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Assessment enhancing drought tolerance in henna (Lawsonia inermis L.) ecotypes through sodium nitroprusside foliar application

  • Nava Safari Kamalabadi , Hasan Sarhadi EMAIL logo and Mohammad Hassan Shirzadi
Published/Copyright: August 30, 2024
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Open Agriculture
From the journal Open Agriculture Volume 9 Issue 1

Abstract

Drought is a major abiotic stress affecting plant growth and productivity worldwide. Henna (Lawsonia inermis L.) is an economically important plant species that is widely cultivated due to its natural dye properties and medicinal uses, and it is highly susceptible to drought stress, which limits its growth and development. This study was conducted with the aim of investigating the effect of foliar spraying of sodium nitroprusside (SNP) on the yield of henna ecotypes (Lawsonia inermis L.) under drought stress conditions in Shahdad-Iran. The experiment was conducted in the form of a split factorial design based on randomized complete block design (RCBD) in three replications. Three ecotypes of henna (Rudbar-e-Jonub, Shahdad, and Bam) were used as plant material. The findings showed that with the onset of drought, photosynthetic pigments, growth indices, net photosynthesis, and yield of dry matter of henna plant leaves decrease. However, when SNP spray treatment was applied, it significantly improved things like leaf area index, crop growth rate, net photosynthesis and leaf dry matter yield, especially when drought levels were at 25 and 50%. The natural water content of Shahdad genotype in henna plants showed the highest percentage increase in these measurements compared with other henna plant species. It can be concluded that SNP spray can increase the yield of henna plant under drought stress conditions.

Keywords: abiotic stress; henna; plant adaptation; plant growth regulators; plant physiology; plant stress response

1 Introduction

Drought stress is an inevitable factor that exists in various environments without recognizing borders and no clear warning thereby hampering plant biomass production, quality, and energy [1]. It is particularly detrimental to crops and can lead to substantial yield losses and economic consequences. Henna (Lawsonia inermis L.), is an important medicinal–industrial plant. It grows in warm and arid regions. No reliable figures are available on the global and regional scale in the production and area under cultivation. The major exporters of henna are India, Pakistan, Iran, Sudan and Egypt. The major importers are the Islamic countries of the Near East and North Africa [2]. However, henna plants are highly vulnerable to drought stress, which restricts their growth and maturation.

In recent years, there has been a growing interest in developing strategies to enhance drought tolerance in plants. One approach involves the use of exogenous compounds, such as sodium nitroprusside (SNP), which has been shown to have a positive effect on plant growth and stress tolerance. SNP is a nitric oxide (NO) donor that can regulate various physiological processes in plants, including stomatal closure, antioxidant defense, and osmotic adjustment [3].

The objective of this study is to investigate the potential of SNP foliar application in enhancing drought tolerance in henna ecotypes. The specific aims are to evaluate the effects of SNP on plant growth, physiological parameters, and biochemical responses under drought stress conditions. Additionally, the study aims to understand the underlying mechanisms involved in SNP-mediated drought tolerance in henna plants [4].

Drought stress is a complex phenomenon that involves a series of physiological, biochemical, and molecular changes in plants. At the physiological level, drought stress leads to stomatal closure, which reduces the uptake of CO2 and limits photosynthesis. This, in turn, affects plant growth and biomass accumulation. Drought stress also induces the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can cause oxidative damage to cellular components, including lipids, proteins, and DNA. To counteract the harmful effects of ROS, plants have developed various antioxidant defense mechanisms, such as the accumulation of enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants [5].

At the molecular level, drought stress triggers the activation of stress-responsive genes, which are involved in the synthesis of stress-related proteins and the regulation of various stress-related pathways. These genes are regulated by different signaling molecules, including NO, which plays a crucial role in plant stress responses. NO has been reported to modulate the expression of stress-related genes and regulate various physiological processes, such as stomatal closure, root growth, and antioxidant defense [6].

Sodium nitroprusside is a well-known NO donor that has been widely used in plant research to investigate the role of NO in plant physiology and stress responses. It has been shown to improve plant growth and stress tolerance in various plant species, including wheat, rice, and soybean. The beneficial effects of SNP have been attributed to its ability to enhance antioxidant defense, regulate stomatal closure, and improve water use efficiency. However, the potential of SNP in enhancing drought tolerance in henna plants has not been extensively studied [7].

Understanding the mechanisms by which SNP enhances drought tolerance in henna plants is crucial for the development of effective strategies to mitigate the negative effects of drought stress on henna cultivation. By elucidating the physiological and biochemical responses of henna plants to SNP foliar application under drought stress conditions, it can gain insights into the underlying mechanisms involved in SNP-mediated drought tolerance. This knowledge can then be applied to optimize SNP application protocols and improve henna crop management practices [8].

In conclusion, drought stress is a significant challenge in henna cultivation, and enhancing drought tolerance in henna plants is of utmost importance. The use of exogenous compounds, such as SNP, has shown promising results in enhancing drought tolerance in various plant species. However, the potential of SNP to improve drought tolerance in henna plants remains largely unexplored [9]. This study aims to fill this knowledge gap by investigating the effects of SNP foliar application on the growth, physiological parameters, and biochemical responses of henna ecotypes under drought-stress conditions. The findings of this research help to understand the mechanisms involved in SNP-mediated drought tolerance in henna plants and provide valuable insights for the development of sustainable henna cultivation methods.

Drought stress is one of the major environmental factors affecting plant growth and development, leading to significant reductions in crop productivity worldwide. In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in finding effective strategies to enhance plant tolerance to drought stress. One such strategy is the use of exogenous application of chemicals that can improve plant resistance to drought. Sodium nitroprusside (SNP), a nitric oxide (NO) donor, has been reported to enhance drought tolerance in various plant species.

Henna, a small shrub native to North Africa, West Asia, and the Indian subcontinent, is widely cultivated for its leaves, which are used to produce a natural dye. However, henna plants are highly susceptible to drought stress, which can significantly affect their growth and dye production. Therefore, finding effective strategies to enhance drought tolerance in henna is of great importance for sustainable henna production [10].

The occurrence of drought stress during different stages of development, especially the reproductive stage, causes a reduction in the length of the photosynthetic period, the transfer of materials resulting from current photosynthesis to the seed, the contribution of re-transfer of the stored materials of the stem to the seeds, and finally, a decrease in the yield of fennel seeds [11]. In an experiment on the fennel plant, they showed that the occurrence of stress in the flowering stage compared with the application of stress in other growth stages, had the greatest effect in reducing the components of the yield and performance of fennel [12]. In another research on bean plants, it was found that by increasing the concentration of salicylic acid, the amount of photosynthetic pigments (especially chlorophyll) and cell divisions increased and caused the height of the plant to increase [13].

In a study conducted by Al-Huqail et al. in 2018, the authors investigated the effects of SNP foliar application on the drought tolerance of henna ecotypes. The study revealed that SNP treatment significantly improved various physiological and biochemical parameters in henna plants subjected to drought stress. The treated plants showed increased leaf-relative water content, chlorophyll content, and photosynthetic rate compared with the untreated control plants. Moreover, SNP-treated plants exhibited lower levels of oxidative stress markers, such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and malondialdehyde (MDA), indicating reduced oxidative damage under drought conditions [14].

These findings are consistent with previous studies conducted on other plant species, which have also reported the positive effects of SNP on enhancing drought tolerance. For instance, Li et al. demonstrated that SNP treatment improved drought tolerance in wheat by enhancing antioxidant enzyme activities and reducing oxidative damage [15]. Similarly, Zhou et al. found that SNP application increased drought tolerance in soybeans by regulating the expression of stress-related genes and improving photosynthetic efficiency [8].

The mechanisms underlying the beneficial effects of SNP on drought tolerance in plants are still not fully understood. However, it has been suggested that SNP acts as a signaling molecule, triggering a cascade of physiological and biochemical responses that enhance plant resistance to drought stress. One of the key mechanisms proposed is the involvement of NO in regulating stomatal closure, thus reducing water loss through transpiration. Additionally, NO has been shown to modulate antioxidant defense systems, leading to the scavenging of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and alleviation of oxidative stress.

Although the results of the above-mentioned studies are promising, it is important to note that the effectiveness of SNP in enhancing drought tolerance may vary depending on the plant species and environmental conditions. Therefore, further research is needed to validate the findings and optimize the application methods and concentrations of SNP for different henna ecotypes. In this research, an attempt was made to create a basis for optimal management of henna cultivation in Kerman province by investigating the effects of drought stress and sodium nitroprusside foliar application on common henna ecotypes.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Description of the study area

This research was carried out in the agricultural year of 2023 under field conditions in Shahdad, one of the districts of Kerman city. Shahdad is located 87 km northeast of the city of Kerman, with coordinates of 57 degrees and 42 min longitude and 30 degrees and 25 min latitude. It is situated at an altitude of 450 m above sea level. The average annual rainfall in this city is 28.35 mm, the average annual temperature is 27.47°C, and the relative humidity is 21.84%. (Figure 1) [16,17].

Figure 1 Geographical location of Shahdad [16,17].
Figure 1

Geographical location of Shahdad [16,17].

2.2 Data collection and analysis

2.2.1 Experimental design and plant material

The present study was conducted with the aim of investigating the effect of sodium nitroprusside (SNP) foliar application in increasing drought tolerance in henna (Lawsonia inermis L.) ecotypes. The experiment was conducted in the form of a split factorial design based on randomized complete block design (RCBD) in three replications. Three ecotypes of henna (Rudbar-e-Jonub, Shahdad, and Bam) were used as plant material. These ecotypes were selected based on their geographic origin and known drought tolerance characteristics.

2.2.2 Treatment and imposition of drought

In this experiment, the main factor included three levels of drought stress (100, 75, and 50% of the field capacity) and the secondary factors included henna ecotypes (three ecotypes of Robar, Shahdad, and Bam) and sodium nitroprusside foliar spraying (its use and non-use). Drought stress treatments started after the plants were fully established (height of about 10 cm) and continued until the end of the growing season. Planting was done on April 15. The length of each plot was 2 m and the width of each plot was 3 m. Weeding was done manually during all stages of growth. Irrigation was carried out using a volumetric meter. After planting, irrigation was carried out until the plants were green and established.

2.2.3 Foliar spraying of sodium nitroprusside

Foliar spraying was done three times (one week before the start of stress, simultaneously with the start of stress and 1 week after the start of stress).

2.2.4 Measurement of leaf area index (LAI) and crop growth rate (CGR)

Sampling was done in 6 steps at a time interval of 10 days by extracting 6 samples from each plot while respecting the margin effect. The leaf surface was measured by a leaf surface measuring device. In order to measure the dry weight, the samples were placed separately in a paper envelope in the oven for 24–48 h at a temperature of 75°C. Leaf area index and plant growth rate were calculated using the following relationships [18].

(1) LAI = 1 GA × LA 2 + LA 1 2 ,

(2) CGR = 1 GA × W 2 − W 1 T 2 − T 1 ,

where LAI is the leaf area index, CGR is the crop growth rate, LA is the leaf area, GA is the ground area, W is the shoot weight, and T is time

2.2.5 Measuring the amount of chlorophyll and carotenoid

Lichtenthaler’s method was used for measurement [19]. In this way, 0.1 g of the fresh leaves of the plant was ground in a Chinese mortar containing 15 ml of 80% acetone, and after passing through the filter paper, its absorption was measured with a SCO-TECH SPUV-26 spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 646.8, 663.2, and 470 nm were read.

2.2.6 Measurement of catalase activity

The measurement was based on the decrease in the absorption of hydrogen peroxide at a wavelength of 240 nm [20]. The reaction mixture (3 ml) included 50 mM potassium phosphate buffer (pH = 7), 15 mM hydrogen peroxide, and 100 µl of enzyme extract. By adding hydrogen peroxide to the reaction mixture, the reaction started and the decrease in the absorption of hydrogen peroxide was measured in 30 s at a wavelength of 240 nm with a spectrophotometer.

2.2.7 Measurement of protein concentration

For measurement, 5 ml of bioreagent was added to test tubes containing 100 µl of enzyme extract and vortexed quickly. After 25 min, its absorbance was read with a spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 595 nm [21].

2.2.8 Measurement of proline

The method of Bates and colleagues [22] was used for measurement. About 0.02 g of frozen plant tissue was ground in 10 ml of 3% sulfosalicylic acid solution, and the resulting extract was centrifuged for 5 minutes at 10,000 rpm. Then, 2 ml of the supernatant was mixed with 2 ml of ninhydrin reagent and 2 ml of pure acetic acid and placed in a hot water bath for 1hour at 100°C, and then, immediately the tubes containing the mixture were placed in the bath. They were ice cold. At this stage, 4 ml of toluene was added to the mixture, and the tubes were shaken well. By keeping the tubes still for 15 to 20 s, two separate layers were formed. The absorbance of the upper layer containing toluene and proline was determined at a wavelength of 520 nm.

2.2.9 Determining the amount of photosynthesis

In this research, stomatal conductance and transpiration were measured at the beginning of the flowering period using a photosynthesizer model CI-340 manufactured by the American CID Bio-Science company. For this purpose, five plants were selected from the middle row of each experimental plot. The measurements were done using the terminal leaves of the plant in the hours between 11 am and 2 pm and in one shift.

In the middle of November, by harvesting plants from a height of 5 cm above the soil surface and drying them in a ventilated oven at a temperature of 75°C for 48 h, dry leaf yield was calculated.

2.2.10 Statistical analysis

The obtained data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using the Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS) software. Means were compared using Duncan’s multi-range test at a significance level of p < 0.01. Data are presented as mean ± standard error (SE) of triplicates.

3 Results

In this study, the aim was to evaluate the potential of increasing drought tolerance in henna (Lawsonia inermis L.) ecotypes through SNP foliar application. This experiment was conducted in controlled field conditions and various physiological and biochemical parameters were evaluated to determine the effect of SNP treatment on drought tolerance of henna plants.

3.1 Leaf area index

According to the results of the analysis of variance, the simple effects of drought stress, ecotype, on foliar spraying, as well as the interaction effect of drought in the ecotype, were significant at the 1% level for this trait (Table 1). The comparison of the mean effect of foliar spraying showed that the highest Leaf Area Index (11.2) was obtained from the treatment of sodium nitroprusside foliar spraying, which resulted in an 8% increase in this trait compared with the control treatment (Table 2). These findings, by comparison of the mean effect of drought interaction in the ecotype, showed that under normal drought conditions and drought at 50% of the farm’s irrigation capacity, the highest Leaf Area Index was related to the Shahdad ecotype (Table 3).

Table 1

Variance analysis of drought and foliar spraying of SNP effect on physiological traits of henna ecotypes

Sources of variation Degree of freedom Leaf area index Growth rate Net photosynthesis Transpiration rate Stomatal conductance Leaf dry yield
Block 2 0.054 0.421 0.0185 63.72 1.779 1181
Drought 2 10.33** 61.29** 64.991** 48868** 369.4** 217199**
Error a 4 0.0300 0.143 0.170 45.55 0.276 2630
Ecotype 2 0.286** 2.798** 3.1602** 1374** 2.527 ns 1558 ns
Foliar spraying 1 0.428** 12.83** 4.746** 4968** 32.838** 17413**
Drought in ecotype 4 0.310** 0.287 ns 1.761** 406.88 ns 8.149* 7920**
Drought and foliar spraying 2 0.056 ns 0.889** 0.6185* 595.12 ns 2.588 ns 1810 ns
Ecotype in decay 2 0.0094 ns 0.113 ns 0.073 ns 370.35 ns 0.495 ns 293.19 ns
Drought in ecotype and foliar spraying 4 0.0127 ns 0.103 ns 0.143 ns 356.35 ns 0.598 ns 364.07 ns
Error 30 0.02083 0.131 0.135 198 2.560 742
Coefficient of variation (%) — 7.11 3.82 6.4 7.2 10.23 7

ns, ** and *: non-significant and significant at the 1 and 5% probability levels, respectively.

Table 2

Mean comparison of the effect of foliar application on measured traits of henna

Foliar spraying Leaf yield Index Transpiration rate (mmol/m2/s) Stomatal conductance (mmol/m2/s) Proline (mg/g FW) Leaf dry yield (g/m2)
Control 1.94b 5.44b 186b 4.733a 366.08b
Sodium nitroprusside 2.11a 6.04a 205a 4.09b 402a

*In each column, statistically similar letters (with a 5% probability level) do not have significant differences in meaning.

Table 3

Mean comparison of the interaction of drought stress and ecotype on measured traits in henna

Drought stress Test treatments Leaf area index Pure photosynthesis (µmol/m2/s) Stomatal conductance (mmol/m2/s) Leaf dry yield (g/m2)
0 % Bam 2.77ab 26.15a 249a 464.01b
Rudbar-e-Jonub 2.72ab 26.62a 244a 505.25ab
Shahdad 3.02a 28.69a 246a 539a
25 % Bam 2.28b 22.70b 207b 405.15c
Rudbar-e-Jonub 1.63c 22.19b 181bc 333.46d
Shahdad 1.79c 24.02b 203b 351.51d
50 % Bam 1.28d 15.16c 140cd 274.53e
Rudbar-e-Jonub 1.29d 14.58c 131d 290.68e
Shahdad 1.45cd 17.59c 156c 292.76e

*In each column, statistically similar letters (with a 5% probability level) do not have significant differences in meaning.

3.2 Crop growth rate

This trait was significantly affected by the main effects of drought, ecotype, and foliar spraying, as well as the interaction effect of drought and foliar spraying at the 1% probability level (Table 1). Among the studied ecotypes of henna, the highest and lowest crop growth rates were related to the Bam and Rudbar-e Jonub ecotypes, respectively, with a significant difference between them (Table 4).

Table 4

Mean comparison of the effect of ecotype on measured traits of henna

Ecotype Product growth rate (g/m2/s/day) Sweat rate (mmol/m2/s)
Shahdad 9.60a 6.21a
Rudbar-e-Jonub 9.02b 5.60b
Bam 9.77a 5.41b

*In each column, statistically similar letters (with a 5% probability level) do not have significant differences in meaning.

The mean comparison of interaction between drought and foliar spraying showed that the application of sodium nitroprusside foliar spraying resulted in a significant increase in crop growth rate compared with the control treatment at each drought level applied (Table 5). These findings suggest that the highest crop growth rate (91.11 g per square meter per day) was achieved in drought treatment accompanied by sodium nitroprusside foliar spraying.

Table 5

Mean comparison of the interaction of drought stress and foliar application on measured traits in Henna

Drought stress Test treatments Product growth rate (g/m2/day) Pure photosynthesis (µmol/m2/s) Chlorophyll a (mg/g FW) Chlorophyll b (mg/g FW) Chlorophyll Total (mg/g FW) Carotenoid (mg/g FW) Catalase (unit/mg protein)
0 % Control 11.06b 26.42a 0.339a 0.174a 0.532a 0.090a 0.155e
Sodium nitroprusside 11.91a 27.88a 0.343a 0.178a 0.542a 0.091a 0.152e
25 % control 8.30d 21.11b 0.244c 0.126c 0.383c 0.064c 0.292c
Sodium nitroprusside 9.77c 24.83ab 0.313b 0.162b 0.493b 0.084b 0.249d
50 % control 7.57e 15.17c 0.123e 0.064e 0.193e 0.032e 0.468a
Sodium nitroprusside 8.17d 16.38c 0.198d 0.102d 0.312d 0.053d 0.351b

*In each column, statistically similar letters (with a 5% probability level) do not have significant differences in meaning.

3.3 Pure photosynthesis

The effects of different drought treatments, foliar spraying, and genotype interaction of drought and foliar spraying on net photosynthesis were found to be statistically significant (Table 1). According to the results, the highest and lowest mean values of net photosynthesis were 69.28 and 58.14 micromoles per square meter per second, respectively, for the treatment of drought based on 0% and genotype Shahdad, and the treatment of drought based on 50% and genotype Rudbar-e Jonub (Table 3). The comparison of mean values showed that the highest net photosynthesis was related to the treatment of foliar spraying with sodium nitroprusside at drought levels of 25 and 50% (Table 5).

3.4 Transpiration rate

According to the results of the analysis of variance, the main effects of drought stress, ecotype, and foliar application were found to be significant for this trait at the 1% level (Table 1). Increase in the amount of drought from 0 to 25 and 50% resulted in a significant decrease in transpiration rate in this plant (Table 6). These findings indicate that a comparison of the mean effects of the ecotype showed that the highest transpiration rate (21.6 mmol/m2/s) was obtained from the Shahdad ecotype, which had a significant difference compared with the Bam and Roodbar Jonub ecotypes (Table 4). The comparison of the mean effects of foliar application showed that the use of sodium nitroprusside resulted in an 11% increase in transpiration rate compared with the control treatment (Table 2).

Table 6

Mean comparison of the effect of drought stress on measured traits of henna

Drought stress Sweat rate (mmol/m2/s) Proline (mg/g FW) Protein (mg/g FW)
100 7.38a 2.268c 70.10a
75 6.18b 4.176b 64.83a
50 3.66c 6.794a 48.69b

*In each column, statistically similar letters (with a 5% probability level) do not have significant differences in meaning.

3.5 Stomatal conductance

According to the results of the analysis of variance, the main effects of drought stress and foliar application at the 1% level and the interaction effect of drought and ecotype at the 5% probability level were found to be significant for this trait (Table 1). The comparison of the mean effects of foliar application showed that the highest stomatal conductance (205 mmol/m2/s) was obtained from the sodium nitroprusside treatment, which had a 10% increase compared with the control treatment (Table 2). The comparison of the mean effects of drought and ecotype showed that under no drought (0%), there was no significant difference in stomatal conductance among the studied ecotypes. However, under 50% drought, the Shahdad ecotype had the highest stomatal conductance (156 mmol/m2/s) (Table 3).

3.6 Photosynthetic pigments

The analysis of variance results showed that the interaction effect of drought and foliar application was significant at the 1% probability level for the total chlorophyll content, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoid content (Table 7). The comparison of the mean effects of drought and foliar application (Table 5) showed that under no drought (0%), there was no significant difference in photosynthetic pigments between the control and foliar application treatments. However, at 25 and 50% drought levels, the foliar application of sodium nitroprusside significantly increased the photosynthetic pigments compared with the control treatment (Table 5).

Table 7

Variance analysis of drought and foliar spraying of SNP effect on physiological traits of henna ecotypes

Sources of variation Degree of freedom Chlorophyll a Chlorophyll b Chlorophyll total Carotenoid Catalase Proline Protein
Block 2 0.00005 0.00067 0.00002 0.0019 2.952 0.000005 0.0123
Drought 2 0.040** 0.374** 0.0107** 0.2949** 3406.9** 0.00018** 0.651**
Error a 4 0.00008 0.0011 0.000006 0.00041 1.345 0.000003 0.0170
Ecotype 2 0.00015 ns 0.0013 ns 0.00005 ns 0.00026 ns 0.4964 ns 0.000002 ns 0.0005 ns
Foliar spraying 1 0.0092** 0.0852** 0.0024** 0.0399** 90.016** 0.00003** 0.0439 ns
Drought in ecotype 4 0.000072 ns 0.0006 ns 0.00001 ns 0.00047 ns 2.056 ns 0.0000004 ns 0.0019 ns
Drought and foliar spraying 2 0.0016** 0.0163** 0.00053** 0.01502** 40.997** 0.0000003 ns 0.0012 ns
Ecotype in decay 2 0.000006 ns 0.00007 ns 0.000021 ns 0.000014 ns 0.3208 ns 0.000019 ns 0.0206 ns
Drought in ecotype and foliar spraying 4 0.000008 ns 0.00008 ns 0.000004 ns 0.000039 ns 0.6451 ns 0.0000076 ns 0.0110 ns
Error 30 0.0000923 0.0011 0.000017 0.0008 2.346 0.0000019 0.0142
Coefficient of variation (%) — 7.13 8.16 5.96 10.18 4.17 7.21 11.3

ns, ** and *: non-significant and significant at the 1 and 5% probability levels, respectively.

3.7 Catalase

The simple effects of drought treatments and foliar spraying, as well as their interactive effects, were found to be significant for this trait at a 1% probability level (Table 7). According to the results of the comparison of the mean values of the highest and lowest catalase activity levels with values of 0.468 and 0.152 mg/g of protein, respectively, these values were associated with drought treatment based on 50% without foliar spraying and drought treatment based on 0% with sodium nitroprusside foliar spraying (Table 5). Furthermore, these results indicated that the highest level of antioxidant activity for catalase was associated with the treatment without sodium nitroprusside foliar spraying at drought levels of 25 and 50%.

3.8 Proline

According to the results of the analysis of variance, only the simple effects of drought stress and foliar spraying were found to be significant for this trait at a 1% probability level (Table 7). The highest (0.7946 mg/g fresh weight leaf) and lowest (0.2682 mg/g fresh weight leaf) proline levels were obtained from drought treatments based on 50 and 0%, respectively (Table 6). The comparison of the mean effect of foliar spraying showed that the highest proline level (0.734 mg/g fresh weight leaf) was obtained from the sodium nitroprusside foliar spraying treatment, which resulted in a 10% increase compared with the control treatment (Table 2).

3.9 Protein

Only the simple effect of drought treatment was found to be statistically significant for this trait (Table 7). The results of the comparison of the mean effect of drought treatment showed that Increased drought from 0 to 25% did not result in a significant change in protein content, but Increased drought to 50% led to a 30% decrease in protein content compared with the control treatment (Table 6).

3.10 Leaf dry weight

According to the results of the analysis of variance, the simple effects of drought stress, foliar spraying, and their interaction were found to be significant for this trait at a 1% probability level (Table 1). The comparison of the mean effect of foliar spraying showed that the highest leaf dry weight (402 g/m2) was obtained from the sodium nitroprusside foliar spraying treatment, which resulted in an 8.9% increase compared with the control treatment (Table 2). The comparison of the mean effect of drought showed that although the highest leaf dry weight was obtained from the Shahdad ecotype, there was no significant difference in leaf dry weight among the studied ecotypes at drought levels of 0 and 50%. However, the highest leaf dry weight (405 g/m2) was obtained from the Bam ecotype at the drought level of 25% of the soil field capacity (Table 3).

4 Discussion

Drought stress is a major limitation in crop production worldwide, including henna, which is a valuable medicinal and cosmetic plant. Therefore, it is very important to find effective strategies to increase drought tolerance in henna for its sustainable cultivation and use. The results of this research clearly show that SNP foliar spraying can improve the productivity of henna plants under drought-stress conditions, conserve water resources, and reduce reliance on chemical inputs. The use of SNP foliar application can potentially reduce dependence on chemical fertilizers and pesticides.

Yari et al. reported that drought stress caused a significant decrease in the leaf surface index of spring safflower [23]. The decrease in leaf surface under dry conditions can be considered an unavoidable event [24]. This approach minimizes water loss when stomatal are closed and occurs in many species under stress conditions [25]. It seems that the reason for the decrease in crop growth rate under drought stress conditions is the reduction in leaf area and number, disruption in photosynthesis, and decrease in dry matter production. Under drought stress conditions, the decrease in leaf water potential also leads to a decrease in crop growth rate, which is due to the increase in respiration rate accompanied by an increase in plant temperature and a decrease in photosynthesis. On the other hand, changes in leaf surface, which are an important factor in carbon assimilation, cause variations in crop growth rate under drought-stress conditions.

Photosynthesis is the main determining factor of plant growth and performance, and its preservation under environmental stress conditions is crucial for maintaining performance stability [26]. The decrease in photosynthesis can be attributed to the reduction in stomatal conductance, which was also observed under stress in this study. Although stomatal closure under stress conditions is done to reduce water loss, it can reduce photosynthesis below the compensatory point by preventing the entry of carbon dioxide [27]. Transpiration rate is influenced by factors such as vapor pressure difference, water flow resistance, and the ability of the plant and soil to transport water to the transpiration site. Additionally, solar radiation, temperature, relative humidity, and wind are among the other environmental factors that affect transpiration [28]. The reduction in transpiration rate in marigold plants under drought stress conditions has been reported by Zafari et al. [29]. Stomatal are the main entry points of the plant and the opening and closing of stomatal play a crucial role in gas exchange, transpiration, and photosynthesis. The size of the stomatal usually changes in response to environmental and internal factors, which leads to variations in transpiration and stomatal conductance [30]. In this study, a decrease in chlorophyll content was observed under drought stress. Consistent with the results of this study, a reduction in chlorophyll content has been reported in other medicinal plants such as Mentha pulegium [31], Coriandrum sativum [32], and Nigella sativa [33]. Recent studies have shown that under drought stress conditions, both stomatal closure and non-stomatal limitations (such as oxidative damage to chloroplasts) lead to a decrease in photosynthesis. The reduction in photosynthetic pigments under drought stress conditions may be due to the destruction of chloroplast structure and photosynthetic apparatus, chlorophyll oxidation reactions with singlet oxygen, the degradation of chlorophyll synthesis precursors, and the activation of chlorophyll-degrading enzymes, including chlorophyllase [34,35]. The decrease in carotenoids under drought-stress conditions can be attributed to the production of singlet oxygen in thylakoids. Carotenoids are capable of absorbing high-energy short-wavelength light and converting singlet oxygen into triplet oxygen, thus exhibiting their antioxidant role [31].

In this study, the activity of the antioxidant enzyme catalase increased in response to drought stress. According to the results of previous studies on black cumin [36], safflower [37], and turmeric [38], an increase in the activity of this antioxidant enzyme has been reported under drought-stress conditions. Under drought stress, where the CO2 uptake decreases due to the closure of the stomatal, the internal energy increases, the electron transfer capacity of photosynthesis shifts towards accumulation, and as a result, an increase in ROS concentration occurs, leading to lipid peroxidation, protein degradation, and DNA oxidation. It is at this point that oxidative enzymes (such as catalase in this study) become more active. Catalase is an enzyme involved in hydrogen peroxide detoxification; therefore, an increase in the activity of this enzyme leads to the removal of hydrogen peroxide by breaking it down into water and oxygen. Although hydrogen peroxide is toxic at high concentrations, it can act as a signaling molecule in low concentrations and activate resistance-related genes in plants through the ascorbate-glutathione antioxidant system [39]. Induction of catalase activity helps to overcome oxidative stress by detoxifying hydrogen peroxide and protects proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids against ROS compounds [40].

Based on the obtained results, it can be stated that the plant tries to maintain its osmotic pressure in response to drought stress, and it does so by increasing osmolytes such as proline and soluble sugars, which help maintain cell pressure and turgor. Proline accumulation in plant cells is considered to be involved in mechanisms of drought resistance [41]. High proline levels enable the plant to maintain its water potential [42]. High proline levels reduce the levels of free radicals in response to osmotic stress and improve plant performance. It has been found in many studies that proline, as an osmolyte, regulates plant biosynthesis and moderates oxidative stress caused by free radicals [43]. Increased proline content during drought stress indicates its role in regulating osmotic pressure [27]. Increased proline content under drought stress has been reported in pumpkin [44], peanut [45], wheat [42], and sugar beet [46].

The results of this study indicated a significant reduction in total protein content under drought stress. This is consistent with the results of studies on basil [47], black cumin [33,48], and chicory [49] under drought stress conditions. Non-biological stresses inhibit the synthesis of certain proteins and stimulate the production of others, although the overall trend is towards a decrease in total protein levels [50]. Drought stress induces the expression of intracellular protease genes, leading to protein degradation and nitrogen mobilization, followed by the synthesis of compatible solutes. Therefore, the reduction in protein content under drought stress is associated with a decrease in protein synthesis and an increase in the activity of protein-degrading enzymes [51]. Oxidative stress can also be one of the reasons for the decrease in protein content. The production of reactive oxygen species such as superoxide radicals or hydroxyl radicals leads to the oxidation of amino acids and serious damage to the structure and function of proteins, resulting in a decrease in protein content [52]. In this study, with the increasing intensity of drought stress, the total soluble protein content in the leaf decreased, which was accompanied by a significant increase in catalase activity. Therefore, the significant increase in catalase activity and the significant decrease in protein content in the leaf under severe drought stress can be attributed to both protein degradation and reduced protein synthesis.

The results of this study showed a significant reduction in leaf dry matter production under drought stress. This is consistent with the results of studies on Norouzak [52], sorghum [53,54], black cumin [33,48], tuberose [49], coriander [55], peppermint [47]), and anise [56]. Naturally, water deficiency and consequently decreased osmotic pressure within the cell, as well as reduced nutrient uptake due to increased soil osmotic potential, lead to a decrease in cell size and leaf growth. As a result, with the reduction in leaf surface area, the absorption of sunlight and consequently plant photosynthesis decreases, leading to a reduction in dry matter production.

According to the results obtained in this research, it is possible to know how and intensity of the relationship between traits (Table 8), for example, the relationship between leaf area and crop growth rate is 0.894. A significant value of p < 0.001 has also been obtained, so with 99% certainty there is a positive and significant relationship between the leaf area and the growth rate of the product, or the relationship between the product growth rate and proline has also been obtained as −0.891, which shows that gives with 99% certainty that there is an inverse and significant relationship between the two. These situations are shown in Figures 2 and 3.

Table 8

Correlation analysis between traits

LAI CGR Pn Er Cleaf CHL a + b CAT Prolin Porotein Leaf
LAI Correlation coefficient 1.000 0.894** 0.886** 0.877** 0.919** 0.872** 0.884** 0.881** 0.764** 0.935**
Sig. (2-tailed) <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
N 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54
CGR Correlation coefficient 0.894** 1.000 0.861** 0.844** 0.887** 0.863** −0.893** −0.891** 0.678** 0.883**
Sig. (2-tailed) <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
N 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54
Pn Correlation coefficient 0.886** 0.861** 1.000 0.916** 0.899** 0.892** −0.879** −0.865** 0.751** 0.893**
Sig. (2-tailed) <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
N 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54
Er Correlation coefficient 0.877** 0.844** 0.916** 1.000 0.920** 0.862** −0.879** −0.878** 0.708** 0.881**
Sig. (2-tailed) <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
N 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54
Cleaf Correlation coefficient 0.919** 0.887** 0.899** 0.920** 1.000 0.893** −0.905** −0.908** 0.760** 0.899**
Sig. (2-tailed) <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
N 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54
CHL a + b Correlation coefficient 0.872** 0.863** 0.892** 0.862** 0.893** 1.000 −0.919** −0.911** 0.764** 0.920**
Sig. (2-tailed) <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
N 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54
CAT Correlation coefficient −0.884** −0.893** −0.879** −0.879** −0.905** −0.919** 1.000 0.942** −0.750** −0.889**
Sig. (2-tailed) <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
N 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54
Prolin Correlation coefficient −0.881** −0.891** −0.865** −0.878** −0.908** −0.911** 0.942** 1.000 −0.734** 0.886**
Sig. (2-tailed) <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
N 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54
Porotein Correlation coefficient 0.764** 0.678** 0.751** 0.708** 0.760** 0.764** −0.750** −0.734** 1.000 0.760**
Sig. (2-tailed) <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
N 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54
Leaf Correlation coefficient 0.935** 0.883** 0.893** 0.881** 0.899** 0.920** −0.889** −0.886** 0.760** 1.000
Sig. (2-tailed) <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
N 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54

**: Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed).

LAI: Leaf area index, CGR: Crop growth rate, Pn: Pure photosynthesis, Er: Sweat rate, Cleaf: Stomatal conduction, CHL a + b: Total chlorophyll, CAT: Catalase, Prolin, Porotein, and Leaf: Leaf Dry Weight.

Figure 2 Relationship between leaf area and product growth rate.
Figure 2

Relationship between leaf area and product growth rate.

Figure 3 Relationship between product growth rate and proline.
Figure 3

Relationship between product growth rate and proline.

Overall, this study provides valuable insights into the use of SNP foliar application as a potential strategy to enhance drought tolerance in henna plants. The observed improvements in various physiological and biochemical parameters, as well as in the growth and development of the plants, highlight the effectiveness of SNP in mitigating the negative effects of drought stress. However, further research is needed to elucidate the underlying mechanisms of SNP action and to optimize the application methods and concentrations for maximum efficacy. Additionally, field trials and long-term studies are necessary to evaluate the practical applicability and sustainability of SNP foliar application in henna cultivation under drought-prone regions.

5 Conclusion

This study investigates the effects of SNP spraying on increasing drought tolerance in henna (Lawsonia inermis L.) ecotypes. The results demonstrate that although drought levels increased, the levels of photosynthetic pigments, growth indices, net photosynthesis, and ultimately leaf dry matter yield declined. Treatment with SNP foliar spraying at drought levels of 25 and 50% of crop capacity can significantly increase leaf surface area index, crop growth rate, net photosynthesis, and dry matter yield compared with the control treatment. Furthermore, among the investigated ecotypes, the Shahdad ecotype exhibited superior performance in all measured traits compared with the Rudbar-e-Jonub and Bam ecotypes.

Overall, the foliar application of SNP has practical implications for improving drought tolerance and productivity in henna plants and other crop species. It can serve as a cost-effective and environmentally compatible approach to mitigate the negative impacts of water scarcity and climate change on agriculture.

Acknowledgments

The authors sincerely appreciate the Electronics and Farm Laboratory (Faculty of Agriculture, Jiroft Branch, Islamic Azad University), which provided the equipment and materials to complete this study.

  1. Funding information: This research has been financially supported by Ms. Nava Safari Kamalabadi.

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and consented to its submission to the journal, reviewed all the results and approved the final version of the manuscript. NSK: conceptualization, data curation, funding acquisition, investigation, methodology, resources, and software; HS: formal analysis, project administration, supervision, and writing-original draft; MHS: validation, visualization, and writing- review & editing.

  3. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Received: 2024-06-11
Revised: 2024-08-01
Accepted: 2024-08-05
Published Online: 2024-08-30

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  12. Nicotinamide as a biostimulant improves soybean growth and yield
  13. Farmer’s willingness to accept the sustainable zoning-based organic farming development plan: A lesson from Sleman District, Indonesia
  14. Uncovering hidden determinants of millennial farmers’ intentions in running conservation agriculture: An application of the Norm Activation Model
  15. Mediating role of leadership and group capital between human capital component and sustainability of horticultural agribusiness institutions in Indonesia
  16. Biochar technology to increase cassava crop productivity: A study of sustainable agriculture on degraded land
  17. Effect of struvite on the growth of green beans on Mars and Moon regolith simulants
  18. UrbanAgriKG: A knowledge graph on urban agriculture and its embeddings
  19. Provision of loans and credit by cocoa buyers under non-price competition: Cocoa beans market in Ghana
  20. Effectiveness of micro-dosing of lime on selected chemical properties of soil in Banja District, North West, Ethiopia
  21. Effect of weather, nitrogen fertilizer, and biostimulators on the root size and yield components of Hordeum vulgare
  22. Effects of selected biostimulants on qualitative and quantitative parameters of nine cultivars of the genus Capsicum spp.
  23. Growth, yield, and secondary metabolite responses of three shallot cultivars at different watering intervals
  24. Design of drainage channel for effective use of land on fully mechanized sugarcane plantations: A case study at Bone Sugarcane Plantation
  25. Technical feasibility and economic benefit of combined shallot seedlings techniques in Indonesia
  26. Control of Meloidogyne javanica in banana by endophytic bacteria
  27. Comparison of important quality components of red-flesh kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis) in different locations
  28. Efficiency of rice farming in flood-prone areas of East Java, Indonesia
  29. Comparative analysis of alpine agritourism in Trentino, Tyrol, and South Tyrol: Regional variations and prospects
  30. Detection of Fusarium spp. infection in potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) during postharvest storage through visible–near-infrared and shortwave–near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy
  31. Forage yield, seed, and forage qualitative traits evaluation by determining the optimal forage harvesting stage in dual-purpose cultivation in safflower varieties (Carthamus tinctorius L.)
  32. The influence of tourism on the development of urban space: Comparison in Hanoi, Danang, and Ho Chi Minh City
  33. Optimum intra-row spacing and clove size for the economical production of garlic (Allium sativum L.) in Northwestern Highlands of Ethiopia
  34. The role of organic rice farm income on farmer household welfare: Evidence from Yogyakarta, Indonesia
  35. Exploring innovative food in a developing country: Edible insects as a sustainable option
  36. Genotype by environment interaction and performance stability of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) cultivars grown in Dawuro zone, Southwestern Ethiopia
  37. Factors influencing green, environmentally-friendly consumer behaviour
  38. Factors affecting coffee farmers’ access to financial institutions: The case of Bandung Regency, Indonesia
  39. Morphological and yield trait-based evaluation and selection of chili (Capsicum annuum L.) genotypes suitable for both summer and winter seasons
  40. Sustainability analysis and decision-making strategy for swamp buffalo (Bubalus bubalis carabauesis) conservation in Jambi Province, Indonesia
  41. Understanding factors affecting rice purchasing decisions in Indonesia: Does rice brand matter?
  42. An implementation of an extended theory of planned behavior to investigate consumer behavior on hygiene sanitation-certified livestock food products
  43. Information technology adoption in Indonesia’s small-scale dairy farms
  44. Draft genome of a biological control agent against Bipolaris sorokiniana, the causal phytopathogen of spot blotch in wheat (Triticum turgidum L. subsp. durum): Bacillus inaquosorum TSO22
  45. Assessment of the recurrent mutagenesis efficacy of sesame crosses followed by isolation and evaluation of promising genetic resources for use in future breeding programs
  46. Fostering cocoa industry resilience: A collaborative approach to managing farm gate price fluctuations in West Sulawesi, Indonesia
  47. Field investigation of component failures for selected farm machinery used in small rice farming operations
  48. Near-infrared technology in agriculture: Rapid, simultaneous, and non-destructive determination of inner quality parameters on intact coffee beans
  49. The synergistic application of sucrose and various LED light exposures to enhance the in vitro growth of Stevia rebaudiana (Bertoni)
  50. Weather index-based agricultural insurance for flower farmers: Willingness to pay, sales, and profitability perspectives
  51. Meta-analysis of dietary Bacillus spp. on serum biochemical and antioxidant status and egg quality of laying hens
  52. Biochemical characterization of trypsin from Indonesian skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) viscera
  53. Determination of C-factor for conventional cultivation and soil conservation technique used in hop gardens
  54. Empowering farmers: Unveiling the economic impacts of contract farming on red chilli farmers’ income in Magelang District, Indonesia
  55. Evaluating salt tolerance in fodder crops: A field experiment in the dry land
  56. Labor productivity of lowland rice (Oryza sativa L.) farmers in Central Java Province, Indonesia
  57. Cropping systems and production assessment in southern Myanmar: Informing strategic interventions
  58. The effect of biostimulants and red mud on the growth and yield of shallots in post-unlicensed gold mining soil
  59. Effects of dietary Adansonia digitata L. (baobab) seed meal on growth performance and carcass characteristics of broiler chickens: A systematic review and meta-analysis
  60. Analysis and structural characterization of the vid-pisco market
  61. Pseudomonas fluorescens SP007s enhances defense responses against the soybean bacterial pustule caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. glycines
  62. A brief investigation on the prospective of co-composted biochar as a fertilizer for Zucchini plants cultivated in arid sandy soil
  63. Supply chain efficiency of red chilies in the production center of Sleman Indonesia based on performance measurement system
  64. Investment development path for developed economies: Is agriculture different?
  65. Power relations among actors in laying hen business in Indonesia: A MACTOR analysis
  66. High-throughput digital imaging and detection of morpho-physiological traits in tomato plants under drought
  67. Converting compression ignition engine to dual-fuel (diesel + CNG) engine and experimentally investigating its performance and emissions
  68. Structuration, risk management, and institutional dynamics in resolving palm oil conflicts
  69. Spacing strategies for enhancing drought resilience and yield in maize agriculture
  70. Composition and quality of winter annual agrestal and ruderal herbages of two different land-use types
  71. Investigating Spodoptera spp. diversity, percentage of attack, and control strategies in the West Java, Indonesia, corn cultivation
  72. Yield stability of biofertilizer treatments to soybean in the rainy season based on the GGE biplot
  73. Evaluating agricultural yield and economic implications of varied irrigation depths on maize yield in semi-arid environments, at Birfarm, Upper Blue Nile, Ethiopia
  74. Chemometrics for mapping the spatial nitrate distribution on the leaf lamina of fenugreek grown under varying nitrogenous fertilizer doses
  75. Pomegranate peel ethanolic extract: A promising natural antioxidant, antimicrobial agent, and novel approach to mitigate rancidity in used edible oils
  76. Transformative learning and engagement with organic farming: Lessons learned from Indonesia
  77. Tourism in rural areas as a broader concept: Some insights from the Portuguese reality
  78. Assessment enhancing drought tolerance in henna (Lawsonia inermis L.) ecotypes through sodium nitroprusside foliar application
  79. Edible insects: A survey about perceptions regarding possible beneficial health effects and safety concerns among adult citizens from Portugal and Romania
  80. Phenological stages analysis in peach trees using electronic nose
  81. Harvest date and salicylic acid impact on peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) properties under different humidity conditions
  82. Hibiscus sabdariffa L. petal biomass: A green source of nanoparticles of multifarious potential
  83. Use of different vegetation indices for the evaluation of the kinetics of the cherry tomato (Solanum lycopersicum var. cerasiforme) growth based on multispectral images by UAV
  84. First evidence of microplastic pollution in mangrove sediments and its ingestion by coral reef fish: Case study in Biawak Island, Indonesia
  85. Physical and textural properties and sensory acceptability of wheat bread partially incorporated with unripe non-commercial banana cultivars
  86. Cereibacter sphaeroides ST16 and ST26 were used to solubilize insoluble P forms to improve P uptake, growth, and yield of rice in acidic and extreme saline soil
  87. Avocado peel by-product in cattle diets and supplementation with oregano oil and effects on production, carcass, and meat quality
  88. Optimizing inorganic blended fertilizer application for the maximum grain yield and profitability of bread wheat and food barley in Dawuro Zone, Southwest Ethiopia
  89. The acceptance of social media as a channel of communication and livestock information for sheep farmers
  90. Adaptation of rice farmers to aging in Thailand
  91. Combined use of improved maize hybrids and nitrogen application increases grain yield of maize, under natural Striga hermonthica infestation
  92. From aquatic to terrestrial: An examination of plant diversity and ecological shifts
  93. Statistical modelling of a tractor tractive performance during ploughing operation on a tropical Alfisol
  94. Participation in artisanal diamond mining and food security: A case study of Kasai Oriental in DR Congo
  95. Assessment and multi-scenario simulation of ecosystem service values in Southwest China’s mountainous and hilly region
  96. Analysis of agricultural emissions and economic growth in Europe in search of ecological balance
  97. Bacillus thuringiensis strains with high insecticidal activity against insect larvae of the orders Coleoptera and Lepidoptera
  98. Technical efficiency of sugarcane farming in East Java, Indonesia: A bootstrap data envelopment analysis
  99. Comparison between mycobiota diversity and fungi and mycotoxin contamination of maize and wheat
  100. Evaluation of cultivation technology package and corn variety based on agronomy characters and leaf green indices
  101. Exploring the association between the consumption of beverages, fast foods, sweets, fats, and oils and the risk of gastric and pancreatic cancers: Findings from case–control study
  102. Phytochemical composition and insecticidal activity of Acokanthera oblongifolia (Hochst.) Benth & Hook.f. ex B.D.Jacks. extract on life span and biological aspects of Spodoptera littoralis (Biosd.)
  103. Land use management solutions in response to climate change: Case study in the central coastal areas of Vietnam
  104. Evaluation of coffee pulp as a feed ingredient for ruminants: A meta-analysis
  105. Interannual variations of normalized difference vegetation index and potential evapotranspiration and their relationship in the Baghdad area
  106. Harnessing synthetic microbial communities with nitrogen-fixing activity to promote rice growth
  107. Agronomic and economic benefits of rice–sweetpotato rotation in lowland rice cropping systems in Uganda
  108. Response of potato tuber as an effect of the N-fertilizer and paclobutrazol application in medium altitude
  109. Bridging the gap: The role of geographic proximity in enhancing seed sustainability in Bandung District
  110. Evaluation of Abrams curve in agricultural sector using the NARDL approach
  111. Challenges and opportunities for young farmers in the implementation of the Rural Development Program 2014–2020 of the Republic of Croatia
  112. Yield stability of ten common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) genotypes at different sowing dates in Lubumbashi, South-East of DR Congo
  113. Effects of encapsulation and combining probiotics with different nitrate forms on methane emission and in vitro rumen fermentation characteristics
  114. Phytochemical analysis of Bienertia sinuspersici extract and its antioxidant and antimicrobial activities
  115. Evaluation of relative drought tolerance of grapevines by leaf fluorescence parameters
  116. Yield assessment of new streak-resistant topcross maize hybrids in Benin
  117. Improvement of cocoa powder properties through ultrasonic- and microwave-assisted alkalization
  118. Potential of ecoenzymes made from nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) leaf and pulp waste as bioinsecticides for Periplaneta americana
  119. Analysis of farm performance to realize the sustainability of organic cabbage vegetable farming in Getasan Semarang, Indonesia
  120. Revealing the influences of organic amendment-derived dissolved organic matter on growth and nutrient accumulation in lettuce seedlings (Lactuca sativa L.)
  121. Identification of viruses infecting sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas Lam.) in Benin
  122. Assessing the soil physical and chemical properties of long-term pomelo orchard based on tree growth
  123. Investigating access and use of digital tools for agriculture among rural farmers: A case study of Nkomazi Municipality, South Africa
  124. Does sex influence the impact of dietary vitD3 and UVB light on performance parameters and welfare indicators of broilers?
  125. Design of intelligent sprayer control for an autonomous farming drone using a multiclass support vector machine
  126. Deciphering salt-responsive NB-ARC genes in rice transcriptomic data: A bioinformatics approach with gene expression validation
  127. Review Articles
  128. Impact of nematode infestation in livestock production and the role of natural feed additives – A review
  129. Role of dietary fats in reproductive, health, and nutritional benefits in farm animals: A review
  130. Climate change and adaptive strategies on viticulture (Vitis spp.)
  131. The false tiger of almond, Monosteira unicostata (Hemiptera: Tingidae): Biology, ecology, and control methods
  132. A systematic review on potential analogy of phytobiomass and soil carbon evaluation methods: Ethiopia insights
  133. A review of storage temperature and relative humidity effects on shelf life and quality of mango (Mangifera indica L.) fruit and implications for nutrition insecurity in Ethiopia
  134. Green extraction of nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) phytochemicals: Prospective strategies and roadblocks
  135. Potential influence of nitrogen fertilizer rates on yield and yield components of carrot (Dacus carota L.) in Ethiopia: Systematic review
  136. Corn silk: A promising source of antimicrobial compounds for health and wellness
  137. State and contours of research on roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) in Africa
  138. The potential of phosphorus-solubilizing purple nonsulfur bacteria in agriculture: Present and future perspectives
  139. Minor millets: Processing techniques and their nutritional and health benefits
  140. Meta-analysis of reproductive performance of improved dairy cattle under Ethiopian environmental conditions
  141. Review on enhancing the efficiency of fertilizer utilization: Strategies for optimal nutrient management
  142. The nutritional, phytochemical composition, and utilisation of different parts of maize: A comparative analysis
  143. Motivations for farmers’ participation in agri-environmental scheme in the EU, literature review
  144. Evolution of climate-smart agriculture research: A science mapping exploration and network analysis
  145. Short Communications
  146. Music enrichment improves the behavior and leukocyte profile of dairy cattle
  147. Effect of pruning height and organic fertilization on the morphological and productive characteristics of Moringa oleifera Lam. in the Peruvian dry tropics
  148. Corrigendum
  149. Corrigendum to “Bioinformatics investigation of the effect of volatile and non-volatile compounds of rhizobacteria in inhibiting late embryogenesis abundant protein that induces drought tolerance”
  150. Corrigendum to “Composition and quality of winter annual agrestal and ruderal herbages of two different land-use types”
  151. Special issue: Smart Agriculture System for Sustainable Development: Methods and Practices
  152. Construction of a sustainable model to predict the moisture content of porang powder (Amorphophallus oncophyllus) based on pointed-scan visible near-infrared spectroscopy
  153. FruitVision: A deep learning based automatic fruit grading system
  154. Energy harvesting and ANFIS modeling of a PVDF/GO-ZNO piezoelectric nanogenerator on a UAV
  155. Effects of stress hormones on digestibility and performance in cattle: A review
  156. Special Issue of The 4th International Conference on Food Science and Engineering (ICFSE) 2022 - Part II
  157. Assessment of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acid profiles and ratio of omega-6/omega-3 of white eggs produced by laying hens fed diets enriched with omega-3 rich vegetable oil
  158. Special Issue on FCEM - International Web Conference on Food Choice & Eating Motivation - Part II
  159. Special Issue on FCEM – International Web Conference on Food Choice & Eating Motivation: Message from the editor
  160. Fruit and vegetable consumption: Study involving Portuguese and French consumers
  161. Knowledge about consumption of milk: Study involving consumers from two European Countries – France and Portugal
https://doi.org/10.1515/opag-2022-0346
Keywords for this article
abiotic stress; henna; plant adaptation; plant growth regulators; plant physiology; plant stress response
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Regular Articles
  2. Supplementation of P-solubilizing purple nonsulfur bacteria, Rhodopseudomonas palustris improved soil fertility, P nutrient, growth, and yield of Cucumis melo L.
  3. Yield gap variation in rice cultivation in Indonesia
  4. Effects of co-inoculation of indole-3-acetic acid- and ammonia-producing bacteria on plant growth and nutrition, soil elements, and the relationships of soil microbiomes with soil physicochemical parameters
  5. Impact of mulching and planting time on spring-wheat (Triticum aestivum) growth: A combined field experiment and empirical modeling approach
  6. Morphological diversity, correlation studies, and multiple-traits selection for yield and yield components of local cowpea varieties
  7. Participatory on-farm evaluation of new orange-fleshed sweetpotato varieties in Southern Ethiopia
  8. Yield performance and stability analysis of three cultivars of Gayo Arabica coffee across six different environments
  9. Biology of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on different types of plants feeds: Potency as a pest on various agricultural plants
  10. Antidiabetic activity of methanolic extract of Hibiscus sabdariffa Linn. fruit in alloxan-induced Swiss albino diabetic mice
  11. Bioinformatics investigation of the effect of volatile and non-volatile compounds of rhizobacteria in inhibiting late embryogenesis abundant protein that induces drought tolerance
  12. Nicotinamide as a biostimulant improves soybean growth and yield
  13. Farmer’s willingness to accept the sustainable zoning-based organic farming development plan: A lesson from Sleman District, Indonesia
  14. Uncovering hidden determinants of millennial farmers’ intentions in running conservation agriculture: An application of the Norm Activation Model
  15. Mediating role of leadership and group capital between human capital component and sustainability of horticultural agribusiness institutions in Indonesia
  16. Biochar technology to increase cassava crop productivity: A study of sustainable agriculture on degraded land
  17. Effect of struvite on the growth of green beans on Mars and Moon regolith simulants
  18. UrbanAgriKG: A knowledge graph on urban agriculture and its embeddings
  19. Provision of loans and credit by cocoa buyers under non-price competition: Cocoa beans market in Ghana
  20. Effectiveness of micro-dosing of lime on selected chemical properties of soil in Banja District, North West, Ethiopia
  21. Effect of weather, nitrogen fertilizer, and biostimulators on the root size and yield components of Hordeum vulgare
  22. Effects of selected biostimulants on qualitative and quantitative parameters of nine cultivars of the genus Capsicum spp.
  23. Growth, yield, and secondary metabolite responses of three shallot cultivars at different watering intervals
  24. Design of drainage channel for effective use of land on fully mechanized sugarcane plantations: A case study at Bone Sugarcane Plantation
  25. Technical feasibility and economic benefit of combined shallot seedlings techniques in Indonesia
  26. Control of Meloidogyne javanica in banana by endophytic bacteria
  27. Comparison of important quality components of red-flesh kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis) in different locations
  28. Efficiency of rice farming in flood-prone areas of East Java, Indonesia
  29. Comparative analysis of alpine agritourism in Trentino, Tyrol, and South Tyrol: Regional variations and prospects
  30. Detection of Fusarium spp. infection in potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) during postharvest storage through visible–near-infrared and shortwave–near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy
  31. Forage yield, seed, and forage qualitative traits evaluation by determining the optimal forage harvesting stage in dual-purpose cultivation in safflower varieties (Carthamus tinctorius L.)
  32. The influence of tourism on the development of urban space: Comparison in Hanoi, Danang, and Ho Chi Minh City
  33. Optimum intra-row spacing and clove size for the economical production of garlic (Allium sativum L.) in Northwestern Highlands of Ethiopia
  34. The role of organic rice farm income on farmer household welfare: Evidence from Yogyakarta, Indonesia
  35. Exploring innovative food in a developing country: Edible insects as a sustainable option
  36. Genotype by environment interaction and performance stability of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) cultivars grown in Dawuro zone, Southwestern Ethiopia
  37. Factors influencing green, environmentally-friendly consumer behaviour
  38. Factors affecting coffee farmers’ access to financial institutions: The case of Bandung Regency, Indonesia
  39. Morphological and yield trait-based evaluation and selection of chili (Capsicum annuum L.) genotypes suitable for both summer and winter seasons
  40. Sustainability analysis and decision-making strategy for swamp buffalo (Bubalus bubalis carabauesis) conservation in Jambi Province, Indonesia
  41. Understanding factors affecting rice purchasing decisions in Indonesia: Does rice brand matter?
  42. An implementation of an extended theory of planned behavior to investigate consumer behavior on hygiene sanitation-certified livestock food products
  43. Information technology adoption in Indonesia’s small-scale dairy farms
  44. Draft genome of a biological control agent against Bipolaris sorokiniana, the causal phytopathogen of spot blotch in wheat (Triticum turgidum L. subsp. durum): Bacillus inaquosorum TSO22
  45. Assessment of the recurrent mutagenesis efficacy of sesame crosses followed by isolation and evaluation of promising genetic resources for use in future breeding programs
  46. Fostering cocoa industry resilience: A collaborative approach to managing farm gate price fluctuations in West Sulawesi, Indonesia
  47. Field investigation of component failures for selected farm machinery used in small rice farming operations
  48. Near-infrared technology in agriculture: Rapid, simultaneous, and non-destructive determination of inner quality parameters on intact coffee beans
  49. The synergistic application of sucrose and various LED light exposures to enhance the in vitro growth of Stevia rebaudiana (Bertoni)
  50. Weather index-based agricultural insurance for flower farmers: Willingness to pay, sales, and profitability perspectives
  51. Meta-analysis of dietary Bacillus spp. on serum biochemical and antioxidant status and egg quality of laying hens
  52. Biochemical characterization of trypsin from Indonesian skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) viscera
  53. Determination of C-factor for conventional cultivation and soil conservation technique used in hop gardens
  54. Empowering farmers: Unveiling the economic impacts of contract farming on red chilli farmers’ income in Magelang District, Indonesia
  55. Evaluating salt tolerance in fodder crops: A field experiment in the dry land
  56. Labor productivity of lowland rice (Oryza sativa L.) farmers in Central Java Province, Indonesia
  57. Cropping systems and production assessment in southern Myanmar: Informing strategic interventions
  58. The effect of biostimulants and red mud on the growth and yield of shallots in post-unlicensed gold mining soil
  59. Effects of dietary Adansonia digitata L. (baobab) seed meal on growth performance and carcass characteristics of broiler chickens: A systematic review and meta-analysis
  60. Analysis and structural characterization of the vid-pisco market
  61. Pseudomonas fluorescens SP007s enhances defense responses against the soybean bacterial pustule caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. glycines
  62. A brief investigation on the prospective of co-composted biochar as a fertilizer for Zucchini plants cultivated in arid sandy soil
  63. Supply chain efficiency of red chilies in the production center of Sleman Indonesia based on performance measurement system
  64. Investment development path for developed economies: Is agriculture different?
  65. Power relations among actors in laying hen business in Indonesia: A MACTOR analysis
  66. High-throughput digital imaging and detection of morpho-physiological traits in tomato plants under drought
  67. Converting compression ignition engine to dual-fuel (diesel + CNG) engine and experimentally investigating its performance and emissions
  68. Structuration, risk management, and institutional dynamics in resolving palm oil conflicts
  69. Spacing strategies for enhancing drought resilience and yield in maize agriculture
  70. Composition and quality of winter annual agrestal and ruderal herbages of two different land-use types
  71. Investigating Spodoptera spp. diversity, percentage of attack, and control strategies in the West Java, Indonesia, corn cultivation
  72. Yield stability of biofertilizer treatments to soybean in the rainy season based on the GGE biplot
  73. Evaluating agricultural yield and economic implications of varied irrigation depths on maize yield in semi-arid environments, at Birfarm, Upper Blue Nile, Ethiopia
  74. Chemometrics for mapping the spatial nitrate distribution on the leaf lamina of fenugreek grown under varying nitrogenous fertilizer doses
  75. Pomegranate peel ethanolic extract: A promising natural antioxidant, antimicrobial agent, and novel approach to mitigate rancidity in used edible oils
  76. Transformative learning and engagement with organic farming: Lessons learned from Indonesia
  77. Tourism in rural areas as a broader concept: Some insights from the Portuguese reality
  78. Assessment enhancing drought tolerance in henna (Lawsonia inermis L.) ecotypes through sodium nitroprusside foliar application
  79. Edible insects: A survey about perceptions regarding possible beneficial health effects and safety concerns among adult citizens from Portugal and Romania
  80. Phenological stages analysis in peach trees using electronic nose
  81. Harvest date and salicylic acid impact on peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) properties under different humidity conditions
  82. Hibiscus sabdariffa L. petal biomass: A green source of nanoparticles of multifarious potential
  83. Use of different vegetation indices for the evaluation of the kinetics of the cherry tomato (Solanum lycopersicum var. cerasiforme) growth based on multispectral images by UAV
  84. First evidence of microplastic pollution in mangrove sediments and its ingestion by coral reef fish: Case study in Biawak Island, Indonesia
  85. Physical and textural properties and sensory acceptability of wheat bread partially incorporated with unripe non-commercial banana cultivars
  86. Cereibacter sphaeroides ST16 and ST26 were used to solubilize insoluble P forms to improve P uptake, growth, and yield of rice in acidic and extreme saline soil
  87. Avocado peel by-product in cattle diets and supplementation with oregano oil and effects on production, carcass, and meat quality
  88. Optimizing inorganic blended fertilizer application for the maximum grain yield and profitability of bread wheat and food barley in Dawuro Zone, Southwest Ethiopia
  89. The acceptance of social media as a channel of communication and livestock information for sheep farmers
  90. Adaptation of rice farmers to aging in Thailand
  91. Combined use of improved maize hybrids and nitrogen application increases grain yield of maize, under natural Striga hermonthica infestation
  92. From aquatic to terrestrial: An examination of plant diversity and ecological shifts
  93. Statistical modelling of a tractor tractive performance during ploughing operation on a tropical Alfisol
  94. Participation in artisanal diamond mining and food security: A case study of Kasai Oriental in DR Congo
  95. Assessment and multi-scenario simulation of ecosystem service values in Southwest China’s mountainous and hilly region
  96. Analysis of agricultural emissions and economic growth in Europe in search of ecological balance
  97. Bacillus thuringiensis strains with high insecticidal activity against insect larvae of the orders Coleoptera and Lepidoptera
  98. Technical efficiency of sugarcane farming in East Java, Indonesia: A bootstrap data envelopment analysis
  99. Comparison between mycobiota diversity and fungi and mycotoxin contamination of maize and wheat
  100. Evaluation of cultivation technology package and corn variety based on agronomy characters and leaf green indices
  101. Exploring the association between the consumption of beverages, fast foods, sweets, fats, and oils and the risk of gastric and pancreatic cancers: Findings from case–control study
  102. Phytochemical composition and insecticidal activity of Acokanthera oblongifolia (Hochst.) Benth & Hook.f. ex B.D.Jacks. extract on life span and biological aspects of Spodoptera littoralis (Biosd.)
  103. Land use management solutions in response to climate change: Case study in the central coastal areas of Vietnam
  104. Evaluation of coffee pulp as a feed ingredient for ruminants: A meta-analysis
  105. Interannual variations of normalized difference vegetation index and potential evapotranspiration and their relationship in the Baghdad area
  106. Harnessing synthetic microbial communities with nitrogen-fixing activity to promote rice growth
  107. Agronomic and economic benefits of rice–sweetpotato rotation in lowland rice cropping systems in Uganda
  108. Response of potato tuber as an effect of the N-fertilizer and paclobutrazol application in medium altitude
  109. Bridging the gap: The role of geographic proximity in enhancing seed sustainability in Bandung District
  110. Evaluation of Abrams curve in agricultural sector using the NARDL approach
  111. Challenges and opportunities for young farmers in the implementation of the Rural Development Program 2014–2020 of the Republic of Croatia
  112. Yield stability of ten common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) genotypes at different sowing dates in Lubumbashi, South-East of DR Congo
  113. Effects of encapsulation and combining probiotics with different nitrate forms on methane emission and in vitro rumen fermentation characteristics
  114. Phytochemical analysis of Bienertia sinuspersici extract and its antioxidant and antimicrobial activities
  115. Evaluation of relative drought tolerance of grapevines by leaf fluorescence parameters
  116. Yield assessment of new streak-resistant topcross maize hybrids in Benin
  117. Improvement of cocoa powder properties through ultrasonic- and microwave-assisted alkalization
  118. Potential of ecoenzymes made from nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) leaf and pulp waste as bioinsecticides for Periplaneta americana
  119. Analysis of farm performance to realize the sustainability of organic cabbage vegetable farming in Getasan Semarang, Indonesia
  120. Revealing the influences of organic amendment-derived dissolved organic matter on growth and nutrient accumulation in lettuce seedlings (Lactuca sativa L.)
  121. Identification of viruses infecting sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas Lam.) in Benin
  122. Assessing the soil physical and chemical properties of long-term pomelo orchard based on tree growth
  123. Investigating access and use of digital tools for agriculture among rural farmers: A case study of Nkomazi Municipality, South Africa
  124. Does sex influence the impact of dietary vitD3 and UVB light on performance parameters and welfare indicators of broilers?
  125. Design of intelligent sprayer control for an autonomous farming drone using a multiclass support vector machine
  126. Deciphering salt-responsive NB-ARC genes in rice transcriptomic data: A bioinformatics approach with gene expression validation
  127. Review Articles
  128. Impact of nematode infestation in livestock production and the role of natural feed additives – A review
  129. Role of dietary fats in reproductive, health, and nutritional benefits in farm animals: A review
  130. Climate change and adaptive strategies on viticulture (Vitis spp.)
  131. The false tiger of almond, Monosteira unicostata (Hemiptera: Tingidae): Biology, ecology, and control methods
  132. A systematic review on potential analogy of phytobiomass and soil carbon evaluation methods: Ethiopia insights
  133. A review of storage temperature and relative humidity effects on shelf life and quality of mango (Mangifera indica L.) fruit and implications for nutrition insecurity in Ethiopia
  134. Green extraction of nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) phytochemicals: Prospective strategies and roadblocks
  135. Potential influence of nitrogen fertilizer rates on yield and yield components of carrot (Dacus carota L.) in Ethiopia: Systematic review
  136. Corn silk: A promising source of antimicrobial compounds for health and wellness
  137. State and contours of research on roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) in Africa
  138. The potential of phosphorus-solubilizing purple nonsulfur bacteria in agriculture: Present and future perspectives
  139. Minor millets: Processing techniques and their nutritional and health benefits
  140. Meta-analysis of reproductive performance of improved dairy cattle under Ethiopian environmental conditions
  141. Review on enhancing the efficiency of fertilizer utilization: Strategies for optimal nutrient management
  142. The nutritional, phytochemical composition, and utilisation of different parts of maize: A comparative analysis
  143. Motivations for farmers’ participation in agri-environmental scheme in the EU, literature review
  144. Evolution of climate-smart agriculture research: A science mapping exploration and network analysis
  145. Short Communications
  146. Music enrichment improves the behavior and leukocyte profile of dairy cattle
  147. Effect of pruning height and organic fertilization on the morphological and productive characteristics of Moringa oleifera Lam. in the Peruvian dry tropics
  148. Corrigendum
  149. Corrigendum to “Bioinformatics investigation of the effect of volatile and non-volatile compounds of rhizobacteria in inhibiting late embryogenesis abundant protein that induces drought tolerance”
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