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Hot deformation behavior of nano-Al2O3-dispersion-strengthened Cu20W composite

  • Junchao An EMAIL logo , Meng Zhou EMAIL logo , Baohong Tian , Yongfeng Geng , Yijie Ban and Shengli Liang
Published/Copyright: September 13, 2021
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Science and Engineering of Composite Materials
From the journal Science and Engineering of Composite Materials Volume 28 Issue 1

Abstract

Nano-Al2O3 dispersion-strengthened Cu20W composite was fabricated by vacuum hot-pressing sintering process. The electrical conductivity, relative density, and Brinell hardness were tested, respectively. The gleeble-1500D thermomechanical simulator was used to conduct isothermal compression with strain rates ranging from 0.001 to 10 s−1 and the temperatures ranging from 650 to 950°C. The microstructure of the Cu–Al2O3/20W composite was observed using an optical microscope and a transmission electron microscope, and the true stress–strain curves were analyzed. In addition, the influence of the nano-Al2O3 and tungsten on the thermal deformation process of the composite was analyzed. The relationship and interaction among work hardening, dynamic recovery, and dynamic recrystallization were illustrated. The results show that nano-Al2O3 particles pin dislocations and inhibit dynamic recovery and dynamic recrystallization. Consequently, the Cu–Al2O3/20W composite has typical dynamic recovery characteristics. Hence, the Cu–Al2O3/20W composite possesses outstanding high-temperature performance. The optimal processing domain of the Cu–Al2O3/20W composite ranged from 760 to 950°C with strain rates ranging from 0.01 to 0.1 s−1. Furthermore, the constitutive equation of the Cu–Al2O3/20W composite is established, and the activation energy is 155.069 kJ mol−1.

Keywords: vacuum hot-pressing sintering; hot deformation; dynamic recrystallization; constitutive equation

1 Introduction

Switches are widely used in power transmission, industrial production, aerospace, and other fields. As the core component of various switchgear, electrical contacts play a significant role [1,2]. With the development of industry and technological progress, the requirement for electrical contacts is increasing. In the process of making or breaking the circuit, temperature elevation, welding, wear, and arc erosion take place during initiating, maintaining, and terminating electrical contacts [3,4]. Therefore, electrical contacts must possess good mechanical properties and arc erosion resistance. Copper is widely used in electrical contact materials because of its good electrical and thermal conductivity [5]. Considering the arc erosion resistance of electrical contacts and mechanical properties, such as hardness, copper-based composite materials with composite strengthening as the preparation mechanism are ideal electrical contact materials [6]. Dispersion-strengthened copper alloys are often used in harsh environments because of their good electrical and thermal conductivity and high-temperature stability. Talekar et al. [7] added 1 wt% of nano-Al2O3 to the W–Ni alloy, which shows good oxidation resistance at a high temperature of 1,400°C. Vladimirova and Shalunov [8] prepared Al2O3-dispersion-strengthened copper alloy by powder metallurgy. It was found that the nano-alumina is γ-Al2O3 with a particle size of 39 nm, and the recrystallization temperature reached about 1,000°C. Lee et al. [9] used the internal oxidation method to prepare a large number of alumina particles with a diameter of about 10 nm dispersed in the copper matrix, and the relationship between mechanical properties and matrix was explained by the Orovan mechanism. In addition to dispersing copper as the matrix, in order to improve the voltage strength and welding resistance of the electrical contacts, W with a high melting point and high hardness is often added to it. Zhang et al. [10] revealed that the tungsten in the copper–tungsten electrical contacts gradually accumulates into a needle-like skeleton under the high temperature of the arc. This skeleton-like structure can effectively reduce the flow of low-melting copper liquid. The research of Li et al. [11] showed that the welding probability of Cu–W is lower than that of Cu, and the addition of W can improve the welding resistance of the vacuum switch contacts.

In recent years, most of the research on nano-Al2O3-reinforced dispersed copper and Cu–W composites has focused on the preparation methods and arc erosion resistance. However, studies on the thermal deformation behavior of copper-based composites are rarely reported. Therefore, the deformation behavior and microstructure evolution of Cu–W composites during high-temperature compression have not been understood. Li [12] studied the hot deformation behavior of Al2O3-dispersion-strengthened copper alloys through hot deformation tests and verified that the best deformation zone temperature range is 750–850°C, and the strain rate ranges from 1 to10 s−1. Hiraoka et al. [13] proposed that the internal grains of the W(80)/Cu composite material exhibited a fibrous structure as the amount of deformation increased during the compression deformation process. Furthermore, although Zhang et al. [14] investigated the flow stress changes of Al2O3–Cu/35W5Cr composites at high temperatures and the evolution of the microstructure during thermal deformation, they did not establish a constitutive equation or related thermal processing diagrams.

Because the electrical contact has a high arc temperature at the moment of making and breaking, it has to withstand the combined action of various forces during the making and breaking process. Hence, the hot deformation behavior of the Cu–Al2O3/20W composite is very crucial to the service of the electrical contacts. In addition, hot deformation can be used to precisely extrude the contact blanks, which saves materials and reduces costs. On the other hand, hot deformation is also a kind of densification process, which can improve the performance of the contact material, and the final hot processing can also refine the structure and further improve the performance. In order to analyze the deformation behavior and the microstructure evolution of the different reinforcing phases and copper matrix at high temperature, the Cu–Al2O3/20W composite was systematically studied by the Gleeble-1500D thermo-mechanical simulator. Conducting the analysis of the as-sintered composite material and the microstructure after thermal compression, the deformation mechanism of the nano-Al2O3 and W are determined. Moreover, the constitutive equation is constructed.

2 Experimental procedure

W powder and Cu–0.4 wt% Al powder with an average particle diameter of 2–5 µm were used. The Cu2O powder provides oxygen atoms with sizes ranging from 2 to 5 µm. Figure 1 shows the nominal composition ratio of the Al2O3–Cu/20W composite. These powders were adequately mixed in a YH-10 mixer for 2 h, and the ball-to-powder weight ratio was 5:1. Copper balls served as grinding media. After the powders were mixed, the sample was sintered in a ZT-120-22Y vacuum hot-pressing sintering furnace. During the sintering process, the vacuum degree was kept at 0.06 Pa and the heating rate was 10°C min−1. The uniaxial contact pressure was applied as 30 MPa when the temperature reached 650°C, and held for 1 h, and continued by heating to 950°C. After 1 hour, the temperature was decreased to room temperature prior to sample removal. The cylindrical sample size was Φ50 mm × 15 mm.

Figure 1 Composition ratio of the Cu–Al2O3/20W composite, wt%.
Figure 1

Composition ratio of the Cu–Al2O3/20W composite, wt%.

After the surface of the sintered cylindrical sample was polished, the electrical conductivity was measured with a Sigma2008B1 digital conductivity meter. Then, the Brinell hardness test was conducted using the HB-3000B Brinell hardness tester according to GB/T231.1-2009 standard. Moreover, the relative density was measured and calculated using the Archimedes drainage method. Finally, the microstructure of the sintered sample was determined using a JSM-7800F field emission scanning electron microscope. The sintered composite material was cut into a cylinder of Φ8 mm × 12 mm and then the hot deformation test was performed on a Gleeble-1500D thermal simulation test machine. The hot deformation temperatures were set to 650, 750, 850, and 950°C, and the deformation rates were 0.001, 0.01, 0.1, 1, and 10 s−1. At the beginning of the test, the temperature was increased to the deformation temperature at a temperature increase rate of 10°C s−1, and then the compression was started after holding for 3 min. At the end of the compression process, the sample was taken out and immediately cooled in water. There was an interval of 3–5 s between unloading and quenching. The test process is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2 Schematic of the hot compression process.
Figure 2

Schematic of the hot compression process.

3 Results

3.1 Microstructure and comprehensive properties

Figure 3(a) shows the SEM image of the Cu–0.4 wt% Al/20W composite powders after mixing. The various powders are uniformly mixed without obvious agglomeration. The SEM image of the sintered sample is shown in Figure 3(b). After sintering, the microstructure is compact, and there are no holes or cracks on the surface of the sample. Moreover, the distribution of W particles is relatively uniform. Figure 3(c) is the EDS energy spectrum analysis data of the sintered sample, and the distribution of various elements coincided with the theoretical value in Figure 1. In addition, the line scan results of W particles show that the curve at the Cu–Al2O3/W interface is steep and they are completely incompatible.

Figure 3 SEM images of the composite powders and the Cu–Al2O3/20W composite.
Figure 3

SEM images of the composite powders and the Cu–Al2O3/20W composite.

Figure 4 shows the comprehensive performance of the Cu–Al2O3/20W composite. After vacuum hot-pressing sintering, the relative density of the as-sintered composite reaches 98.3%. Compared with Cu–Al2O3 prepared by the same material and the same process, the Brinell hardness increases from 51.1 to 67.2 HBW with the addition of W. However, the electrical conductivity decreased from 90.3 to 78.6% IACS. The W particles possessing high hardness are relatively evenly distributed on the matrix and hinder dislocation movement, resulting in the increase of the hardness. Nevertheless, poor electrical conductivity and interface bonding lead to the decrease of the electrical conductivity of the as-sintered composite.

Figure 4 Comprehensive properties of Al2O3–Cu/(W, Cr) composites.
Figure 4

Comprehensive properties of Al2O3–Cu/(W, Cr) composites.

3.2 True stress–strain curves

Figure 5 shows the true stress–strain curves of the Cu–Al2O3/20W composite. The flow stress under different deformation conditions decreases with the increase of the deformation temperature. However, it increases with the increase of the strain rate. In addition, the Cu–Al2O3/20W composite has typical continuous dynamic recrystallization characteristics.

Figure 5 True stress–true strain curves of Cu–Al2O3/20W electrical contacts at different temperature and strain rates: (a) 0.01 s−1; (b) 1 s−1; (c) 650°C; and (d) 850°C.
Figure 5

True stress–true strain curves of Cu–Al2O3/20W electrical contacts at different temperature and strain rates: (a) 0.01 s−1; (b) 1 s−1; (c) 650°C; and (d) 850°C.

As shown in Figure 5(a and b), the flow stress of the Cu–Al2O3/20W composite increases to a peak value rapidly at the beginning of hot deformation, which is consistent with the characteristics of work hardening. This is because in the initial stage of hot deformation, as the strain increases, dislocations are first generated at the stress concentration of the sample, and dislocations entangled after rapid multiplication, resulting in work hardening. As the deformation continues, the slope of the curve decreases, and the flow stress increases slowly until the peak stress appears. This is because when the second stage of hardening begins, a large number of jogs are produced, which causes the flow stress to increase continuously until a peak occurs. However, the resistance caused by the formation of jogs is sensitive to temperature and the increase of atomic thermal motion can reduce the resistance of jogs. Later, the flow stress dropped again and finally go to a stable state, which is a characteristic of dynamic recrystallization. The softening behavior of materials during high-temperature deformation can be divided into dynamic recovery and dynamic recrystallization [15,16]. During the dynamic recovery process, the cross-slip and climbing of dislocations play a vital role. Then, the defect density is reduced, the opposite sign dislocations are canceled, and the dislocations are rearranged. Furthermore, dynamic recrystallization occurs through the nucleation of the crystal grain. The way to eliminate dislocations and subgrain boundaries in the deformed matrix is mainly through the migration of large-angle grain boundaries. In the process of high-temperature deformation, the stress–strain behavior depends on the balance between work hardening and dynamic softening [17,18]. It is worth noting that the curve drops sharply at a strain rate of 10 s−1 when the strain is greater than 0.6 under the deformation temperatures of 650 and 850°C, which are shown in Figure 5(c) and (d). This is because, at high strain rates, dynamic softening is too late to balance work hardening, resulting in cracking of the specimen.

3.3 The constitutive equation of the Cu–Al2O3/20W composite

Through the above true stress–strain curve, it can be found that in the hot simulation test of copper-based composites, the change of the flow stress is mainly affected by two factors, temperature, and the strain rate. Therefore, discussing the relationship between the deformation temperature and strain rate on flow stress can provide a theoretical basis for the hot working process of the copper alloys. Researchers commonly use constitutive equations to describe the hot deformation behavior of metallic materials [19]. It is usually described in the following three forms:

(1) ε ̇ = A 1 σ n 1 exp − Q R T , α σ < 0.8 ,

(2) ε ̇ = A 2 exp ( β σ ) exp − Q R T , α σ > 1.2 ,

(3) ε ̇ = A [ sinh ( α σ ) ] n exp − Q R T , ( for all ) .

As mentioned above, ε ̇ is the strain rate (s−1), σ is the peak flow stress (MPa), Q represents the hot activation energy (kJ mol−1), and A, A 1, A 2, α, β, n 1, and n are constants, which are influenced by the materials. T is the deformation temperature (K) and R is the universal gas constant (8.314 J mol−1 K−1). The Zener–Hollomon parameters (Z parameters) proposed by Zener and Hollomon for the first time [20,21] is used to express the influence of temperature and the deformation rate on the deformation behavior:

(4) Z = [ sinh ( α σ ) ] n = ε ̇ exp − Q R T .

By taking the logarithm of the above formula,

(5) ln ε ̇ = n 1 ln σ + ln A 1 − Q R T ,

(6) ln ε ̇ = β σ + ln A 2 − Q R T ,

(7) ln ε ̇ = n ln [ sinh ( α σ ) ] − Q R T + ln A .

By taking the partial derivative of 1/T, we obtain the thermal deformation activation energy formula of the composite material in equation (3):

(8) Q = R ∂ ln ε ̇ ∂ ln [ sinh ( α σ ) ] T ∂ ln [ sinh ( α σ ) ] ∂ ( 1 / T ) = R n S .

Table 1 lists the peak stress of the Cu–Al2O3/20W composite. Substituting the peak stress value into the above equations, one can obtain the relationship curve between the peak stress, strain rate, and the deformation temperature, which are shown in Figure 6. n 1 , β, n, and S are the average values of the slopes of the curves in Figure 6(a)–(d), respectively. According to calculations, n 1 = 5.652, β = 0.116, and then α = β/n 1 = 0.021, n = 4.06, and S = 4.594. From equation (8), the intercept of the straight line ln Z − ln[sinh(ασ)] in Figure 6(e) is ln A. After linear fitting from Figure 6(e), ln A = 13.805, so A = e13.805 can be obtained. According to equation (8), the hot deformation activation energy, Q = RnS = 8.314 × 4.06 × 4.594 = 155.069 kJ mol−1, can be obtained. Therefore, the constitutive equation of the Cu–Al2O3/20W composite can be expressed as follows:

(9) ε ̇ = e 13.805 [ sinh ( 0.021 σ ) ] exp − 155069 8.314 T .

Table 1

Peak flow stress of the Cu–Al2O3/20W composite at various conditions (MPa)

Strain rate (s−1) Peak stress (MPa)
650°C 750°C 850°C 950°C
0.001 32.09 24.14 17.35 12.94
0.01 56.12 40.60 29.62 21.56
0.1 84.07 64.74 50.36 35.91
1 113.23 89.19 70.17 53.83
10 136.96 112.47 91.82 70.16
Figure 6 Functional relationship among peak flow stress, strain rate, and deformation temperature of the Cu–Al2O3/20W composite: (a) ln ε ̇ − ln σ \text{ln}\hspace{.25em}\dot{\varepsilon }-\text{ln}\hspace{.25em}\sigma ; (b) ln ε ̇ − σ \text{ln}\hspace{.25em}\dot{\varepsilon }-\sigma ; (c) ln ε ̇ − ln [ sinh ( α σ ) ] \text{ln}\hspace{.25em}\dot{\varepsilon }-\text{ln}\hspace{.25em}{[}\sinh \text{(}\alpha \sigma \text{)}] ; (d) ln [ sinh ( α σ ) ] − 1 , 000 / T \mathrm{ln}\hspace{.25em}{[}\sinh \text{(}\alpha \sigma \text{)}]-1,000/T ; and (e) ln Z − ln [ sinh ( α σ ) ] \text{ln}\hspace{.25em}Z-\text{ln}\hspace{.25em}{[}\sinh \text{(}\alpha \sigma \text{)}] .
Figure 6

Functional relationship among peak flow stress, strain rate, and deformation temperature of the Cu–Al2O3/20W composite: (a) ln ε ̇ − ln σ ; (b) ln ε ̇ − σ ; (c) ln ε ̇ − ln [ sinh ( α σ ) ] ; (d) ln [ sinh ( α σ ) ] − 1 , 000 / T ; and (e) ln Z − ln [ sinh ( α σ ) ] .

3.4 Microstructure evolution of the Cu–Al2O3/20W composite

Figure 7 shows the microstructure of the Cu–Al2O3/20W composite after deformation at 850°C and 0.01 s−1. It can be seen from Figure 7(a) that a large number of nanoparticles are dispersed on the matrix of the composite, pinning and hindering the movement of dislocations, which is shown in Figure 7(e). The diffraction spots were calibrated and the nanoparticles were γ-Al2O3. In addition, although tungsten has high hardness, some researchers have studied the deformation behavior of tungsten alloys. Woodward et al. [22] revealed the strain rate effects on the flow stress of the heavy tungsten alloys by the hot deformation experiment. Karl [23] proposed that the tungsten–copper alloy undergo ductile-brittle transition at 400°C. It can be seen from Figure 7(c) that a slight deformation has occurred at the interface between the W particles and the copper matrix. The reason for this phenomenon is that the movement of a large number of dislocations at the interface is hindered by W particles and the dislocation accumulation generates stress. After further analysis of the W particles, it is found that a large number of dislocations have sprouted inside the W particles, as shown in Figure 7(c).

Figure 7 TEM micrographs of the Cu–Al2O3/20W composite deformed at 850°C and 0.01 s−1. (a, c, e, and f) Bright field images and (b and d) selected area electron diffraction pattern and indexing.
Figure 7

TEM micrographs of the Cu–Al2O3/20W composite deformed at 850°C and 0.01 s−1. (a, c, e, and f) Bright field images and (b and d) selected area electron diffraction pattern and indexing.

In addition, dislocation wall and dislocation cell can be observed in Figure 7(e and f). In the process of hot deformation, due to work hardening, dislocations are produced at the grain boundary and other stress concentrations. When the stress increases to a certain level, a large amount of cross slip occurs and the dislocation density increases sharply. Furthermore, these cross-slips can react with dislocations to form dislocation walls. As the deformation increases, these dislocation walls form a cell structure as the center of dislocation entanglement [24]. Under the deformation conditions of 850°C and 0.01 s−1, the dislocation wall gradually narrows due to dynamic recovery, as shown in Figure 7(f). The reason for this phenomenon is that a large number of nano-alumina particles are dispersed in the copper matrix, and the nanoparticles pin the dislocations and hinder the movement of the dislocations, inhibiting dynamic recovery and dynamic recrystallization. Therefore, dispersed copper has a good high-temperature performance.

3.5 Cu–AL2O3/20W composite processing map

In order to determine the best processing area and reduce cracking, the hot processing map of the Cu–Al2O3/20W composite was drawn. The process parameters of the hot processing map can reflect the microstructure of the material during hot deformation It is composed of a power dissipation map and instability map. The hot processing map was established by Prasad et al. [25,26,27] according to the dynamic materials model (DMM). The total power P in the process of the system deformation is composed of the plastic deformation power (G) and the microstructure evolution power (J). The relationship between them can be expressed by the following parameter:

(10) P = σ ε ̇ = G + J = ∫ 0 ε ̇ σ d ε ̇ + ∫ 0 σ ε ̇ d σ .

According to the theory of the hot processing map, the power dissipation (η) can be expressed as

(11) η = J J max = 2 m m + 1 ,

where m is the sensitive parameter of the strain rate and is given by

(12) m = ∂   J ∂ G = ∂ ln σ ∂ ln ε ̇ .

According to the extreme value principle of irreversible thermodynamics, the flow instability criterion formula can be expressed as

(13) ξ ( ε ̇ ) = ∂ ln m m + 1 ∂ ln ε ̇ + m < 0 .

The flow instability parameter ξ(ε) represents the relationship among the deformation rate, the deformation temperature, and the strain rate during hot deformation. The hot processing map can be obtained by superposing the flow instability diagram and the power dissipation diagram.

Figure 8 shows the hot processing map of the Cu–Al2O3/20W composite at a true strain of 0.2. The values in the figure represent the power dissipation. With the increase of values, the microstructure evolution of the Cu–Al2O3/20W composite is stable and the hot workability of the composites is better. The results show that the optimal processing domain of the Cu–Al2O3/20W composite ranged from 760 to 950°C with strain rates ranging from 0.01 to 0.1 s−1. In order to better reveal the microstructure of the optimal processing domain, the microstructure of the Cu–Al2O3/20W composite at 850°C and 0.01 s−1 was determined, as shown in Figure 8(b). It can be seen that the grains of the Cu–Al2O3/20W composite are mainly equiaxed grains. The existence of equiaxed grains makes the material have better plasticity and toughness and reduces the occurrence of cracking [28,29].

Figure 8 Hot processing maps and the microstructure of the Cu–Al2O3/20W composite: (a) hot processing maps and (b) the microstructure at 850°C and 0.01 s−1.
Figure 8

Hot processing maps and the microstructure of the Cu–Al2O3/20W composite: (a) hot processing maps and (b) the microstructure at 850°C and 0.01 s−1.

4 Conclusion

The Cu–Al2O3/20W composite was prepared by vacuum hot pressing and sintering. The as-sintered sample has a compact structure without obvious defects, and the relative density is greater than 98%. Because of the addition of W, the electrical conductivity of the composite decreases while the hardness increases significantly. The true stress–strain curves of the Cu–Al2O3/20W composite present the characteristics of dynamic recrystallization, and the flow stress increases with the increase of strain rate, while it decreases with the increase of temperature. The optimal processing domain of the Cu–Al2O3/20W composite ranged from 800 and 950°C with strain rates ranging from 0.01 to 0.1 s−1, and the microstructure is equiaxed grains. The hot deformation activation energy of the Cu–Al2O3/20W composite is calculated to be 155.069 kJ mol−1. The corresponding constitutive equation is

ε ̇ = e 13.805 [ sinh 0.021 σ ] exp − 155069 8.314 T .

In the process of hot deformation, nano-Al2O3 particles pin the dislocation and hinder the movement of the dislocation. The dislocation wall changes from thick to narrow. The W particles can deform slightly and initiate dislocations on the surface.

  1. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2021-03-06
Revised: 2021-07-13
Accepted: 2021-07-23
Published Online: 2021-09-13

© 2021 Junchao An et al., published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Effects of Material Constructions on Supersonic Flutter Characteristics for Composite Rectangular Plates Reinforced with Carbon Nano-structures
  2. Processing of Hollow Glass Microspheres (HGM) filled Epoxy Syntactic Foam Composites with improved Structural Characteristics
  3. Investigation on the anti-penetration performance of the steel/nylon sandwich plate
  4. Flexural bearing capacity and failure mechanism of CFRP-aluminum laminate beam with double-channel cross-section
  5. In-Plane Permeability Measurement of Biaxial Woven Fabrics by 2D-Radial Flow Method
  6. Regular Articles
  7. Real time defect detection during composite layup via Tactile Shape Sensing
  8. Mechanical and durability properties of GFRP bars exposed to aggressive solution environments
  9. Cushioning energy absorption of paper corrugation tubes with regular polygonal cross-section under axial static compression
  10. An investigation on the degradation behaviors of Mg wires/PLA composite for bone fixation implants: influence of wire content and load mode
  11. Compressive bearing capacity and failure mechanism of CFRP–aluminum laminate column with single-channel cross section
  12. Self-Fibers Compacting Concrete Properties Reinforced with Propylene Fibers
  13. Study on the fabrication of in-situ TiB2/Al composite by electroslag melting
  14. Characterization and Comparison Research on Composite of Alluvial Clayey Soil Modified with Fine Aggregates of Construction Waste and Fly Ash
  15. Axial and lateral stiffness of spherical self-balancing fiber reinforced rubber pipes under internal pressure
  16. Influence of technical parameters on the structure of annular axis braided preforms
  17. Nano titanium oxide for modifying water physical property and acid-resistance of alluvial soil in Yangtze River estuary
  18. Modified Halpin–Tsai equation for predicting interfacial effect in water diffusion process
  19. Experimental research on effect of opening configuration and reinforcement method on buckling and strength analyses of spar web made of composite material
  20. Photoluminescence characteristics and energy transfer phenomena in Ce3+-doped YVO4 single crystal
  21. Influence of fiber type on mechanical properties of lightweight cement-based composites
  22. Mechanical and fracture properties of steel fiber-reinforced geopolymer concrete
  23. Handcrafted digital light processing apparatus for additively manufacturing oral-prosthesis targeted nano-ceramic resin composites
  24. 3D printing path planning algorithm for thin walled and complex devices
  25. Material-removing machining wastes as a filler of a polymer concrete (industrial chips as a filler of a polymer concrete)
  26. The electrochemical performance and modification mechanism of the corrosion inhibitor on concrete
  27. Evaluation of the applicability of different viscoelasticity constitutive models in bamboo scrimber short-term tensile creep property research
  28. Experimental and microstructure analysis of the penetration resistance of composite structures
  29. Ultrasensitive analysis of SW-BNNT with an extra attached mass
  30. Active vibration suppression of wind turbine blades integrated with piezoelectric sensors
  31. Delamination properties and in situ damage monitoring of z-pinned carbon fiber/epoxy composites
  32. Analysis of the influence of asymmetric geological conditions on stability of high arch dam
  33. Measurement and simulation validation of numerical model parameters of fresh concrete
  34. Tuning the through-thickness orientation of 1D nanocarbons to enhance the electrical conductivity and ILSS of hierarchical CFRP composites
  35. Performance improvements of a short glass fiber-reinforced PA66 composite
  36. Investigation on the acoustic properties of structural gradient 316L stainless steel hollow spheres composites
  37. Experimental studies on the dynamic viscoelastic properties of basalt fiber-reinforced asphalt mixtures
  38. Hot deformation behavior of nano-Al2O3-dispersion-strengthened Cu20W composite
  39. Synthesize and characterization of conductive nano silver/graphene oxide composites
  40. Analysis and optimization of mechanical properties of recycled concrete based on aggregate characteristics
  41. Synthesis and characterization of polyurethane–polysiloxane block copolymers modified by α,ω-hydroxyalkyl polysiloxanes with methacrylate side chain
  42. Buckling analysis of thin-walled metal liner of cylindrical composite overwrapped pressure vessels with depressions after autofrettage processing
  43. Use of polypropylene fibres to increase the resistance of reinforcement to chloride corrosion in concretes
  44. Oblique penetration mechanism of hybrid composite laminates
  45. Comparative study between dry and wet properties of thermoplastic PA6/PP novel matrix-based carbon fibre composites
  46. Experimental study on the low-velocity impact failure mechanism of foam core sandwich panels with shape memory alloy hybrid face-sheets
  47. Preparation, optical properties, and thermal stability of polyvinyl butyral composite films containing core (lanthanum hexaboride)–shell (titanium dioxide)-structured nanoparticles
  48. Research on the size effect of roughness on rock uniaxial compressive strength and characteristic strength
  49. Research on the mechanical model of cord-reinforced air spring with winding formation
  50. Experimental study on the influence of mixing time on concrete performance under different mixing modes
  51. A continuum damage model for fatigue life prediction of 2.5D woven composites
  52. Investigation of the influence of recyclate content on Poisson number of composites
  53. A hard-core soft-shell model for vibration condition of fresh concrete based on low water-cement ratio concrete
  54. Retraction
  55. Thermal and mechanical characteristics of cement nanocomposites
  56. Influence of class F fly ash and silica nano-micro powder on water permeability and thermal properties of high performance cementitious composites
  57. Effects of fly ash and cement content on rheological, mechanical, and transport properties of high-performance self-compacting concrete
  58. Erratum
  59. Inverse analysis of concrete meso-constitutive model parameters considering aggregate size effect
  60. Special Issue: MDA 2020
  61. Comparison of the shear behavior in graphite-epoxy composites evaluated by means of biaxial test and off-axis tension test
  62. Photosynthetic textile biocomposites: Using laboratory testing and digital fabrication to develop flexible living building materials
  63. Study of gypsum composites with fine solid aggregates at elevated temperatures
  64. Optimization for drilling process of metal-composite aeronautical structures
  65. Engineering of composite materials made of epoxy resins modified with recycled fine aggregate
  66. Evaluation of carbon fiber reinforced polymer – CFRP – machining by applying industrial robots
  67. Experimental and analytical study of bio-based epoxy composite materials for strengthening reinforced concrete structures
  68. Environmental effects on mode II fracture toughness of unidirectional E-glass/vinyl ester laminated composites
  69. Special Issue: NCM4EA
  70. Effect and mechanism of different excitation modes on the activities of the recycled brick micropowder
https://doi.org/10.1515/secm-2021-0044
Keywords for this article
vacuum hot-pressing sintering; hot deformation; dynamic recrystallization; constitutive equation
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Effects of Material Constructions on Supersonic Flutter Characteristics for Composite Rectangular Plates Reinforced with Carbon Nano-structures
  2. Processing of Hollow Glass Microspheres (HGM) filled Epoxy Syntactic Foam Composites with improved Structural Characteristics
  3. Investigation on the anti-penetration performance of the steel/nylon sandwich plate
  4. Flexural bearing capacity and failure mechanism of CFRP-aluminum laminate beam with double-channel cross-section
  5. In-Plane Permeability Measurement of Biaxial Woven Fabrics by 2D-Radial Flow Method
  6. Regular Articles
  7. Real time defect detection during composite layup via Tactile Shape Sensing
  8. Mechanical and durability properties of GFRP bars exposed to aggressive solution environments
  9. Cushioning energy absorption of paper corrugation tubes with regular polygonal cross-section under axial static compression
  10. An investigation on the degradation behaviors of Mg wires/PLA composite for bone fixation implants: influence of wire content and load mode
  11. Compressive bearing capacity and failure mechanism of CFRP–aluminum laminate column with single-channel cross section
  12. Self-Fibers Compacting Concrete Properties Reinforced with Propylene Fibers
  13. Study on the fabrication of in-situ TiB2/Al composite by electroslag melting
  14. Characterization and Comparison Research on Composite of Alluvial Clayey Soil Modified with Fine Aggregates of Construction Waste and Fly Ash
  15. Axial and lateral stiffness of spherical self-balancing fiber reinforced rubber pipes under internal pressure
  16. Influence of technical parameters on the structure of annular axis braided preforms
  17. Nano titanium oxide for modifying water physical property and acid-resistance of alluvial soil in Yangtze River estuary
  18. Modified Halpin–Tsai equation for predicting interfacial effect in water diffusion process
  19. Experimental research on effect of opening configuration and reinforcement method on buckling and strength analyses of spar web made of composite material
  20. Photoluminescence characteristics and energy transfer phenomena in Ce3+-doped YVO4 single crystal
  21. Influence of fiber type on mechanical properties of lightweight cement-based composites
  22. Mechanical and fracture properties of steel fiber-reinforced geopolymer concrete
  23. Handcrafted digital light processing apparatus for additively manufacturing oral-prosthesis targeted nano-ceramic resin composites
  24. 3D printing path planning algorithm for thin walled and complex devices
  25. Material-removing machining wastes as a filler of a polymer concrete (industrial chips as a filler of a polymer concrete)
  26. The electrochemical performance and modification mechanism of the corrosion inhibitor on concrete
  27. Evaluation of the applicability of different viscoelasticity constitutive models in bamboo scrimber short-term tensile creep property research
  28. Experimental and microstructure analysis of the penetration resistance of composite structures
  29. Ultrasensitive analysis of SW-BNNT with an extra attached mass
  30. Active vibration suppression of wind turbine blades integrated with piezoelectric sensors
  31. Delamination properties and in situ damage monitoring of z-pinned carbon fiber/epoxy composites
  32. Analysis of the influence of asymmetric geological conditions on stability of high arch dam
  33. Measurement and simulation validation of numerical model parameters of fresh concrete
  34. Tuning the through-thickness orientation of 1D nanocarbons to enhance the electrical conductivity and ILSS of hierarchical CFRP composites
  35. Performance improvements of a short glass fiber-reinforced PA66 composite
  36. Investigation on the acoustic properties of structural gradient 316L stainless steel hollow spheres composites
  37. Experimental studies on the dynamic viscoelastic properties of basalt fiber-reinforced asphalt mixtures
  38. Hot deformation behavior of nano-Al2O3-dispersion-strengthened Cu20W composite
  39. Synthesize and characterization of conductive nano silver/graphene oxide composites
  40. Analysis and optimization of mechanical properties of recycled concrete based on aggregate characteristics
  41. Synthesis and characterization of polyurethane–polysiloxane block copolymers modified by α,ω-hydroxyalkyl polysiloxanes with methacrylate side chain
  42. Buckling analysis of thin-walled metal liner of cylindrical composite overwrapped pressure vessels with depressions after autofrettage processing
  43. Use of polypropylene fibres to increase the resistance of reinforcement to chloride corrosion in concretes
  44. Oblique penetration mechanism of hybrid composite laminates
  45. Comparative study between dry and wet properties of thermoplastic PA6/PP novel matrix-based carbon fibre composites
  46. Experimental study on the low-velocity impact failure mechanism of foam core sandwich panels with shape memory alloy hybrid face-sheets
  47. Preparation, optical properties, and thermal stability of polyvinyl butyral composite films containing core (lanthanum hexaboride)–shell (titanium dioxide)-structured nanoparticles
  48. Research on the size effect of roughness on rock uniaxial compressive strength and characteristic strength
  49. Research on the mechanical model of cord-reinforced air spring with winding formation
  50. Experimental study on the influence of mixing time on concrete performance under different mixing modes
  51. A continuum damage model for fatigue life prediction of 2.5D woven composites
  52. Investigation of the influence of recyclate content on Poisson number of composites
  53. A hard-core soft-shell model for vibration condition of fresh concrete based on low water-cement ratio concrete
  54. Retraction
  55. Thermal and mechanical characteristics of cement nanocomposites
  56. Influence of class F fly ash and silica nano-micro powder on water permeability and thermal properties of high performance cementitious composites
  57. Effects of fly ash and cement content on rheological, mechanical, and transport properties of high-performance self-compacting concrete
  58. Erratum
  59. Inverse analysis of concrete meso-constitutive model parameters considering aggregate size effect
  60. Special Issue: MDA 2020
  61. Comparison of the shear behavior in graphite-epoxy composites evaluated by means of biaxial test and off-axis tension test
  62. Photosynthetic textile biocomposites: Using laboratory testing and digital fabrication to develop flexible living building materials
  63. Study of gypsum composites with fine solid aggregates at elevated temperatures
  64. Optimization for drilling process of metal-composite aeronautical structures
  65. Engineering of composite materials made of epoxy resins modified with recycled fine aggregate
  66. Evaluation of carbon fiber reinforced polymer – CFRP – machining by applying industrial robots
  67. Experimental and analytical study of bio-based epoxy composite materials for strengthening reinforced concrete structures
  68. Environmental effects on mode II fracture toughness of unidirectional E-glass/vinyl ester laminated composites
  69. Special Issue: NCM4EA
  70. Effect and mechanism of different excitation modes on the activities of the recycled brick micropowder
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