna (Lawsonia inermis L.) ecotypes through sodium nitroprusside foliar application
  79. Edible insects: A survey about perceptions regarding possible beneficial health effects and safety concerns among adult citizens from Portugal and Romania
  80. Phenological stages analysis in peach trees using electronic nose
  81. Harvest date and salicylic acid impact on peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) properties under different humidity conditions
  82. Hibiscus sabdariffa L. petal biomass: A green source of nanoparticles of multifarious potential
  83. Use of different vegetation indices for the evaluation of the kinetics of the cherry tomato (Solanum lycopersicum var. cerasiforme) growth based on multispectral images by UAV
  84. First evidence of microplastic pollution in mangrove sediments and its ingestion by coral reef fish: Case study in Biawak Island, Indonesia
  85. Physical and textural properties and sensory acceptability of wheat bread partially incorporated with unripe non-commercial banana cultivars
  86. Cereibacter sphaeroides ST16 and ST26 were used to solubilize insoluble P forms to improve P uptake, growth, and yield of rice in acidic and extreme saline soil
  87. Avocado peel by-product in cattle diets and supplementation with oregano oil and effects on production, carcass, and meat quality
  88. Optimizing inorganic blended fertilizer application for the maximum grain yield and profitability of bread wheat and food barley in Dawuro Zone, Southwest Ethiopia
  89. The acceptance of social media as a channel of communication and livestock information for sheep farmers
  90. Adaptation of rice farmers to aging in Thailand
  91. Combined use of improved maize hybrids and nitrogen application increases grain yield of maize, under natural Striga hermonthica infestation
  92. From aquatic to terrestrial: An examination of plant diversity and ecological shifts
  93. Statistical modelling of a tractor tractive performance during ploughing operation on a tropical Alfisol
  94. Participation in artisanal diamond mining and food security: A case study of Kasai Oriental in DR Congo
  95. Assessment and multi-scenario simulation of ecosystem service values in Southwest China’s mountainous and hilly region
  96. Analysis of agricultural emissions and economic growth in Europe in search of ecological balance
  97. Bacillus thuringiensis strains with high insecticidal activity against insect larvae of the orders Coleoptera and Lepidoptera
  98. Technical efficiency of sugarcane farming in East Java, Indonesia: A bootstrap data envelopment analysis
  99. Comparison between mycobiota diversity and fungi and mycotoxin contamination of maize and wheat
  100. Evaluation of cultivation technology package and corn variety based on agronomy characters and leaf green indices
  101. Exploring the association between the consumption of beverages, fast foods, sweets, fats, and oils and the risk of gastric and pancreatic cancers: Findings from case–control study
  102. Phytochemical composition and insecticidal activity of Acokanthera oblongifolia (Hochst.) Benth & Hook.f. ex B.D.Jacks. extract on life span and biological aspects of Spodoptera littoralis (Biosd.)
  103. Land use management solutions in response to climate change: Case study in the central coastal areas of Vietnam
  104. Evaluation of coffee pulp as a feed ingredient for ruminants: A meta-analysis
  105. Interannual variations of normalized difference vegetation index and potential evapotranspiration and their relationship in the Baghdad area
  106. Harnessing synthetic microbial communities with nitrogen-fixing activity to promote rice growth
  107. Agronomic and economic benefits of rice–sweetpotato rotation in lowland rice cropping systems in Uganda
  108. Response of potato tuber as an effect of the N-fertilizer and paclobutrazol application in medium altitude
  109. Bridging the gap: The role of geographic proximity in enhancing seed sustainability in Bandung District
  110. Evaluation of Abrams curve in agricultural sector using the NARDL approach
  111. Challenges and opportunities for young farmers in the implementation of the Rural Development Program 2014–2020 of the Republic of Croatia
  112. Yield stability of ten common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) genotypes at different sowing dates in Lubumbashi, South-East of DR Congo
  113. Effects of encapsulation and combining probiotics with different nitrate forms on methane emission and in vitro rumen fermentation characteristics
  114. Phytochemical analysis of Bienertia sinuspersici extract and its antioxidant and antimicrobial activities
  115. Evaluation of relative drought tolerance of grapevines by leaf fluorescence parameters
  116. Yield assessment of new streak-resistant topcross maize hybrids in Benin
  117. Improvement of cocoa powder properties through ultrasonic- and microwave-assisted alkalization
  118. Potential of ecoenzymes made from nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) leaf and pulp waste as bioinsecticides for Periplaneta americana
  119. Analysis of farm performance to realize the sustainability of organic cabbage vegetable farming in Getasan Semarang, Indonesia
  120. Revealing the influences of organic amendment-derived dissolved organic matter on growth and nutrient accumulation in lettuce seedlings (Lactuca sativa L.)
  121. Identification of viruses infecting sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas Lam.) in Benin
  122. Assessing the soil physical and chemical properties of long-term pomelo orchard based on tree growth
  123. Investigating access and use of digital tools for agriculture among rural farmers: A case study of Nkomazi Municipality, South Africa
  124. Does sex influence the impact of dietary vitD3 and UVB light on performance parameters and welfare indicators of broilers?
  125. Design of intelligent sprayer control for an autonomous farming drone using a multiclass support vector machine
  126. Deciphering salt-responsive NB-ARC genes in rice transcriptomic data: A bioinformatics approach with gene expression validation
  127. Review Articles
  128. Impact of nematode infestation in livestock production and the role of natural feed additives – A review
  129. Role of dietary fats in reproductive, health, and nutritional benefits in farm animals: A review
  130. Climate change and adaptive strategies on viticulture (Vitis spp.)
  131. The false tiger of almond, Monosteira unicostata (Hemiptera: Tingidae): Biology, ecology, and control methods
  132. A systematic review on potential analogy of phytobiomass and soil carbon evaluation methods: Ethiopia insights
  133. A review of storage temperature and relative humidity effects on shelf life and quality of mango (Mangifera indica L.) fruit and implications for nutrition insecurity in Ethiopia
  134. Green extraction of nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) phytochemicals: Prospective strategies and roadblocks
  135. Potential influence of nitrogen fertilizer rates on yield and yield components of carrot (Dacus carota L.) in Ethiopia: Systematic review
  136. Corn silk: A promising source of antimicrobial compounds for health and wellness
  137. State and contours of research on roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) in Africa
  138. The potential of phosphorus-solubilizing purple nonsulfur bacteria in agriculture: Present and future perspectives
  139. Minor millets: Processing techniques and their nutritional and health benefits
  140. Meta-analysis of reproductive performance of improved dairy cattle under Ethiopian environmental conditions
  141. Review on enhancing the efficiency of fertilizer utilization: Strategies for optimal nutrient management
  142. The nutritional, phytochemical composition, and utilisation of different parts of maize: A comparative analysis
  143. Motivations for farmers’ participation in agri-environmental scheme in the EU, literature review
  144. Evolution of climate-smart agriculture research: A science mapping exploration and network analysis
  145. Short Communications
  146. Music enrichment improves the behavior and leukocyte profile of dairy cattle
  147. Effect of pruning height and organic fertilization on the morphological and productive characteristics of Moringa oleifera Lam. in the Peruvian dry tropics
  148. Corrigendum
  149. Corrigendum to “Bioinformatics investigation of the effect of volatile and non-volatile compounds of rhizobacteria in inhibiting late embryogenesis abundant protein that induces drought tolerance”
  150. Corrigendum to “Composition and quality of winter annual agrestal and ruderal herbages of two different land-use types”
  151. Special issue: Smart Agriculture System for Sustainable Development: Methods and Practices
  152. Construction of a sustainable model to predict the moisture content of porang powder (Amorphophallus oncophyllus) based on pointed-scan visible near-infrared spectroscopy
  153. FruitVision: A deep learning based automatic fruit grading system
  154. Energy harvesting and ANFIS modeling of a PVDF/GO-ZNO piezoelectric nanogenerator on a UAV
  155. Effects of stress hormones on digestibility and performance in cattle: A review
  156. Special Issue of The 4th International Conference on Food Science and Engineering (ICFSE) 2022 - Part II
  157. Assessment of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acid profiles and ratio of omega-6/omega-3 of white eggs produced by laying hens fed diets enriched with omega-3 rich vegetable oil
  158. Special Issue on FCEM - International Web Conference on Food Choice & Eating Motivation - Part II
  159. Special Issue on FCEM – International Web Conference on Food Choice & Eating Motivation: Message from the editor
  160. Fruit and vegetable consumption: Study involving Portuguese and French consumers
  161. Knowledge about consumption of milk: Study involving consumers from two European Countries – France and Portugal
https://doi.org/10.1515/opag-2022-0343
Keywords for this article
furrow; irrigation; maize; water requirement; yield
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Regular Articles
  2. Supplementation of P-solubilizing purple nonsulfur bacteria, Rhodopseudomonas palustris improved soil fertility, P nutrient, growth, and yield of Cucumis melo L.
  3. Yield gap variation in rice cultivation in Indonesia
  4. Effects of co-inoculation of indole-3-acetic acid- and ammonia-producing bacteria on plant growth and nutrition, soil elements, and the relationships of soil microbiomes with soil physicochemical parameters
  5. Impact of mulching and planting time on spring-wheat (Triticum aestivum) growth: A combined field experiment and empirical modeling approach
  6. Morphological diversity, correlation studies, and multiple-traits selection for yield and yield components of local cowpea varieties
  7. Participatory on-farm evaluation of new orange-fleshed sweetpotato varieties in Southern Ethiopia
  8. Yield performance and stability analysis of three cultivars of Gayo Arabica coffee across six different environments
  9. Biology of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on different types of plants feeds: Potency as a pest on various agricultural plants
  10. Antidiabetic activity of methanolic extract of Hibiscus sabdariffa Linn. fruit in alloxan-induced Swiss albino diabetic mice
  11. Bioinformatics investigation of the effect of volatile and non-volatile compounds of rhizobacteria in inhibiting late embryogenesis abundant protein that induces drought tolerance
  12. Nicotinamide as a biostimulant improves soybean growth and yield
  13. Farmer’s willingness to accept the sustainable zoning-based organic farming development plan: A lesson from Sleman District, Indonesia
  14. Uncovering hidden determinants of millennial farmers’ intentions in running conservation agriculture: An application of the Norm Activation Model
  15. Mediating role of leadership and group capital between human capital component and sustainability of horticultural agribusiness institutions in Indonesia
  16. Biochar technology to increase cassava crop productivity: A study of sustainable agriculture on degraded land
  17. Effect of struvite on the growth of green beans on Mars and Moon regolith simulants
  18. UrbanAgriKG: A knowledge graph on urban agriculture and its embeddings
  19. Provision of loans and credit by cocoa buyers under non-price competition: Cocoa beans market in Ghana
  20. Effectiveness of micro-dosing of lime on selected chemical properties of soil in Banja District, North West, Ethiopia
  21. Effect of weather, nitrogen fertilizer, and biostimulators on the root size and yield components of Hordeum vulgare
  22. Effects of selected biostimulants on qualitative and quantitative parameters of nine cultivars of the genus Capsicum spp.
  23. Growth, yield, and secondary metabolite responses of three shallot cultivars at different watering intervals
  24. Design of drainage channel for effective use of land on fully mechanized sugarcane plantations: A case study at Bone Sugarcane Plantation
  25. Technical feasibility and economic benefit of combined shallot seedlings techniques in Indonesia
  26. Control of Meloidogyne javanica in banana by endophytic bacteria
  27. Comparison of important quality components of red-flesh kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis) in different locations
  28. Efficiency of rice farming in flood-prone areas of East Java, Indonesia
  29. Comparative analysis of alpine agritourism in Trentino, Tyrol, and South Tyrol: Regional variations and prospects
  30. Detection of Fusarium spp. infection in potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) during postharvest storage through visible–near-infrared and shortwave–near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy
  31. Forage yield, seed, and forage qualitative traits evaluation by determining the optimal forage harvesting stage in dual-purpose cultivation in safflower varieties (Carthamus tinctorius L.)
  32. The influence of tourism on the development of urban space: Comparison in Hanoi, Danang, and Ho Chi Minh City
  33. Optimum intra-row spacing and clove size for the economical production of garlic (Allium sativum L.) in Northwestern Highlands of Ethiopia
  34. The role of organic rice farm income on farmer household welfare: Evidence from Yogyakarta, Indonesia
  35. Exploring innovative food in a developing country: Edible insects as a sustainable option
  36. Genotype by environment interaction and performance stability of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) cultivars grown in Dawuro zone, Southwestern Ethiopia
  37. Factors influencing green, environmentally-friendly consumer behaviour
  38. Factors affecting coffee farmers’ access to financial institutions: The case of Bandung Regency, Indonesia
  39. Morphological and yield trait-based evaluation and selection of chili (Capsicum annuum L.) genotypes suitable for both summer and winter seasons
  40. Sustainability analysis and decision-making strategy for swamp buffalo (Bubalus bubalis carabauesis) conservation in Jambi Province, Indonesia
  41. Understanding factors affecting rice purchasing decisions in Indonesia: Does rice brand matter?
  42. An implementation of an extended theory of planned behavior to investigate consumer behavior on hygiene sanitation-certified livestock food products
  43. Information technology adoption in Indonesia’s small-scale dairy farms
  44. Draft genome of a biological control agent against Bipolaris sorokiniana, the causal phytopathogen of spot blotch in wheat (Triticum turgidum L. subsp. durum): Bacillus inaquosorum TSO22
  45. Assessment of the recurrent mutagenesis efficacy of sesame crosses followed by isolation and evaluation of promising genetic resources for use in future breeding programs
  46. Fostering cocoa industry resilience: A collaborative approach to managing farm gate price fluctuations in West Sulawesi, Indonesia
  47. Field investigation of component failures for selected farm machinery used in small rice farming operations
  48. Near-infrared technology in agriculture: Rapid, simultaneous, and non-destructive determination of inner quality parameters on intact coffee beans
  49. The synergistic application of sucrose and various LED light exposures to enhance the in vitro growth of Stevia rebaudiana (Bertoni)
  50. Weather index-based agricultural insurance for flower farmers: Willingness to pay, sales, and profitability perspectives
  51. Meta-analysis of dietary Bacillus spp. on serum biochemical and antioxidant status and egg quality of laying hens
  52. Biochemical characterization of trypsin from Indonesian skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) viscera
  53. Determination of C-factor for conventional cultivation and soil conservation technique used in hop gardens
  54. Empowering farmers: Unveiling the economic impacts of contract farming on red chilli farmers’ income in Magelang District, Indonesia
  55. Evaluating salt tolerance in fodder crops: A field experiment in the dry land
  56. Labor productivity of lowland rice (Oryza sativa L.) farmers in Central Java Province, Indonesia
  57. Cropping systems and production assessment in southern Myanmar: Informing strategic interventions
  58. The effect of biostimulants and red mud on the growth and yield of shallots in post-unlicensed gold mining soil
  59. Effects of dietary Adansonia digitata L. (baobab) seed meal on growth performance and carcass characteristics of broiler chickens: A systematic review and meta-analysis
  60. Analysis and structural characterization of the vid-pisco market
  61. Pseudomonas fluorescens SP007s enhances defense responses against the soybean bacterial pustule caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. glycines
  62. A brief investigation on the prospective of co-composted biochar as a fertilizer for Zucchini plants cultivated in arid sandy soil
  63. Supply chain efficiency of red chilies in the production center of Sleman Indonesia based on performance measurement system
  64. Investment development path for developed economies: Is agriculture different?
  65. Power relations among actors in laying hen business in Indonesia: A MACTOR analysis
  66. High-throughput digital imaging and detection of morpho-physiological traits in tomato plants under drought
  67. Converting compression ignition engine to dual-fuel (diesel + CNG) engine and experimentally investigating its performance and emissions
  68. Structuration, risk management, and institutional dynamics in resolving palm oil conflicts
  69. Spacing strategies for enhancing drought resilience and yield in maize agriculture
  70. Composition and quality of winter annual agrestal and ruderal herbages of two different land-use types
  71. Investigating Spodoptera spp. diversity, percentage of attack, and control strategies in the West Java, Indonesia, corn cultivation
  72. Yield stability of biofertilizer treatments to soybean in the rainy season based on the GGE biplot
  73. Evaluating agricultural yield and economic implications of varied irrigation depths on maize yield in semi-arid environments, at Birfarm, Upper Blue Nile, Ethiopia
  74. Chemometrics for mapping the spatial nitrate distribution on the leaf lamina of fenugreek grown under varying nitrogenous fertilizer doses
  75. Pomegranate peel ethanolic extract: A promising natural antioxidant, antimicrobial agent, and novel approach to mitigate rancidity in used edible oils
  76. Transformative learning and engagement with organic farming: Lessons learned from Indonesia
  77. Tourism in rural areas as a broader concept: Some insights from the Portuguese reality
  78. Assessment enhancing drought tolerance in henna (Lawsonia inermis L.) ecotypes through sodium nitroprusside foliar application
  79. Edible insects: A survey about perceptions regarding possible beneficial health effects and safety concerns among adult citizens from Portugal and Romania
  80. Phenological stages analysis in peach trees using electronic nose
  81. Harvest date and salicylic acid impact on peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) properties under different humidity conditions
  82. Hibiscus sabdariffa L. petal biomass: A green source of nanoparticles of multifarious potential
  83. Use of different vegetation indices for the evaluation of the kinetics of the cherry tomato (Solanum lycopersicum var. cerasiforme) growth based on multispectral images by UAV
  84. First evidence of microplastic pollution in mangrove sediments and its ingestion by coral reef fish: Case study in Biawak Island, Indonesia
  85. Physical and textural properties and sensory acceptability of wheat bread partially incorporated with unripe non-commercial banana cultivars
  86. Cereibacter sphaeroides ST16 and ST26 were used to solubilize insoluble P forms to improve P uptake, growth, and yield of rice in acidic and extreme saline soil
  87. Avocado peel by-product in cattle diets and supplementation with oregano oil and effects on production, carcass, and meat quality
  88. Optimizing inorganic blended fertilizer application for the maximum grain yield and profitability of bread wheat and food barley in Dawuro Zone, Southwest Ethiopia
  89. The acceptance of social media as a channel of communication and livestock information for sheep farmers
  90. Adaptation of rice farmers to aging in Thailand
  91. Combined use of improved maize hybrids and nitrogen application increases grain yield of maize, under natural Striga hermonthica infestation
  92. From aquatic to terrestrial: An examination of plant diversity and ecological shifts
  93. Statistical modelling of a tractor tractive performance during ploughing operation on a tropical Alfisol
  94. Participation in artisanal diamond mining and food security: A case study of Kasai Oriental in DR Congo
  95. Assessment and multi-scenario simulation of ecosystem service values in Southwest China’s mountainous and hilly region
  96. Analysis of agricultural emissions and economic growth in Europe in search of ecological balance
  97. Bacillus thuringiensis strains with high insecticidal activity against insect larvae of the orders Coleoptera and Lepidoptera
  98. Technical efficiency of sugarcane farming in East Java, Indonesia: A bootstrap data envelopment analysis
  99. Comparison between mycobiota diversity and fungi and mycotoxin contamination of maize and wheat
  100. Evaluation of cultivation technology package and corn variety based on agronomy characters and leaf green indices
  101. Exploring the association between the consumption of beverages, fast foods, sweets, fats, and oils and the risk of gastric and pancreatic cancers: Findings from case–control study
  102. Phytochemical composition and insecticidal activity of Acokanthera oblongifolia (Hochst.) Benth & Hook.f. ex B.D.Jacks. extract on life span and biological aspects of Spodoptera littoralis (Biosd.)
  103. Land use management solutions in response to climate change: Case study in the central coastal areas of Vietnam
  104. Evaluation of coffee pulp as a feed ingredient for ruminants: A meta-analysis
  105. Interannual variations of normalized difference vegetation index and potential evapotranspiration and their relationship in the Baghdad area
  106. Harnessing synthetic microbial communities with nitrogen-fixing activity to promote rice growth
  107. Agronomic and economic benefits of rice–sweetpotato rotation in lowland rice cropping systems in Uganda
  108. Response of potato tuber as an effect of the N-fertilizer and paclobutrazol application in medium altitude
  109. Bridging the gap: The role of geographic proximity in enhancing seed sustainability in Bandung District
  110. Evaluation of Abrams curve in agricultural sector using the NARDL approach
  111. Challenges and opportunities for young farmers in the implementation of the Rural Development Program 2014–2020 of the Republic of Croatia
  112. Yield stability of ten common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) genotypes at different sowing dates in Lubumbashi, South-East of DR Congo
  113. Effects of encapsulation and combining probiotics with different nitrate forms on methane emission and in vitro rumen fermentation characteristics
  114. Phytochemical analysis of Bienertia sinuspersici extract and its antioxidant and antimicrobial activities
  115. Evaluation of relative drought tolerance of grapevines by leaf fluorescence parameters
  116. Yield assessment of new streak-resistant topcross maize hybrids in Benin
  117. Improvement of cocoa powder properties through ultrasonic- and microwave-assisted alkalization
  118. Potential of ecoenzymes made from nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) leaf and pulp waste as bioinsecticides for Periplaneta americana
  119. Analysis of farm performance to realize the sustainability of organic cabbage vegetable farming in Getasan Semarang, Indonesia
  120. Revealing the influences of organic amendment-derived dissolved organic matter on growth and nutrient accumulation in lettuce seedlings (Lactuca sativa L.)
  121. Identification of viruses infecting sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas Lam.) in Benin
  122. Assessing the soil physical and chemical properties of long-term pomelo orchard based on tree growth
  123. Investigating access and use of digital tools for agriculture among rural farmers: A case study of Nkomazi Municipality, South Africa
  124. Does sex influence the impact of dietary vitD3 and UVB light on performance parameters and welfare indicators of broilers?
  125. Design of intelligent sprayer control for an autonomous farming drone using a multiclass support vector machine
  126. Deciphering salt-responsive NB-ARC genes in rice transcriptomic data: A bioinformatics approach with gene expression validation
  127. Review Articles
  128. Impact of nematode infestation in livestock production and the role of natural feed additives – A review
  129. Role of dietary fats in reproductive, health, and nutritional benefits in farm animals: A review
  130. Climate change and adaptive strategies on viticulture (Vitis spp.)
  131. The false tiger of almond, Monosteira unicostata (Hemiptera: Tingidae): Biology, ecology, and control methods
  132. A systematic review on potential analogy of phytobiomass and soil carbon evaluation methods: Ethiopia insights
  133. A review of storage temperature and relative humidity effects on shelf life and quality of mango (Mangifera indica L.) fruit and implications for nutrition insecurity in Ethiopia
  134. Green extraction of nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) phytochemicals: Prospective strategies and roadblocks
  135. Potential influence of nitrogen fertilizer rates on yield and yield components of carrot (Dacus carota L.) in Ethiopia: Systematic review
  136. Corn silk: A promising source of antimicrobial compounds for health and wellness
  137. State and contours of research on roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) in Africa
  138. The potential of phosphorus-solubilizing purple nonsulfur bacteria in agriculture: Present and future perspectives
  139. Minor millets: Processing techniques and their nutritional and health benefits
  140. Meta-analysis of reproductive performance of improved dairy cattle under Ethiopian environmental conditions
  141. Review on enhancing the efficiency of fertilizer utilization: Strategies for optimal nutrient management
  142. The nutritional, phytochemical composition, and utilisation of different parts of maize: A comparative analysis
  143. Motivations for farmers’ participation in agri-environmental scheme in the EU, literature review
  144. Evolution of climate-smart agriculture research: A science mapping exploration and network analysis
  145. Short Communications
  146. Music enrichment improves the behavior and leukocyte profile of dairy cattle
  147. Effect of pruning height and organic fertilization on the morphological and productive characteristics of Moringa oleifera Lam. in the Peruvian dry tropics
  148. Corrigendum
  149. Corrigendum to “Bioinformatics investigation of the effect of volatile and non-volatile compounds of rhizobacteria in inhibiting late embryogenesis abundant protein that induces drought tolerance”
  150. Corrigendum to “Composition and quality of winter annual agrestal and ruderal herbages of two different land-use types”
  151. Special issue: Smart Agriculture System for Sustainable Development: Methods and Practices
  152. Construction of a sustainable model to predict the moisture content of porang powder (Amorphophallus oncophyllus) based on pointed-scan visible near-infrared spectroscopy
  153. FruitVision: A deep learning based automatic fruit grading system
  154. Energy harvesting and ANFIS modeling of a PVDF/GO-ZNO piezoelectric nanogenerator on a UAV
  155. Effects of stress hormones on digestibility and performance in cattle: A review
  156. Special Issue of The 4th International Conference on Food Science and Engineering (ICFSE) 2022 - Part II
  157. Assessment of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acid profiles and ratio of omega-6/omega-3 of white eggs produced by laying hens fed diets enriched with omega-3 rich vegetable oil
  158. Special Issue on FCEM - International Web Conference on Food Choice & Eating Motivation - Part II
  159. Special Issue on FCEM – International Web Conference on Food Choice & Eating Motivation: Message from the editor
  160. Fruit and vegetable consumption: Study involving Portuguese and French consumers
  161. Knowledge about consumption of milk: Study involving consumers from two European Countries – France and Portugal
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