Startseite Experimental and microstructure analysis of the penetration resistance of composite structures
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Experimental and microstructure analysis of the penetration resistance of composite structures

  • Youchun Zou , Chao Xiong EMAIL logo und Junhui Yin
Veröffentlicht/Copyright: 14. Juli 2021
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Science and Engineering of Composite Materials
Aus der Zeitschrift Science and Engineering of Composite Materials Band 28 Heft 1

Abstract

Composite structures (SiC/UHMWPE/TC4; SiC/TC4/UHMWPE) were designed using silicon carbide (SiC)ceramics, ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) laminate, and titanium alloys (TC4s). Penetration experiments and numerical simulations were carried out to study the anti-penetration mechanism and energy characteristics of the composite structures, and the microstructure of the TC4 was analyzed. The results show that the two composite structures designed have advantages in reducing mass and thickness. The energy proportion of the TC4 is the largest among the three materials, which mainly determines the anti-penetration performance. The microstructure of the TC4 in composite structure I shows rough edges of bullet holes, a large number of adiabatic shear bands (ASBs), ASB bends and bifurcates, and many cracks, which lead to spalling damage of the TC4. The microstructure of the TC4 in composite structure II shows flat edges of bullet holes, several straight ASBs, and no cracks, which leads to brittle fragmentation. The initiation, expansion, combination of ASBs and cracks lead to more energy consumption. Therefore, the combination form of composite structure I can give full play the energy dissipation mechanism of the TC4 and has better anti-penetration performance than composite structure II.

Keywords: armor; anti-penetration; finite element simulation; adiabatic shear band

1 Introduction

The development of anti-armor weapons poses an increasing threat to armored vehicles. Countries around the world are committed to improving the anti-penetration performance of armored structures [1]. In addition, since the design of armor structure needs to consider lightweight, the lightweight anti-penetration structure is one of the research hotspots in the field of protection [2]. The multilayer composite structure composed of lightweight materials can give full play the physical properties of different materials through reasonable configuration and has good anti-penetration performance, which has attracted wide attention.

The materials used in the multilayer composite anti-penetration structures mainly include ceramics, metal alloys, and fiber composite materials [3,4]. The widely used forms of anti-penetration structures include ceramic–metal, ceramic–fiber composite materials, and metal–fiber composite materials. An et al. [5] studied the anti-penetration performance of ceramic–metal structures, and it is found that the metal has a significant influence on the damage characteristics of the composite structures. The ceramic–metal composite structure has advantages in reducing the thickness and mass of the composite protective structure. Based on the excellent anti-penetration performance of the ceramic–metal composite armor, scholars have conducted in-depth research on it. Tan et al. [6] analyzed the influence of the cover plate on the armor failure mechanism and found that the cover plate effectively reduces the speed of the projectile and the damage of the metal support plate. In addition, the anti-penetration of the ceramic–metal composite structure is also affected by the adhesive layer. Gao et al. [7] studied the influence of the adhesive layer on the anti-penetration performance of the ceramic–metal structure through experiments and numerical. The results show that the increase in the thickness of the adhesive layer leads to a reduction in the size of the ceramic fracture and an increase in the energy absorption capacity of the material. Hu et al. [8] designed the SiC/UHMWPE composite armor and conducted penetration tests. The experimental results showed that the structural form of the hard faceplate and the flexible support plate has guiding significance for the design of the light armor. Cai et al. [9] conducted an experimental study on the failure mechanism of the aluminum foam/UHMWPE composite structure under the combined loading of explosion and fragments. The results showed that the UHMWPE laminate in the composite structure can be beneficial to improve the comprehensive protection ability.

At present, there are a few research studies on the anti-penetration mechanism of the multilayer composite structures of three or more materials. In addition, studies have shown that the microstructure has a great influence on the penetration resistance of metal materials [10]. Most studies focus on single-layer metal materials [11,12,13], and there are a few research studies on the damage mechanism and microstructure of metal materials in composite structures. In this study, two composite structures (SiC/UHMWPE/TC4; SiC/TC4/UHMWPE) were designed using silicon carbide (SiC) ceramics, ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) laminate, and titanium alloys (TC4s). First, the anti-penetration mechanism of the composite structures was studied through penetration experiments. Then, the energy characteristics of the composite structures were investigated through numerical methods. Finally, the microstructures of the TC4 were analyzed.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Materials

The materials used to prepare the composite structures include SiC ceramics, UHMWPE laminate, and TC4s. The thicknesses of SiC ceramics, UHMWPE laminate, and TC4s are 5, 5, and 6 mm, respectively. Based on the reasonable combination forms of the composite protection structures, the composite structures in Table 1 were designed. SiC ceramics is usually used as the panel of composite structures due to its high hardness and high strength. However, SiC ceramics is fragile and has low tensile strength, and so, it needs to be used in combination with other materials. UHMWPE has a high specific strength and specific modulus, which can resist impact and consume residual energy. TC4 can further improve the protective performance in the composite structure. As shown in Table 1, UHMWPE laminate and TC4 are placed in different positions to discuss the influence of the material arrangement on the anti-penetration performance of composite structures. The interfaces between the materials were bonded with epoxy resin. As shown in Figure 1, based on the experimental device, the cross-sectional size of the composite structures in the penetration test is 150 mm × 150 mm.

Table 1

Designed composite structures

Structure number Arrangement form
I 5 mm SiC/5 mm UHMWPE/6 mm TC4
II 5 mm SiC/6 mm TC4/5 mm UHMWPE
Figure 1 (a) SiC ceramics; (b) UHMWPE laminates; and (c) TC4.
Figure 1

(a) SiC ceramics; (b) UHMWPE laminates; and (c) TC4.

2.2 Methods

2.2.1 Penetration test

The experimental device for the penetration test is shown in Figure 2. The ballistic rifle is used to fire projectiles. The material of the projectile is T12A steel, and the dimensions are as shown in the figure. The composite structures to be tested are constrained on the restraint device. The speed measuring device is used to measure the initial velocity of the projectile. An interception device is installed between the ballistic rifle and the speed measuring device.

Figure 2 Experimental device for the penetration test.
Figure 2

Experimental device for the penetration test.

The depth of penetration (DOP) method was used to evaluate the anti-penetration performance of the composite structures. As shown in Figure 3, 603 armor steel was placed behind the composite structure in the DOP method. The mass efficiency F m and thickness efficiency F S of the composite structures are calculated by measuring the residual penetration depth P res and the reference penetration depth P ref of the 603 armor steel. In order to ensure the accuracy of the test results, three samples were prepared for each structure, and the valid value of the three test results was taken. The F m and F S are calculated as follows [5,14]:

(1) F m = ( P r e f − P r e s ) ⋅ ρ 603 δ ⋅ ρ h s

(2) F S = P ref − P res δ

where P ref is the DOP in 603 armor steel without the composite structure, P res is the residual DOP in 603 armor steel by the projectile penetrated through the composite structure, ρ 603 is the density of 603 armor steel, δ is the thickness of the composite structure, and ρ hs is the average density of the composite structure. P ref is 43 mm and ρ 603 is 7.86 g/cm3.

Figure 3 Schematic of the DOP method.
Figure 3

Schematic of the DOP method.

2.2.2 Numerical simulation

The LSDYNA finite element software was used to simulate the penetration process of the composite structures. Due to the symmetry of the system and in order to simplify the calculation, a quarter model was established. The geometric parameters of the finite element model are consistent with those of the experiment. The UHMWPE laminate is made of 10 layers of fibers by hot pressing. The ply structure of the UHMWPE laminate was established in the model to reflect the deformation characteristics in the process of penetration. The boundaries of the composite structure were fully constrained. The mesh size of the projectile is 1 mm. In the penetration test, the deformation and damage of the composite structures were mainly concentrated near the impact point, and the deformation in the rest of the area was not obvious. The mesh of the composite structure was refined within twice the radius of the projectile, and the mesh size is 0.1 mm. The model and mesh are shown in Figure 4. *CONTACT_ERODING_SURFACE_TO_SURFACE was used to define the contact between the projectile and the composite structure. Due to the thin thickness of epoxy resin, *CONTACT_TIED_SURFACE_TO_SURFACE was used to define the adhesive. The failure tensile stress and the failure shear stress of the epoxy resin were set to 120 and 80 MPa, respectively [15]. The parameters of the material models are shown in Tables 2–6.

Figure 4 Finite element model.
Figure 4

Finite element model.

Table 2

*MAT_JOHNSON_HOLMQUIST_CERAMICS [15] constants for SiC ceramics

Constants SiC ceramics
Density, (g/cm3) 3.2
Shear modulus, G (GPa) 183
Intact strength coefficient, A 0.96
Fracture strength coefficient, B 0.35
Strain rate coefficient, C 0.0045
Intact strength exponent, N 0.65
Fracture strength exponent, M 1
Maximum tensile pressure strength, T (GPa) 0.75
Pressure at HEL, PHEL (GPa) 14.567
Damage coefficient, D 1 0.48
Damage exponent, D 2 0.48
Bulk modulus, K 1 (GPa) 217.2
Pressure coefficient, K 2 (GPa) 0
Pressure coefficient, K 3 (GPa) 0
Table 3

*MAT_COMPOSITE_DAMAGE [16] constants for UHMWPE laminate

Constants UHMWPE laminate
Density, (g/cm3) 0.97
Young’s modulus in the a-direction, E a (GPa) 29.8
Young’s modulus in the b-direction, E b (GPa) 29.8
Young’s modulus in the c-direction, E c (GPa) 1.91
Poisson’s ratio, ba ν ba (GPa) 0.008
Poisson’s ratio, ca ν ca (GPa) 0.044
Poisson’s ratio, cb ν cb (GPa) 0.044
Shear modulus, ab G ab (GPa) 0.82
Shear modulus, bc G bc (GPa) 0.75
Shear modulus, ca G ca (GPa) 0.75
Bulk modulus of the failed material, K fail (GPa) 2.2
AOPT 0
Material axes change flag (MACF) for brick elements 1
Shear strength, S c (GPa) 0.36
Longitudinal tensile strength, a-axis, X t (GPa) 3
Transverse tensile strength, b-axis, Y t (GPa) 3
Transverse compressive strength, b-axis, Y c (GPa) 2.5
Shear stress parameter for the nonlinear term, α 0.5
Normal tensile strength, S n (GPa) 0.95
Transverse shear strength, S yz (GPa) 0.95
Transverse shear strength, S xz (GPa) 0.95
Table 4

*MAT_JOHNSON_COOK [15] constants for the TC4

Constants TC4
Density, (g/cm3) 4.45
Shear modulus, G (GPa) 41.9
Static yield strength, A (GPa) 1
Strain hardening coefficient, B (GPa) 0.845
Strain hardening exponent, n 0.58
Strain rate coefficient, C 0.014
Reference strain rate, ε ̇ 0 (s−1) 1
Thermal softening exponent, m 0.753
Reference temperature, t 0 (K) 298
Melting temperature, t m (K) 1,951
Damage constant, D 1 0.05
Damage constant, D 2 0.27
Damage constant, D 3 −0.48
Damage constant, D 4 0.014
Damage constant, D 5 3.8
Table 5

*MAT_JOHNSON_COOK [15] constants for the projectile

Constants T12A steel
Density, (g/cm3) 7.85
Shear modulus, G (GPa) 200
Static yield strength, A (GPa) 1.54
Strain hardening coefficient, B (GPa) 0.477
Strain hardening exponent, n 0.26
Strain rate coefficient, C 0
Reference strain rate, ε ̇ 0 (s−1) 1
Thermal softening exponent, m 1
Reference temperature, t 0 (K) 298
Melting temperature, t m (K) 1,763
Damage constant, D 1 2
Damage constant, D 2 0
Damage constant, D 3 0
Damage constant, D 4 0
Damage constant, D 5 0
Table 6

*MAT_JOHNSON_COOK [5] constants for 603 armor steel

Constants 603 steel
Density, (g/cm3) 7.85
Shear modulus, G (GPa) 77
Static yield strength, A (GPa) 1.41
Strain hardening coefficient, B (GPa) 0.73
Strain hardening exponent, n 0.26
Strain rate coefficient, C 0.014
Reference strain rate, ε ̇ 0 (s−1) 5,000
Thermal softening exponent, m 1.03
Reference temperature, t 0 (K) 298
Melting temperature, t m (K) 1,793
Damage constant, D 1 0.05
Damage constant, D 2 3.44
Damage constant, D 3 −2.12
Damage constant, D 4 0.002
Damage constant, D 5 1.61

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Analysis of the anti-penetration mechanism

As shown in Table 7, the experiment and simulation results give good agreement, and the anti-penetration mechanism of the composite structures can be further studied through the established model.

Table 7

Experimental and numerical results

Structure number Incident velocity (m/s) ρ hs (g/cm3) δ (mm) P res (mm)
Experiment Numerical Error (%)
I 980.4 2.76 17.4 6.64 5.94 −10.5
II 983.8 2.64 18.3 7.17 6.94 −3.2

The penetration process of composite structure I is shown in Figure 5. In the process of penetrating the SiC ceramics, the projectile deforms plastically and the SiC fractures. With projectile further penetration, the projectile penetrates the UHMWPE laminate. The failure morphology of the UHMWPE laminate is shown in Figure 6(a). The UHMWPE fiber first undergoes tensile deformation, and shear failure occurs under the penetration of the projectile before the fiber reaches the ultimate tensile strength. The restraint of the TC4 on the UHMWPE laminate leads to the eversion of the UHMWPE fiber on the front surface. The stress wave is reflected as a tensile wave between the matrix and the fiber of the UHMWPE laminate. When the tensile stress is greater than the adhesion between layers, delamination failure occurs. The failure morphology of the TC4 is shown in Figure 6(b). The failure mode of TC4 is spalling damage. Due to the high strength and hardness of the TC4, the projectile is further damaged inside the TC4.

Figure 5 Penetration process of composite structure I.
Figure 5

Penetration process of composite structure I.

Figure 6 Failure morphology of (a) the UHMWPE laminate and (b) TC4.
Figure 6

Failure morphology of (a) the UHMWPE laminate and (b) TC4.

The penetration process of composite structure II is shown in Figure 7. The failure morphology of the TC4 is shown in Figure 8(a). The failure mode of the TC4 in composite structure II is brittle fragmentation. TC4 undergoes shear failure first, and the brittle fragmentation occurs as the projectile further pushes the TC4. The failure morphology of the UHMWPE laminate is shown in Figure 8(b). The failure mode of the UHMWPE laminate in composite structure II is a shear failure, and there is a certain degree of tensile failure on the front surface. In composite structure II, the UHMWPE laminate is the backplate of TC4. After the projectile penetrates TC4, the projectile and TC4 fragments form a combined projectile to penetrate the UHMWPE laminate. The UHMWPE laminate has low strength and stiffness, and shear failure occurs under the combined penetration of projectiles and TC4 fragments. The restriction of TC4 leads to a small deformation of the UHMWPE laminate, which is not conducive to exerting the energy absorption performance of the UHMWPE laminate.

Figure 7 Penetration process of composite structure II.
Figure 7

Penetration process of composite structure II.

Figure 8 Failure morphology of (a) TC4 and (b) the UHMWPE laminate.
Figure 8

Failure morphology of (a) TC4 and (b) the UHMWPE laminate.

3.2 Numerical simulation analysis

As shown in Table 8, in order to compare the protective performance of the composite structures, the mass efficiency F m and thickness efficiency F S of the composite structures at the same incident velocity were calculated by numerical methods. The F m and F S of the composite structures are all greater than 1, indicating that the designed composite structures have advantages in reducing mass and thickness. In addition, it can be found that the protective performance of structure I is better.

Table 8

The mass efficiency and thickness efficiency of composite structures

Structure number Incident velocity (m/s) ρ hs (g/cm3) δ (mm) P res (mm) F m F S
I 976.4 2.76 17.4 5.52 6.14 2.15
II 976.4 2.64 18.3 6.24 5.98 2.01

As shown in Figure 9, the total energy of different materials was calculated by numerical methods. It can be found that the total energy proportion of TC4 is the largest, indicating that TC4 mainly determines the anti-penetration performance of the composite structures. In order to improve the anti-penetration performance of the composite structures, the energy dissipation mechanism of TC4 should be fully utilized. Metal materials such as TC4 mainly rely on their high strength and high hardness to abrade the projectile and consume its energy. The brittle fragmentation of TC4 belongs to a low-energy consumption failure mode, and the spalling damage belongs to a high-energy consumption failure mode. Therefore, the total energy of the TC4 in composite structure I is greater than the total energy of TC4 in composite structure II. TC4 has higher total energy in composite structure I, which indicates that the TC4 can give full play its energy dissipation performance and maximize the anti-penetration performance of composite structure when it is placed behind the UHMWPE laminate.

Figure 9 Total energy of different materials.
Figure 9

Total energy of different materials.

3.3 Micro-damage features of TC4

It is concluded from Section 3.2 that TC4 has the largest proportion of energy and the most significant impact on the anti-penetration performance of the composite structures. Studies have shown that the failure mechanism of TC4 is closely related to the microstructure characteristics [13]. In order to deeply study the anti-penetration mechanism of the composite structures, the microstructure analysis of the TC4 was carried out. The penetrated TC4 was cut along the midline of the crater, and the samples shown in the dashed box in Figure 10 were cut for microstructure analysis. The observation position is the section near the bullet hole in the dashed box. The samples were ground, polished, and etched with a 2 mL HF + 6 mL HNO3 + 92 mL H2O solution for 10–15 s, and examined using an Axiovert-2000MAT optical microscope for microstructure analysis.

Figure 10 Samples used for microstructure analysis: (a) composite structure I and (b) composite structure II.
Figure 10

Samples used for microstructure analysis: (a) composite structure I and (b) composite structure II.

TC4 is in a state of high temperature, high pressure, and high strain rate under the penetration of the projectile. Due to the extremely short penetration time, there is no time for the heat generated inside TC4 to dissipate, causing an adiabatic phenomenon. The adiabatic phenomenon leads to material instability, causing severe plastic deformation in local locations and ASBs are formed. As shown in Figure 11, the tissue morphology of ASBs is different from that of the matrix. The tissue in the ASBs is broken due to shearing, and there is a clear boundary with the matrix tissue.

Figure 11 Adiabatic shear bands.
Figure 11

Adiabatic shear bands.

The microstructure of TC4 samples in composite structure I is shown in Figure 12. It can be found that the edges of the bullet holes are rough, and there are multiple cracks and holes in the TC4, and spalling damage of the TC4 appears. The microstructures at positions a–c are shown in Figure 13. As shown in Figure 13(a), due to the inconsistent deformation of the ASB and the matrix, microcrack and microhole sources appear in the ASB. In Figure 13(b), microcracks and microholes are initiated in the ASBs, and macroscopic cracks are formed after the microcracks and microholes further expand and merge. The ASB in Figure 13(c) is bent and bifurcated, which provides more locations and paths for the initiation of crack sources and hole sources.

Figure 12 Microstructure of TC4 bullet holes in composite structure I.
Figure 12

Microstructure of TC4 bullet holes in composite structure I.

Figure 13 ASB in composite structure I: (a) microcrack and microhole sources, (b) macroscopic cracks, and (c) bifurcation of ASB.
Figure 13

ASB in composite structure I: (a) microcrack and microhole sources, (b) macroscopic cracks, and (c) bifurcation of ASB.

The microstructure of TC4 samples in composite structure II is shown in Figure 14. Compared with the TC4 in composite structure I, the TC4 in composite structure II has smoother bullet hole edges without cracks and holes. The microstructures at positions a, b are shown in Figure 15. There are a few ASBs and most of them are straight, and there are no cracks and holes in the ASB.

Figure 14 Microstructure of TC4 bullet holes in composite structure II.
Figure 14

Microstructure of TC4 bullet holes in composite structure II.

Figure 15 ASB is straight.
Figure 15

ASB is straight.

The initiation, expansion, and merger of ASBs and cracks consume a lot of energy. Therefore, the TC4 in composite structure I consume more energy. The Composite structure I can give full play the energy dissipation mechanism of the TC4, and its anti-penetration performance is better than that of composite structure II.

4 Conclusions

The penetration tests and numerical simulations were used to study the anti-penetration mechanism and energy characteristics of the composite structures. The failure mode of TC4 was explained based on the microstructure, and the influence of the TC4 microstructure on the anti-penetration performance and energy characteristics was studied. The main conclusions are as follows.

  1. In the SiC/UHMWPE/TC4 composite structure, the UHMWPE laminate will undergo tensile failure and TC4 will undergo spalling damage. In the SiC/TC4/UHMWPE composite structure, the UHMWPE laminate will undergo shear failure and TC4 will undergo brittle fragmentation. The two composite structures designed have advantages in reducing mass and thickness.

  2. TC4 has the largest total energy proportion among the three materials and plays an important role in improving anti-penetration performance. The failure mode of the TC4 in composite structure I is spalling damage, which supports fully the energy dissipation mechanism of TC4, and anti-penetration performance is better than that of composite structure II.

  3. The bullet hole edges of the TC4 in composite structure I are rough, and there are multiple ASBs. ASB bifurcates and generates multiple macroscopic cracks. The bullet holes edges of the TC4 in composite structure II are flat. There are a few ASBs and they are straight without cracks. Since the behavior of ASBs and cracks in composite structure I is more complex, more energy is consumed. The reason for the high-energy consumption of TC4 in composite structure I was explained from the perspective of microstructures.

  1. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2021-05-10
Revised: 2021-06-16
Accepted: 2021-06-24
Published Online: 2021-07-14

© 2021 Youchun Zou et al., published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  39. Synthesize and characterization of conductive nano silver/graphene oxide composites
  40. Analysis and optimization of mechanical properties of recycled concrete based on aggregate characteristics
  41. Synthesis and characterization of polyurethane–polysiloxane block copolymers modified by α,ω-hydroxyalkyl polysiloxanes with methacrylate side chain
  42. Buckling analysis of thin-walled metal liner of cylindrical composite overwrapped pressure vessels with depressions after autofrettage processing
  43. Use of polypropylene fibres to increase the resistance of reinforcement to chloride corrosion in concretes
  44. Oblique penetration mechanism of hybrid composite laminates
  45. Comparative study between dry and wet properties of thermoplastic PA6/PP novel matrix-based carbon fibre composites
  46. Experimental study on the low-velocity impact failure mechanism of foam core sandwich panels with shape memory alloy hybrid face-sheets
  47. Preparation, optical properties, and thermal stability of polyvinyl butyral composite films containing core (lanthanum hexaboride)–shell (titanium dioxide)-structured nanoparticles
  48. Research on the size effect of roughness on rock uniaxial compressive strength and characteristic strength
  49. Research on the mechanical model of cord-reinforced air spring with winding formation
  50. Experimental study on the influence of mixing time on concrete performance under different mixing modes
  51. A continuum damage model for fatigue life prediction of 2.5D woven composites
  52. Investigation of the influence of recyclate content on Poisson number of composites
  53. A hard-core soft-shell model for vibration condition of fresh concrete based on low water-cement ratio concrete
  54. Retraction
  55. Thermal and mechanical characteristics of cement nanocomposites
  56. Influence of class F fly ash and silica nano-micro powder on water permeability and thermal properties of high performance cementitious composites
  57. Effects of fly ash and cement content on rheological, mechanical, and transport properties of high-performance self-compacting concrete
  58. Erratum
  59. Inverse analysis of concrete meso-constitutive model parameters considering aggregate size effect
  60. Special Issue: MDA 2020
  61. Comparison of the shear behavior in graphite-epoxy composites evaluated by means of biaxial test and off-axis tension test
  62. Photosynthetic textile biocomposites: Using laboratory testing and digital fabrication to develop flexible living building materials
  63. Study of gypsum composites with fine solid aggregates at elevated temperatures
  64. Optimization for drilling process of metal-composite aeronautical structures
  65. Engineering of composite materials made of epoxy resins modified with recycled fine aggregate
  66. Evaluation of carbon fiber reinforced polymer – CFRP – machining by applying industrial robots
  67. Experimental and analytical study of bio-based epoxy composite materials for strengthening reinforced concrete structures
  68. Environmental effects on mode II fracture toughness of unidirectional E-glass/vinyl ester laminated composites
  69. Special Issue: NCM4EA
  70. Effect and mechanism of different excitation modes on the activities of the recycled brick micropowder
https://doi.org/10.1515/secm-2021-0036
Schlagwörter für diesen Artikel
armor; anti-penetration; finite element simulation; adiabatic shear band
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

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  42. Buckling analysis of thin-walled metal liner of cylindrical composite overwrapped pressure vessels with depressions after autofrettage processing
  43. Use of polypropylene fibres to increase the resistance of reinforcement to chloride corrosion in concretes
  44. Oblique penetration mechanism of hybrid composite laminates
  45. Comparative study between dry and wet properties of thermoplastic PA6/PP novel matrix-based carbon fibre composites
  46. Experimental study on the low-velocity impact failure mechanism of foam core sandwich panels with shape memory alloy hybrid face-sheets
  47. Preparation, optical properties, and thermal stability of polyvinyl butyral composite films containing core (lanthanum hexaboride)–shell (titanium dioxide)-structured nanoparticles
  48. Research on the size effect of roughness on rock uniaxial compressive strength and characteristic strength
  49. Research on the mechanical model of cord-reinforced air spring with winding formation
  50. Experimental study on the influence of mixing time on concrete performance under different mixing modes
  51. A continuum damage model for fatigue life prediction of 2.5D woven composites
  52. Investigation of the influence of recyclate content on Poisson number of composites
  53. A hard-core soft-shell model for vibration condition of fresh concrete based on low water-cement ratio concrete
  54. Retraction
  55. Thermal and mechanical characteristics of cement nanocomposites
  56. Influence of class F fly ash and silica nano-micro powder on water permeability and thermal properties of high performance cementitious composites
  57. Effects of fly ash and cement content on rheological, mechanical, and transport properties of high-performance self-compacting concrete
  58. Erratum
  59. Inverse analysis of concrete meso-constitutive model parameters considering aggregate size effect
  60. Special Issue: MDA 2020
  61. Comparison of the shear behavior in graphite-epoxy composites evaluated by means of biaxial test and off-axis tension test
  62. Photosynthetic textile biocomposites: Using laboratory testing and digital fabrication to develop flexible living building materials
  63. Study of gypsum composites with fine solid aggregates at elevated temperatures
  64. Optimization for drilling process of metal-composite aeronautical structures
  65. Engineering of composite materials made of epoxy resins modified with recycled fine aggregate
  66. Evaluation of carbon fiber reinforced polymer – CFRP – machining by applying industrial robots
  67. Experimental and analytical study of bio-based epoxy composite materials for strengthening reinforced concrete structures
  68. Environmental effects on mode II fracture toughness of unidirectional E-glass/vinyl ester laminated composites
  69. Special Issue: NCM4EA
  70. Effect and mechanism of different excitation modes on the activities of the recycled brick micropowder
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