A systematic review on potential analogy of phytobiomass and soil carbon evaluation methods: Ethiopia insights
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Yohannes Gelaye
Abstract
Forests play a crucial role in mitigating the impacts of climate change by sequestering carbon in their biomass and soil. However, Ethiopia faces the threat of soil carbon emissions due to deforestation and continuous cultivation. This study reviewed the analogies in phytobiomass and soil carbon evaluation methods in Ethiopia. Index-base and year-wise analysis methods were used for the compilation of the study. Developing nations, such as Ethiopia, duly enhance resilient measures to assess forest carbon stocks for effective climate change mitigation, particularly with reference to emissions from deforestation and degradation. Even though more than 90% of Ethiopia’s energy comes from forest biomass, deforestation significantly affects the carbon stored in aboveground biomass, which is the largest reservoir. Estimating forest biomass and carbon emissions entails uncertainties, with error ranges around ±50% for aboveground pools and ±90% for soil carbon pools. Various tier methodologies are employed by experts to estimate forest biomass and carbon stock emissions, with Tier 2 factors serving as default emissions but country-specific factors offering improved accuracy over Tier 1. Tier 3 methodologies require highly specific inventory data on carbon stocks in different pools and common measurements of key carbon stocks. Forest conservation enhances biodiversity, ecosystem resilience, and essential ecosystem services, fostering soil health, regulating water cycles, and supporting diverse plant and animal species. In conclusion, directing efforts towards forest conservation not only helps maintain biodiversity and ecosystem services but also significantly contributes to mitigating climate change by enhancing carbon storage capacities and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
1 Introduction
Forests play a crucial role in the global carbon balance by absorbing and storing carbon dioxide (CO2) through photosynthesis, thereby mitigating climate change by reducing atmospheric CO2 levels and offsetting greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions [1,2]. There is growing interest in assessing forest carbon stock to better understand their contribution to mitigating climate change [3]. However, forests are cleared and the carbon in their biomass is converted to CO2 in the atmosphere [4]. Emerging nations must bolster forest carbon stock measures for effective climate change policies, including reducing deforestation and degradation emissions [5,6]. Because, accurate valuation is stated decisive for commercial use, development plan, and scientific study [7]. Most importantly, the estimation of aboveground biomass is reported to evaluate the disparities of carbon stored in the forest [8]. Certainly, accurate estimation of biomass and carbon in tropical forests is pivotal for comprehending their role in the global carbon cycle and their contribution to sustainable development [9,10]. For example, more than 90% of energy consumption in Ethiopia stemmed from forest biomass, but in other emerging countries, it is about 38% [11,12]. However, in order to implement mitigating policies and take advantage of reducing emissions, effectively, developing nations need genuine carbon stock estimates [13]. To estimate forest biomass and soil carbon stocks, an error range of approximately ±50% for aboveground pools and ±90% for soil carbon pools is indicated [14]. Accordingly, to compute the forest biomass and carbon stock emissions various tier methodologies are suggested by different experts [15].
The assumptions regarding the analogy between phytobiomass and soil carbon evaluation methods posit that changes in aboveground biomass reflect alterations in soil carbon storage, with the methodologies assumed to be applicable across various ecological contexts in Ethiopia, forming the basis for understanding interconnected carbon pools [16]. However, performance variations can arise due to factors like soil properties and methodological differences, necessitating empirical studies for validation, sensitivity analyses for uncertainty identification, and integration of remote sensing and spatial modeling for improved assessments. Socio-economic context consideration is vital for interpreting results and informing sustainable land management strategies in Ethiopian ecosystems [17].
Tier methodology estimates CO2 mass emissions using default values for emission factors, where both default high heating value and estimated fuel amount are combined to calculate emissions [18]. The Tier 2 factor employs the default emission but utilizes country-specific emission factors, resulting in better accuracy than Tier 1 [19]. Whereas, Tier 3 entails highly specific inventory data on carbon stocks in different pools, and frequent measurements of key carbon stocks [20]. The 2019 Refinement to the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for national GHG inventories define a “tier” as a level of methodological complexity, generally providing three tiers to accommodate different levels of complexity in GHG inventory calculations [21]. Understanding the varying tiers of methods for measuring carbon sequestration, with higher tiers requiring more data but offering increased accuracy, is crucial for informed decisions in carbon trading and sustainable forest management, as accurate assessment of carbon stocks across different forest areas is essential [22]. Efforts to validate and calibrate evaluation methods for predicting phytobiomass and soil carbon values under varying conditions are essential for ensuring the reliability of these predictions [23]. Such efforts typically involve rigorous field studies, experimentation, and statistical analyses to assess the accuracy and consistency of the evaluation methods across different environmental contexts. Reliability is enhanced through continuous refinement and validation against empirical data, considering factors like soil type, climate, land use, and vegetation cover [24]. Tier evaluation methods are crucial for selecting suitable carbon measurement approaches, relying on robust models and data quality, while in Ethiopia, they are vital for understanding and mitigating environmental impacts, informing sustainable land management, and addressing climate change effects [23,25]. Accordingly, the current system for providing carbon credits based on carbon stock performance relies heavily on accurate estimates of carbon stocks in various land use systems [26]. The improved estimates mentioned are vital for acquiring essential data to extrapolate biomass stocks to ecosystems and conduct reliable emission assessments from land use and cover scenarios [27]. A recent study on Ethiopian agriculture indicates that it possesses a greater capacity for carbon sequestration than previously anticipated, with actual estimates surpassing earlier model-based predictions and suggesting significant potential for carbon storage in soil [28]. The dearth of studies and data on biomass and soil carbon estimation methods in Africa, notably Ethiopia, underscore the need for research to provide crucial insights into regional carbon dynamics and ecosystem health, supporting global climate change initiatives [29]. Correspondingly, although the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change has set methodological tiers for measuring forest carbon stocks, Ethiopia faces a dearth of assessment on the significance and efficacy of these methods in estimating forest carbon stocks [30]. Thus, the aim of this review is to assess the analogies in phytobiomass and soil carbon evaluation methods in Ethiopia.
2 Methodology
When searching for articles, the search was typically started by using academic databases like PubMed, Google Scholar, or Web of Science (WoS) to conduct keyword searches and filter results by relevance and publication date. Citation chainings were also employed to follow references from relevant articles and leveraged institutional access through valuable research articles. The selection criteria primarily aimed at articles published after 2018 or 2019, while disregarding relevant data and books (Figure 1). As a result, the review materials were chosen to cover a range of years, guided by indexes and relevant protocols. Overall, more than 140 papers were reviewed to write this article. Of which 102 articles (72%), 25 articles (17.8%), and 13 (9.2%) were sourced from Scopus, WoS, and other journals, respectively. However, the year-wise and index-based analysis and synthesis show that most of the articles were published between 2018 and 2023 (Figure 1). In general, most studies found significant correlations between phytobiomass and soil carbon evaluation methods in Ethiopian ecosystems, indicating their potential analogy in assessing ecosystem health and carbon sequestration, emphasizing the need for integrated assessments in comprehensive ecosystem management and climate change mitigation strategiesTop of Form.
A graphical illustration showcasing strategies for collecting articles related to phytobiomass and soil carbon evaluation methods.
3 Concept of carbon cycle
Forests, critical carbon reservoirs, absorb and retain CO2, but their storage fluctuates, emphasizing the need for sustainable forest management to mitigate climate change by preventing carbon release [15]. Forests, renowned for their dense biomass per land unit, play a pivotal role in the global carbon cycle by absorbing atmospheric CO2 and storing it as carbon in their biomass, thereby aiding in climate change mitigation [31]. The fluctuations of CO2 levels between the atmosphere and ecosystems are primarily caused by processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, and the burning of organic matter [32]. During their growth cycle, plants absorb CO2, converting it into carbohydrates which are then stored in their tissues as they grow [33]. Photosynthesis plays a key role in carbon storage by converting CO2 into biomass, which eventually contributes to soil and dead organic matter pools [34]. The review study on carbon sequestration methodologies in Ethiopian agricultural soils highlights two main approaches for estimating ecosystem-level carbon balance: direct estimation via the eddy covariance method and indirect estimation through agricultural life cycle analysis, providing valuable insights into carbon dynamics in Ethiopian agricultural ecosystems [35]. Regardless of old or new approaches, depending on the resources and research needed, they occupy a unique place in soil carbon and climate research. Carbon dynamics in ecosystems are influenced by a myriad of factors, including geographic location, land use history, soil type, vegetation characteristics, and various confounding variables [36]. The geographic location plays a critical role in determining climate conditions such as temperature, precipitation, and seasonality, which directly influence primary productivity, decomposition rates, and carbon sequestration capacity [37]. For example, ecosystems in tropical regions often exhibit high rates of biomass accumulation and decomposition due to warm and humid conditions, leading to rapid carbon turnover. In contrast, temperate and boreal ecosystems may have slower carbon dynamics, with carbon storage primarily concentrated in soil organic matter due to colder temperatures and longer decomposition times [38].
Land use history is another key determinant of carbon dynamics, as human activities such as deforestation, agriculture, urbanization, and land degradation can significantly alter carbon stocks and fluxes [39]. Deforestation and land conversion for agriculture or infrastructure development release large amounts of carbon stored in vegetation and soil, leading to carbon emissions and loss of ecosystem carbon sequestration capacity [40]. Conversely, afforestation, reforestation, and restoration efforts can enhance carbon sequestration and storage, mitigating climate change impacts and promoting ecosystem resilience [41]. Understanding the legacy effects of past land use practices is crucial for assessing current carbon stocks and predicting future carbon dynamics in changing landscapes. Soil type, vegetation characteristics, and other confounding variables further modulate carbon dynamics by influencing nutrient availability, root biomass, microbial activity, and decomposition rates [42]. Different soil types vary in their organic matter content, texture, drainage, and pH, which affect carbon stabilization and turnover processes [43]. Similarly, vegetation characteristics such as species composition, biomass allocation, canopy structure, and disturbance regimes determine the magnitude and distribution of carbon stocks above and belowground [44]. Confounding variables such as fire frequency, insect outbreaks, disease epidemics, atmospheric deposition, and hydrological regimes can also impact carbon dynamics by altering ecosystem structure, function, and resilience [45]. Thus, integrating these factors into comprehensive carbon accounting frameworks is essential for accurately quantifying carbon stocks, understanding ecosystem responses to environmental change, and developing effective strategies for climate change mitigation and adaptation.
4 Impact of climate change on forest ecosystem
Climate change poses a significant threat to forest ecosystems, leading to changes in species composition, endangering plant survival, and threatening biodiversity [46]. Moreover, it is described to possess effects on sustainable forest management, creating challenges for foresters and decision-makers [47]. During deforestation and degradation, forests release the carbon they have stored into the atmosphere instead of continuing to sequester it [48]. Moreover, it helps to quantify the carbon stock, which will allow to comprehend the present status of carbon stocks and stem the near future variations in the carbon pools [49]. Correspondingly, because of much of the fluxes ensuing above the ground, forest structure assessment of above ground biomass is identified as a key step in ascertaining the amount of carbon in terrestrial vegetation pools [50]. Research conducted in the lower Beles River Basin in northwestern Ethiopia evaluated the carbon sequestration and storage potential of Oxytenanthera abyssinica forests, revealing their significant capacity for both carbon stock and sequestration [51]. Consequently, it is crucial to sustainably manage vegetation resources to maximize their contribution to ecosystem services, particularly in mitigating climate change. Over recent decades, carbon sequestration potential has exhibited both positive and negative temporal trends influenced by various environmental factors [52]. Overall, there has been a noticeable increase in carbon sequestration rates due to reforestation efforts, afforestation projects, and improved forest management practices [53]. However, this positive trajectory is often offset by deforestation, land degradation, and disturbances like wildfires and pest outbreaks, which reduce carbon stocks and sequestration rates. Area exclusion, such as protected area establishment or land use regulation, has shown promise in enhancing carbon stocks by preserving ecosystems and halting deforestation [54]. Nonetheless, the effectiveness of such measures is contingent upon factors like land management practices, climate change impacts, and socio-economic drivers, which can either amplify or mitigate their carbon sequestration potential [55]. A study in Kenya’s Mukogodo dryland forest landscape underscores the potential for CO2 offsetting via sequestration and storage, emphasizing the necessity of sustainable landscape management and restoration efforts to maximize carbon storage and ecosystem service provision for future biocarbon fund benefits [56]. Moreover, continuous monitoring of carbon stock is important to estimate net carbon storage and sequestration. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 187 examines global soil carbon assessment in grasslands, addressing existing stocks and sequestration potential, highlighting Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia as regions with the highest per-hectare carbon retention capabilities, storing 0.41 and 0.33 tonnes of carbon annually, respectively [57]. Research in Indonesia’s Aceh Besar district examined carbon levels in soil and vegetation biomass across diverse suboptimal dryland environments, finding that primary forests displayed the highest capacity for both soil and biomass carbon compared to other land types [58]. Higher carbon levels in plants and organic matter were found to correlate with increased carbon storage in soil and its reserves, indicating a close relationship between soil carbon and biomass carbon levels [59]. Therefore, incorporating forestry as a fundamental element in the creation of a nationwide database of GHG emissions and absorption is imperative [60]. This is because regularly assessing carbon reserves within forests offers critical insights into comprehending and controlling shifts in carbon levels. Essentially, forestry assumes a pivotal role in monitoring and tackling variations in carbon storage, underscoring its necessity for inclusion in national GHG inventories [61]. The research examined soil organic carbon (SOC) levels across different land cover types in Ethiopia, finding lower levels in cultivated areas compared to natural forests, mixed forests, eucalyptus plantations, and open bush land, indicating a potential concern [62,63]. Assessing the carbon sequestration potential of ecosystems involves evaluating various metrics such as aboveground biomass, belowground biomass, SOC, and total ecosystem carbon [64]. Each metric offers distinct insights into carbon storage dynamics. Aboveground biomass predominantly measures carbon stored in vegetation, providing a tangible indicator of sequestration capacity [65]. Belowground biomass, encompassing roots and other subterranean organic matter, complements this by capturing additional carbon pools [66]. Soil organic carbon serves as a critical reservoir, reflecting long-term storage and the potential for carbon turnover [67]. Total ecosystem carbon integrates these components, offering a comprehensive view of carbon sequestration potential [68]. However, assessing these metrics requires nuanced understanding of ecosystem dynamics, management practices, and environmental factors to accurately quantify and leverage carbon sequestration opportunities. A study in Southern Ethiopia’s Gughe massive assessed the carbon sequestration potential of the Surra planted forest, revealing significant differences in carbon stock compared to other forests, despite similar factors [69]. Variations in carbon stock were attributed to factors such as encroachment, illegal cutting, grazing, and limited protection, prompting the study to recommend policy attention from the Ethiopian government for effective resolution [37].
A study in Wondo Genet Sub-Catchment, Southern Ethiopia, revealed that SOC stock diminishes with soil depth across various land uses [70]. The variation in total carbon stock among land use types is attributed to differences in total biomass carbon stock.
5 Contribution of forests and soil to mitigating climate change
Climate change mitigation refers to human interventions aimed at lowering the overall emissions of GHGs, thus lessening the impact of climate change on both natural ecosystems and human activities [71]. Forests, influenced by various stages of succession and specific disruptions, are documented to interact with the atmosphere by exchanging significant amounts of carbon through processes like photosynthesis and respiration [72]. Additionally, they can alter their role as either a source or sink of carbon due to both natural events and human activities. Thus, understanding the ratio of CO2 absorbed by a forest from the atmosphere compared to the amount of carbon stored within it is crucial for accurately determining the forest’s contribution to the carbon cycle [73]. Research in Oromia, Ethiopia, assessing carbon reserves in Munesa forest underscores the vital role of both natural and plantation forests in mitigating climate change by absorbing substantial GHGs [74]. Hence, understanding the carbon flows and carbon reserves within tree parts and soil are highlighted as crucial stages in evaluating the carbon cycle of forests [75]. Thus, preserving existing carbon reserves within current forests and establishing new carbon reserves through afforestation and reforestation are deemed essential for enhancing carbon capture within terrestrial ecosystems and mitigating the increasing levels of CO2 in the atmosphere [76]. Research conducted in Nepal from 2010 to 2014 identified a significant relationship between predictor and response variables regarding climate change, emphasizing the crucial role of management intervention, particularly sustainable forest management, across all forest types [77]. This intervention is crucial for maintaining SOC levels amidst future climate change scenarios.
A study in Cheha Wereda, Gurage zone, Ethiopia, compared biomass and soil carbon stocks in various agroforestry systems (AFS) like home gardens and woodlots with cultivated land, finding that AFS have the potential to boost carbon stock accumulation in both biomass and soil compared to cultivated land [78]. Furthermore, these systems offer socioeconomic benefits beyond cultivated land, suggesting the AFS as a potential climate change mitigation strategy in Ethiopia’s central highlands. The review of Ethiopian forests underscores their roles in climate change mitigation and poverty alleviation, noting variations in carbon sequestration capacity due to factors such as forest density, tree characteristics, altitude, slope, and aspect, all significantly impacting carbon concentration levels [79].
The research examined SOC and total nitrogen (TN) stocks in farmlands with level soil bund (LSB) conservation measures for 3 and 6 years, contrasting them with nearby farmland lacking conservation measures in Ethiopia’s Somodo Watershed, indicating that the duration of LSB implementation significantly impacts soil fertility through the preservation and accumulation of SOC and TN [80].
Correspondingly, in Northwestern Ethiopia, a study analyzing biomass and soil carbon stocks in different forest types revealed an increase in aboveground, belowground, and SOC stocks in natural forests and plantations, while litter carbon stock decreased in exclosure areas [81]. In general, total natural forests store a high amount of carbon and can play an important role in climate change mitigation.
Research on soil carbon stocks in Ethiopian forests indicates that sustainable forest management could substantially boost soil carbon levels in the near future, carrying implications for Ethiopia’s fulfillment of its Paris Agreement targets [82]. The assessment in Ethiopia compared carbon sequestration in protected natural vegetation (PNV) and communal grazing land, revealing PNV as the most effective restoration approach, offering high carbon sequestration potential alongside benefits for biodiversity, livelihoods, and climate change mitigation [83].
6 Forest carbon stock pool
6.1 Aboveground and belowground biomass
Aboveground biomass refers to the total mass of living vegetation (such as trees, shrubs, and other plants) present above the soil surface in a given area [84]. This biomass is a crucial component of ecosystems and plays a significant role in the global carbon cycle and can be expressed as tons of biomass per hectare (ton/ha) [85]. While, belowground biomass is defined as the biomass of living roots of trees excluding fine roots less than 2 mm diameter [84]. However, it is also an important constituent in carbon and nutrient cycling in forests, comprising 20–26% of the total biomass [86]. Comparatively, the carbon stored in the aboveground living biomass of trees is indicated as the biggest pool and highly influenced by deforestation and degradation over aboveground biomass [87].
Research in Ethiopia studied soil carbon and nitrogen losses post-deforestation reveal highest levels in the middle landscape position, at 1.9% for SOC and 0.3% for TN, compared to upper and lower positions [88]. The study in Eastern Africa, focusing on Kenya and Ethiopia, examined SOC variations across land use types, ranging from 1.2% in farmland to 2.3% in dense forest, and found that implementing integrated conservation agriculture practices led to an 11% increase in SOC levels and a 22% boost in crop yields compared to standard practices [89]. Consequently, planting nitrogen-fixing cover crops in Eastern Africa shows promise for increasing soil carbon storage (+4%) and crop production (+18%) with minimal environmental nitrogen losses (+24%), underlining the importance of assessing aboveground forest biomass carbon content in measuring tropical forest stocks and fluxes [90]. The common method for calculating carbon in aboveground forest biomass involves drying the trees and measuring the biomass [91]. The dry biomass is reported to be converted in to carbon content by taking approximately 50% of the biomass [92]. However, this system is accurate only for a specific location, expensive, time-consuming, destructive, and impractical for nation-wide scrutiny. Also, the projection of biomass and carbon stock relies on measurements taken at breast height diameter, or a combination of breast height diameter and total height, utilizing nearby allometric equations [93]. The World Bank’s report (No. 67395-GLB) from May 2012, titled “Carbon Sequestration in Agricultural Soils,” suggests that minor agricultural practice adjustments have limited effects on soil carbon stocks compared to significant land use changes like converting cropland into forests or grasslands into tree crops [94]. The study in eastern Ethiopia’s Hades subwatershed examined carbon stocks across diverse land uses, including natural forest, coffee, agroforestry, grazing land, and cropland, revealing higher carbon stocks in land uses with woody perennials like natural forests and agroforestry, and analyzed carbon stored in four main pools: aboveground, belowground, litter, and soil [95]. Therefore, conservation-based production systems with the inclusion of woody perennials are options recommended to enhance carbon sequestration in the sub-watershed. Similarly, a study conducted from 2020 to 2021 in Damota Kebele, Ethiopia, examined carbon sequestration potential across different land covers, finding that farmland had low total carbon sequestration potential due to significant human and animal interference, weak security, and inadequate law enforcement measures [96]. Hence, farmland should embrace better ecological, policy, and socioeconomic considerations than other land covers. In the utmost cases, dead wood is described to be less generous than live trees, standing dead trees, fallen stems, and branches with a diameter at breast height [97]. Dead wood biomass is assessed based on wood types and can be estimated using the allometric equation designed for measuring diameter at breast height [98]. While, if the standing dead wood has no leaves, detracting 2–3% of aboveground biomass for hardwood and 5–6% for softwood is reported to be commended [99]. In addition, the litter biomass is defined as all dead organic material on top of the mineral soil [100]. Moreover, deadwoods with a diameter of less than 10 cm and larger than 2 mm were cited to be encompassed as the litter layer [101]. Roots are described to play a substantial role in the accumulation of SOC via decomposition and supply carbon to the soil by rhizodeposition [102]. In general, carbon storage in soil is three times more known than that of vegetation [103]. But there is some argument about the depth to which carbon storage in soils would be assessed for carbon accounting. Generally, the default value identified in different guidelines is 0–30 cm [104]. Biotic and abiotic processes greatly influence carbon stocks and balance in various environments, with organic matter, including fresh plant litter and fire remnants, significantly shaping soil composition [105].
6.2 Forest carbon accounting: Implications for carbon reduction strategies
In general, carbon accounting refers to the process of measuring and tracking the amount of CO2 and other GHG emissions associated with human activities or a specific entity, such as a company or organization [106]. While forest carbon accounting is reported to identify the carbon density of areas and provide reliable information for low carbon influence land use planning [107]. Forest carbon accounting not only facilitates emissions reporting and enables comparisons with other sectors’ climate impacts but also supports the trade of emission reductions on carbon markets [108]. An advantage of accounting is its ability to monitor measurable aspects, though there is concern about elements that are crucial yet challenging to assess [109]. The IPCC guidelines outline three common methods for estimating GHG emissions: Tier 1, forest biomass default values, and forest mean annual increment [110]. Yet, Tiers 1 and 2 utilize country-specific data collected at a national level, providing more detailed measurements of forest biomass compared to Tier 3, which combines tangible records and frequent plot measurements to openly assess biomass variations using parametric models alongside plot data (Table 1). The literature review indicates a necessity to reassess IPCC Tier 1 coefficients for estimating carbon storage in AFS, proposing that national governments collect data from local field experiments to formulate country-specific coefficients [111]. This approach would lead to more accurate estimations of biomass and SOC storage. The manual highlights the critical importance of carbon accounting in forests as a fundamental step for the successful execution of forest carbon projects [112]. Assessing wood biomass involves both direct methods, which entail harvesting trees and measuring their individual parts, and indirect approaches, which estimate biomass by measuring factors like wood volume and density, offering a more convenient and efficient alternative [113]. Tier 3 encompasses two approaches for assessing the carbon content of both individual trees and entire forested areas: biomass conversion and utilization of the allometric equation method [114]. Both techniques are commonly used in courses dedicated to estimating forest carbon stocks, converting field catalog data into measurements of tree biomass and carbon stock.
Short summary of tier methodologies pertinent to their contribution
| Tier 1 | Tier 2 | Tier 3 | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|
| Model used to estimate carbon stock as a function of land use/land cover | Adopts a more site-specific and detailed assessment of factors influencing emissions | This involves using country-specific methods, potentially integrating procedural models and comprehensive inventory assessments, while updating default values from IPCC guidelines with the latest research findings whenever feasible | [21,115] |
| Storage indicates the mass of carbon in an ecosystem at any given point in time | It considers a wide range of variables such as local climatic conditions, soil properties, livestock types, and management practices, resulting in more precise estimations | There are two main types of approaches: one involves detailed Tier 2 methods with specific carbon stock data for each country, while the other relies on country-specific techniques like models or repeated measurements from thorough forest inventories | [116,117] |
| Sequestration indicates the change in carbon storage in an ecosystem over time | Can be used if country-specific data on carbon stocks in initial land use are obtainable | Tier 3 method, akin to Tier 2 but necessitating more detailed data, incorporates actual annual conversion areas for each forest land transformed into “Other Land” | |
| Follows the approach in the IPCC guidelines (Forest and Grassland Conversion) | Carbon losses attributed to conversion processes like burning or harvesting enable a more precise estimation of non-CO2 GHG emissions | Carbon density and soil carbon stock changes rely on locally specific data, potentially with a dynamic biomass-soil link | |
| The Tier 1 calculation default assumes that all biomass carbon is released to the atmosphere through decay processes, either on or off-site | It is often referred to as “higher Tier” method and is generally considered more accurate than Tier 1 default, as it is more specific to the area in which it is used | The biomass volumes removed are based on actual inventory and/or model estimations | |
| Tier 3 contains the highest level of details, but requires robust underlying scientific data | |||
| The method requires the estimation of carbon stocks before conversion for the initial land use (C Before) and assumes that the carbon stock after conversion (C After) is zero | By considering factors such as weather patterns, soil characteristics, livestock types, and farming methods, it offers more precise predictions, empowering policymakers, scientists, and farmers to make informed decisions for emission reduction and agricultural sustainability | Implementing a Tier 3 approach demands sufficient validated data for its development, application, and assessment, with parameters reported to be country-specific and more precise than default values | [111,118] |
In addition, the IPCC guidelines provide methods for estimating GHG emissions or removals in mass units, with the three Tiers representing increasing complexity levels (Figure 2).
Tier methodological complexity (own simplification).
6.3 Understanding allometric equations: Key foundations for biomass estimation
Allometric equations play a pivotal role in biomass estimation, providing a quantitative link between easily measurable parameters such as tree diameter, height, or crown dimensions, and biomass components such as aboveground, belowground, and total biomass [119]. These equations are derived through empirical relationships between biomass and structural attributes of vegetation and are widely used as a foundational tool for estimating carbon stocks in forests, woodlands, and other ecosystems. By utilizing allometric equations, researchers and land managers can quickly and accurately estimate biomass without the need for destructive sampling, making them invaluable for large-scale assessments and monitoring efforts [50].
In the context of carbon accounting, allometric equations are indispensable for quantifying carbon stocks and tracking their changes over time [120]. Carbon stocks in vegetation are directly related to biomass, with aboveground biomass serving as a major reservoir of carbon in terrestrial ecosystems [121]. By applying species-specific or generic allometric equations, scientists can estimate aboveground biomass and subsequently calculate the carbon content using established conversion factors [122]. This enables the assessment of carbon sequestration potential, carbon fluxes, and the impacts of land use change, disturbances, and management practices on carbon stocks. Moreover, allometric equations can be integrated into remote sensing and GIS-based modeling approaches to upscale biomass and carbon estimates at regional or global scales, providing valuable insights for climate change mitigation and policy development [123]. However, it is important to recognize that the accuracy and reliability of allometric equations depend on several factors, including the geographical region, vegetation type, species composition, and the quality of data used to develop and validate the equations. Calibration of allometric equations with local or regional biomass data is essential to improve accuracy and reduce uncertainty in biomass and carbon estimates [124]. Furthermore, ongoing research efforts focus on refining allometric equations to account for variability in tree architecture, growth conditions, and environmental factors, as well as incorporating non-destructive techniques such as LiDAR and drone-based remote sensing for more precise biomass estimation [125]. Overall, allometric equations serve as indispensable tools for quantifying biomass and carbon stocks, facilitating informed decision-making for biodiversity conservation, ecosystem management, and climate change mitigation initiatives.
Thus, in assessing the potential analogy between phytobiomass and soil carbon evaluation methods in Ethiopia, several factors must be considered. Accuracy and precision are paramount, ensuring that measurements provide reliable and consistent data on carbon stocks across different ecosystems [126]. High accuracy ensures that estimates closely match true values, while precision guarantees consistency in repeated measurements, crucial for monitoring changes over time [127]. Cost-effectiveness is also essential, as cost-efficient methods enable broader implementation and monitoring efforts, facilitating comprehensive assessments of carbon dynamics in Ethiopian landscapes [128]. Additionally, scalability is crucial for the widespread application of evaluation methods, allowing for assessments across diverse ecosystems and varying spatial scales [129]. Finally, applicability across diverse ecosystems ensures that evaluation methods remain relevant and effective in capturing the nuances of carbon dynamics in Ethiopia’s heterogeneous landscapes, providing valuable insights for sustainable land management and climate change mitigation strategies [130]. Thus, balancing these factors optimally is essential for advancing our understanding of carbon dynamics and informing evidence-based policies for environmental conservation and management in Ethiopia.
Additionally, allometric equations delineate how various biological or ecological factors interrelate by considering the proportional dimensions of the organisms under consideration [131]. Researchers have formulated comprehensive equations for predicting biomass across diverse forest and tree types [132]. Allometric equations establish connections among tree attributes like diameter at breast height, trunk height, overall height, crown diameter, and species [133]. Therefore, equations are documented for individual species and mixtures to estimate biomass locally and for broader global and regional assessments [134].
In Africa, the absence of equations tailored to specific species or combinations of species has resulted in widespread reliance on pan-tropical equations for assessing tree biomass [135]. The lack of sufficient data has led to multiple debates questioning the reliability of the data, given that the equations were derived from biomass found outside of Africa [136]. Similarly, species-specific allometric equations are reported to be ideal since tree species might vary significantly in tree architecture as well as wood density [91].
The evaluation of carbon storage and its fluctuations in agroforestry methods, proposes that the most effective approach for gauging changes in carbon storage involves the utilization of allometric equations [121]. These equations rely on factors like tree diameter at breast height, height, and crown area, all of which can be assessed during field surveys.
6.4 Exploring Ethiopia’s Afromontane forest and grassland complex
The term “Afromontane” refers to the montane ecosystems (mountainous regions) found in Africa [15,137]. Afromontane forests, located in mountainous regions across Africa, including Ethiopia, are home to unique plant and animal species, with traditional sedentary cereal-based mixed agriculture practiced by the majority of the population [138]. Moreover, this type of forest thrives in areas with high humidity but low rainfall, often experiencing extended dry periods. Human activity has significantly disturbed these forests, leading to their replacement by bushlands [139].
In Jaranwala District, Pakistan, a study evaluated vegetation biomass and carbon stock in three poplar maize agroforestry planting patterns, finding the one maximizing biomass production also had the highest carbon stock, making it the optimal choice for financial gains and environmental benefits through carbon sequestration [140]. Hence, a better agroforestry planting pattern for a particular region is reported to be established by comparing greater profits, yields, and carbon storage capacity. In Ethiopia, the potential analogies between phytobiomass and soil carbon evaluation methods highlight significant parallels, offering opportunities to enhance understanding and accuracy in ecosystem dynamics and carbon sequestration, albeit challenges like spatial variability and methodological limitations require attention for effective land management strategies (Figure 3).
Phytobiomass and soil carbon evaluation methods.
7 Review gaps and future lines of work
Evaluate current methodologies for assessing phytobiomass and soil carbon in Ethiopia, highlighting deficiencies and inconsistencies, exploring scarcity of comparative studies on assessment techniques, and identifying gaps in understanding their relationship, particularly in spatial and temporal variability. Examine the integration of remote sensing and GIS technologies into evaluation methods, pinpoint underutilized areas, and assess the accessibility and availability of phytobiomass and soil carbon data, highlighting deficiencies in data sharing and collaboration among stakeholders.
Recommend implementing standardized evaluation methodologies for consistent and comparable studies, advocating longitudinal monitoring of phytobiomass and soil carbon levels, and adopting advanced modeling techniques to understand their dynamics amidst varying factors. Stress the importance of capacity building initiatives and collaborative endeavors involving researchers, policymakers, and local communities to enhance data collection, analysis, and interpretation. Emphasize the integration of research findings into national policies and strategies for sustainable land management and climate change mitigation in Ethiopia. Through addressing these gaps and proposing future directions, the aim of this review was to advance knowledge and guide decision-making in phytobiomass and soil carbon evaluation within Ethiopia.
8 Conclusion
In conclusion, the exploration of the potential analogy between phytobiomass and soil carbon evaluation methods in Ethiopia offers valuable theoretical insights into the interconnectedness of aboveground and belowground carbon dynamics. Although this review sheds light on the importance of both evaluations in understanding and mitigating environmental impacts, its limitations lie in the complexities of ecosystem interactions and the variability of factors influencing carbon stocks and fluxes. Future research endeavors should focus on refining methodologies to account for spatial and temporal heterogeneity, integrating advanced technologies such as remote sensing and spatial modeling, and incorporating socio-economic factors to enhance the accuracy and applicability of findings. Moreover, the findings, such as identifying similarities, adopting a comprehensive perspective, and integrating management approaches, enhance comprehension of ecosystem carbon dynamics and offer practical guidance for sustainable land management, particularly in Ethiopian ecosystems, stressing the importance of preserving carbon stores and mitigating climate change effects. Moving forward, it is imperative for future studies to delve deeper into the mechanisms driving the relationship between phytobiomass and soil carbon, exploring additional variables such as microbial activity, nutrient cycling, and land use history. Longitudinal studies spanning diverse ecological contexts can provide valuable insights into the resilience of carbon stocks to environmental perturbations and human-induced changes. Additionally, interdisciplinary collaborations between ecologists, soil scientists, remote sensing experts, and policymakers are essential for translating research findings into actionable policies and practices aimed at conserving ecosystem integrity and mitigating climate change impacts. By addressing these avenues, future research can further advance our understanding of carbon cycling dynamics and contribute to the development of effective strategies for sustainable land management and climate change mitigation.
Acknowledgements
The author acknowledges the anonymous editors and potential reviewers for their valuable input for the script.
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Funding statement: The author states no funding involved.
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Author contributions: The author conducted all aspects of the review study, encompassing conception, design, data analysis and synthesis, interpretation, drafting, and final write-up of the article.
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Conflict of interest: The author states no conflict of interest.
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Data availability statement: Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were analyzed in this study.
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Articles in the same Issue
- Regular Articles
- Supplementation of P-solubilizing purple nonsulfur bacteria, Rhodopseudomonas palustris improved soil fertility, P nutrient, growth, and yield of Cucumis melo L.
- Yield gap variation in rice cultivation in Indonesia
- Effects of co-inoculation of indole-3-acetic acid- and ammonia-producing bacteria on plant growth and nutrition, soil elements, and the relationships of soil microbiomes with soil physicochemical parameters
- Impact of mulching and planting time on spring-wheat (Triticum aestivum) growth: A combined field experiment and empirical modeling approach
- Morphological diversity, correlation studies, and multiple-traits selection for yield and yield components of local cowpea varieties
- Participatory on-farm evaluation of new orange-fleshed sweetpotato varieties in Southern Ethiopia
- Yield performance and stability analysis of three cultivars of Gayo Arabica coffee across six different environments
- Biology of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on different types of plants feeds: Potency as a pest on various agricultural plants
- Antidiabetic activity of methanolic extract of Hibiscus sabdariffa Linn. fruit in alloxan-induced Swiss albino diabetic mice
- Bioinformatics investigation of the effect of volatile and non-volatile compounds of rhizobacteria in inhibiting late embryogenesis abundant protein that induces drought tolerance
- Nicotinamide as a biostimulant improves soybean growth and yield
- Farmer’s willingness to accept the sustainable zoning-based organic farming development plan: A lesson from Sleman District, Indonesia
- Uncovering hidden determinants of millennial farmers’ intentions in running conservation agriculture: An application of the Norm Activation Model
- Mediating role of leadership and group capital between human capital component and sustainability of horticultural agribusiness institutions in Indonesia
- Biochar technology to increase cassava crop productivity: A study of sustainable agriculture on degraded land
- Effect of struvite on the growth of green beans on Mars and Moon regolith simulants
- UrbanAgriKG: A knowledge graph on urban agriculture and its embeddings
- Provision of loans and credit by cocoa buyers under non-price competition: Cocoa beans market in Ghana
- Effectiveness of micro-dosing of lime on selected chemical properties of soil in Banja District, North West, Ethiopia
- Effect of weather, nitrogen fertilizer, and biostimulators on the root size and yield components of Hordeum vulgare
- Effects of selected biostimulants on qualitative and quantitative parameters of nine cultivars of the genus Capsicum spp.
- Growth, yield, and secondary metabolite responses of three shallot cultivars at different watering intervals
- Design of drainage channel for effective use of land on fully mechanized sugarcane plantations: A case study at Bone Sugarcane Plantation
- Technical feasibility and economic benefit of combined shallot seedlings techniques in Indonesia
- Control of Meloidogyne javanica in banana by endophytic bacteria
- Comparison of important quality components of red-flesh kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis) in different locations
- Efficiency of rice farming in flood-prone areas of East Java, Indonesia
- Comparative analysis of alpine agritourism in Trentino, Tyrol, and South Tyrol: Regional variations and prospects
- Detection of Fusarium spp. infection in potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) during postharvest storage through visible–near-infrared and shortwave–near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy
- Forage yield, seed, and forage qualitative traits evaluation by determining the optimal forage harvesting stage in dual-purpose cultivation in safflower varieties (Carthamus tinctorius L.)
- The influence of tourism on the development of urban space: Comparison in Hanoi, Danang, and Ho Chi Minh City
- Optimum intra-row spacing and clove size for the economical production of garlic (Allium sativum L.) in Northwestern Highlands of Ethiopia
- The role of organic rice farm income on farmer household welfare: Evidence from Yogyakarta, Indonesia
- Exploring innovative food in a developing country: Edible insects as a sustainable option
- Genotype by environment interaction and performance stability of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) cultivars grown in Dawuro zone, Southwestern Ethiopia
- Factors influencing green, environmentally-friendly consumer behaviour
- Factors affecting coffee farmers’ access to financial institutions: The case of Bandung Regency, Indonesia
- Morphological and yield trait-based evaluation and selection of chili (Capsicum annuum L.) genotypes suitable for both summer and winter seasons
- Sustainability analysis and decision-making strategy for swamp buffalo (Bubalus bubalis carabauesis) conservation in Jambi Province, Indonesia
- Understanding factors affecting rice purchasing decisions in Indonesia: Does rice brand matter?
- An implementation of an extended theory of planned behavior to investigate consumer behavior on hygiene sanitation-certified livestock food products
- Information technology adoption in Indonesia’s small-scale dairy farms
- Draft genome of a biological control agent against Bipolaris sorokiniana, the causal phytopathogen of spot blotch in wheat (Triticum turgidum L. subsp. durum): Bacillus inaquosorum TSO22
- Assessment of the recurrent mutagenesis efficacy of sesame crosses followed by isolation and evaluation of promising genetic resources for use in future breeding programs
- Fostering cocoa industry resilience: A collaborative approach to managing farm gate price fluctuations in West Sulawesi, Indonesia
- Field investigation of component failures for selected farm machinery used in small rice farming operations
- Near-infrared technology in agriculture: Rapid, simultaneous, and non-destructive determination of inner quality parameters on intact coffee beans
- The synergistic application of sucrose and various LED light exposures to enhance the in vitro growth of Stevia rebaudiana (Bertoni)
- Weather index-based agricultural insurance for flower farmers: Willingness to pay, sales, and profitability perspectives
- Meta-analysis of dietary Bacillus spp. on serum biochemical and antioxidant status and egg quality of laying hens
- Biochemical characterization of trypsin from Indonesian skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) viscera
- Determination of C-factor for conventional cultivation and soil conservation technique used in hop gardens
- Empowering farmers: Unveiling the economic impacts of contract farming on red chilli farmers’ income in Magelang District, Indonesia
- Evaluating salt tolerance in fodder crops: A field experiment in the dry land
- Labor productivity of lowland rice (Oryza sativa L.) farmers in Central Java Province, Indonesia
- Cropping systems and production assessment in southern Myanmar: Informing strategic interventions
- The effect of biostimulants and red mud on the growth and yield of shallots in post-unlicensed gold mining soil
- Effects of dietary Adansonia digitata L. (baobab) seed meal on growth performance and carcass characteristics of broiler chickens: A systematic review and meta-analysis
- Analysis and structural characterization of the vid-pisco market
- Pseudomonas fluorescens SP007s enhances defense responses against the soybean bacterial pustule caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. glycines
- A brief investigation on the prospective of co-composted biochar as a fertilizer for Zucchini plants cultivated in arid sandy soil
- Supply chain efficiency of red chilies in the production center of Sleman Indonesia based on performance measurement system
- Investment development path for developed economies: Is agriculture different?
- Power relations among actors in laying hen business in Indonesia: A MACTOR analysis
- High-throughput digital imaging and detection of morpho-physiological traits in tomato plants under drought
- Converting compression ignition engine to dual-fuel (diesel + CNG) engine and experimentally investigating its performance and emissions
- Structuration, risk management, and institutional dynamics in resolving palm oil conflicts
- Spacing strategies for enhancing drought resilience and yield in maize agriculture
- Composition and quality of winter annual agrestal and ruderal herbages of two different land-use types
- Investigating Spodoptera spp. diversity, percentage of attack, and control strategies in the West Java, Indonesia, corn cultivation
- Yield stability of biofertilizer treatments to soybean in the rainy season based on the GGE biplot
- Evaluating agricultural yield and economic implications of varied irrigation depths on maize yield in semi-arid environments, at Birfarm, Upper Blue Nile, Ethiopia
- Chemometrics for mapping the spatial nitrate distribution on the leaf lamina of fenugreek grown under varying nitrogenous fertilizer doses
- Pomegranate peel ethanolic extract: A promising natural antioxidant, antimicrobial agent, and novel approach to mitigate rancidity in used edible oils
- Transformative learning and engagement with organic farming: Lessons learned from Indonesia
- Tourism in rural areas as a broader concept: Some insights from the Portuguese reality
- Assessment enhancing drought tolerance in henna (Lawsonia inermis L.) ecotypes through sodium nitroprusside foliar application
- Edible insects: A survey about perceptions regarding possible beneficial health effects and safety concerns among adult citizens from Portugal and Romania
- Phenological stages analysis in peach trees using electronic nose
- Harvest date and salicylic acid impact on peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) properties under different humidity conditions
- Hibiscus sabdariffa L. petal biomass: A green source of nanoparticles of multifarious potential
- Use of different vegetation indices for the evaluation of the kinetics of the cherry tomato (Solanum lycopersicum var. cerasiforme) growth based on multispectral images by UAV
- First evidence of microplastic pollution in mangrove sediments and its ingestion by coral reef fish: Case study in Biawak Island, Indonesia
- Physical and textural properties and sensory acceptability of wheat bread partially incorporated with unripe non-commercial banana cultivars
- Cereibacter sphaeroides ST16 and ST26 were used to solubilize insoluble P forms to improve P uptake, growth, and yield of rice in acidic and extreme saline soil
- Avocado peel by-product in cattle diets and supplementation with oregano oil and effects on production, carcass, and meat quality
- Optimizing inorganic blended fertilizer application for the maximum grain yield and profitability of bread wheat and food barley in Dawuro Zone, Southwest Ethiopia
- The acceptance of social media as a channel of communication and livestock information for sheep farmers
- Adaptation of rice farmers to aging in Thailand
- Combined use of improved maize hybrids and nitrogen application increases grain yield of maize, under natural Striga hermonthica infestation
- From aquatic to terrestrial: An examination of plant diversity and ecological shifts
- Statistical modelling of a tractor tractive performance during ploughing operation on a tropical Alfisol
- Participation in artisanal diamond mining and food security: A case study of Kasai Oriental in DR Congo
- Assessment and multi-scenario simulation of ecosystem service values in Southwest China’s mountainous and hilly region
- Analysis of agricultural emissions and economic growth in Europe in search of ecological balance
- Bacillus thuringiensis strains with high insecticidal activity against insect larvae of the orders Coleoptera and Lepidoptera
- Technical efficiency of sugarcane farming in East Java, Indonesia: A bootstrap data envelopment analysis
- Comparison between mycobiota diversity and fungi and mycotoxin contamination of maize and wheat
- Evaluation of cultivation technology package and corn variety based on agronomy characters and leaf green indices
- Exploring the association between the consumption of beverages, fast foods, sweets, fats, and oils and the risk of gastric and pancreatic cancers: Findings from case–control study
- Phytochemical composition and insecticidal activity of Acokanthera oblongifolia (Hochst.) Benth & Hook.f. ex B.D.Jacks. extract on life span and biological aspects of Spodoptera littoralis (Biosd.)
- Land use management solutions in response to climate change: Case study in the central coastal areas of Vietnam
- Evaluation of coffee pulp as a feed ingredient for ruminants: A meta-analysis
- Interannual variations of normalized difference vegetation index and potential evapotranspiration and their relationship in the Baghdad area
- Harnessing synthetic microbial communities with nitrogen-fixing activity to promote rice growth
- Agronomic and economic benefits of rice–sweetpotato rotation in lowland rice cropping systems in Uganda
- Response of potato tuber as an effect of the N-fertilizer and paclobutrazol application in medium altitude
- Bridging the gap: The role of geographic proximity in enhancing seed sustainability in Bandung District
- Evaluation of Abrams curve in agricultural sector using the NARDL approach
- Challenges and opportunities for young farmers in the implementation of the Rural Development Program 2014–2020 of the Republic of Croatia
- Yield stability of ten common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) genotypes at different sowing dates in Lubumbashi, South-East of DR Congo
- Effects of encapsulation and combining probiotics with different nitrate forms on methane emission and in vitro rumen fermentation characteristics
- Phytochemical analysis of Bienertia sinuspersici extract and its antioxidant and antimicrobial activities
- Evaluation of relative drought tolerance of grapevines by leaf fluorescence parameters
- Yield assessment of new streak-resistant topcross maize hybrids in Benin
- Improvement of cocoa powder properties through ultrasonic- and microwave-assisted alkalization
- Potential of ecoenzymes made from nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) leaf and pulp waste as bioinsecticides for Periplaneta americana
- Analysis of farm performance to realize the sustainability of organic cabbage vegetable farming in Getasan Semarang, Indonesia
- Revealing the influences of organic amendment-derived dissolved organic matter on growth and nutrient accumulation in lettuce seedlings (Lactuca sativa L.)
- Identification of viruses infecting sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas Lam.) in Benin
- Assessing the soil physical and chemical properties of long-term pomelo orchard based on tree growth
- Investigating access and use of digital tools for agriculture among rural farmers: A case study of Nkomazi Municipality, South Africa
- Does sex influence the impact of dietary vitD3 and UVB light on performance parameters and welfare indicators of broilers?
- Design of intelligent sprayer control for an autonomous farming drone using a multiclass support vector machine
- Deciphering salt-responsive NB-ARC genes in rice transcriptomic data: A bioinformatics approach with gene expression validation
- Review Articles
- Impact of nematode infestation in livestock production and the role of natural feed additives – A review
- Role of dietary fats in reproductive, health, and nutritional benefits in farm animals: A review
- Climate change and adaptive strategies on viticulture (Vitis spp.)
- The false tiger of almond, Monosteira unicostata (Hemiptera: Tingidae): Biology, ecology, and control methods
- A systematic review on potential analogy of phytobiomass and soil carbon evaluation methods: Ethiopia insights
- A review of storage temperature and relative humidity effects on shelf life and quality of mango (Mangifera indica L.) fruit and implications for nutrition insecurity in Ethiopia
- Green extraction of nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) phytochemicals: Prospective strategies and roadblocks
- Potential influence of nitrogen fertilizer rates on yield and yield components of carrot (Dacus carota L.) in Ethiopia: Systematic review
- Corn silk: A promising source of antimicrobial compounds for health and wellness
- State and contours of research on roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) in Africa
- The potential of phosphorus-solubilizing purple nonsulfur bacteria in agriculture: Present and future perspectives
- Minor millets: Processing techniques and their nutritional and health benefits
- Meta-analysis of reproductive performance of improved dairy cattle under Ethiopian environmental conditions
- Review on enhancing the efficiency of fertilizer utilization: Strategies for optimal nutrient management
- The nutritional, phytochemical composition, and utilisation of different parts of maize: A comparative analysis
- Motivations for farmers’ participation in agri-environmental scheme in the EU, literature review
- Evolution of climate-smart agriculture research: A science mapping exploration and network analysis
- Short Communications
- Music enrichment improves the behavior and leukocyte profile of dairy cattle
- Effect of pruning height and organic fertilization on the morphological and productive characteristics of Moringa oleifera Lam. in the Peruvian dry tropics
- Corrigendum
- Corrigendum to “Bioinformatics investigation of the effect of volatile and non-volatile compounds of rhizobacteria in inhibiting late embryogenesis abundant protein that induces drought tolerance”
- Corrigendum to “Composition and quality of winter annual agrestal and ruderal herbages of two different land-use types”
- Special issue: Smart Agriculture System for Sustainable Development: Methods and Practices
- Construction of a sustainable model to predict the moisture content of porang powder (Amorphophallus oncophyllus) based on pointed-scan visible near-infrared spectroscopy
- FruitVision: A deep learning based automatic fruit grading system
- Energy harvesting and ANFIS modeling of a PVDF/GO-ZNO piezoelectric nanogenerator on a UAV
- Effects of stress hormones on digestibility and performance in cattle: A review
- Special Issue of The 4th International Conference on Food Science and Engineering (ICFSE) 2022 - Part II
- Assessment of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acid profiles and ratio of omega-6/omega-3 of white eggs produced by laying hens fed diets enriched with omega-3 rich vegetable oil
- Special Issue on FCEM - International Web Conference on Food Choice & Eating Motivation - Part II
- Special Issue on FCEM – International Web Conference on Food Choice & Eating Motivation: Message from the editor
- Fruit and vegetable consumption: Study involving Portuguese and French consumers
- Knowledge about consumption of milk: Study involving consumers from two European Countries – France and Portugal
