Minor millets: Processing techniques and their nutritional and health benefits

2.1 Soaking, germination, and fermentation

Wet processes like germination, fermentation, and soaking are commonly used to improve the nutritional quality of grains. The effect of different processing techniques on different constituents of millet grains is summarized in Table 4. Soaking, which is a common household technical procedure, is essential to allow the grains to absorb water and initiate the process of nutrient activation. Soaking is an effective method for improving the bioavailability of micronutrients like zinc by reducing the levels of anti-nutritional substances such as phytic acid, tannic acid, and phenols [14,15,35]. Soaking, along with gemination, has been reported to enhance the flavour of the grains. There is a reduction in iron and zinc after being soaked in water, which could be due to the leaching of these minerals into the soaking water [18]. However, the germination process can lead to an increase in nutraceuticals, such as total phenolic content, antioxidants, total flavonoid content, dietary fibre, protein, and minerals, including magnesium, calcium, sodium, and iron, as well as γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA). It is important to note that extended soaking and high germination temperatures may result in the loss of nutrients [20,36,37].

Germination of millet grains has been shown to increase free amino acids and total sugars while decreasing starch content, making protein and starch easier to digest [21,22]. The nutritional value of germinated millets is directly proportional to the germination time, as it increases the bioavailability of minerals. Germination also enhances enzyme activity and utilization of fat as an energy source, which may result in a decrease in fat content [38,39].

With germination new cells are formed, and existing cells expand. This leads to an increase in the synthesis of cell wall components such as cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectins, which are major constituents of dietary fiber. Moreover, the activity of phytase during germination also contributes to the increase in mineral content. Germination encourages the activity of the endogenous amylase enzyme and releases the protein and fibre matrix. This makes granules of starch readily available to hydrolysing enzymes, leading to the fragmentation of starch chains and making them easily digestible. Hence, germination makes protein and starch more digestible with little effort [23,38,40]. Technology offers a fast and cost-effective way of converting grains into food through fermentation, which is a process that partially resembles germination and involves the use of microorganisms. In various countries, millets are fermented to produce different types of meals, including alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages, thin and thick porridges, and bakery products [41,42,43]. During fermentation, the breakdown of cellulose and hemicellulose leads to the formation of polysaccharides with a more porous and loose structure, which may explain the changes in dietary fibre. Fermentation can also lead to an increase in the bioavailability of micronutrients and a decrease in anti-nutrients [44,45].

Millets can be subjected to fermentation and malting to enhance their nutritional composition by reducing the levels of anti-nutrients and increasing the bioavailability of minerals and vitamins [46]. Fermentation and malting processes can significantly reduce the levels of anti-nutrients, such as amylase inhibitors, trypsin, and phytic acid [2], by creating an ideal pH range for the enzymatic breakdown of phytate, which is found in millets in complexes with polyvalent cations such as iron, zinc, calcium, and magnesium, and proteins. The endogenous phytases in fermented millets can reduce phytic acid and polyphenols, and the polyphenol oxidase content is increased [38]. Additionally, fermented finger millet has been found to contain higher levels of some vitamins, such as niacin and riboflavin, and amino acids, including cysteine and methionine [47].

2.2 Decortication and milling

Decortication is the process of removing the outer layer of the millet seed. Millet species and other cereals have seed coats that need to be removed before further processing. Removing the seed coat can lead to increased solubility of the seed while decreasing the cellulose component, which provides several physiological advantages to the decorticated millet. Decortication results in decreased levels of protein, fat, and polyphenols, as well as anti-nutrients, while increasing the bioaccessibility of minerals and improving the digestibility, assimilation, and sensory qualities of millet during cooking [48]. Additionally, the starch content, swelling index, and solubility of decorticated millet are increased (Table 4).

Dehulling or milling involves removing the seed coat (husk) and separating the bran. However, it is important to note that the husk and seed coat contain higher concentrations of phenolic compounds than the whole and de-husked grains. Excessive dehulling may lead to a loss of dietary fibre, bioactive compounds, and up to 80% of phenolic content [49,50]. Although milling retains a significant amount of dietary fibre, it removes approximately 66% of calcium and 36% of phosphorus [10].

2.3 Parboiling

Parboiling is a widely used technique for improving the milling yield and biochemical properties of grains, including millets. Parboiling has been shown to have positive effects on the phenolic and antioxidant properties of grains. This method helps to retain the nutrient-rich components of grains by preserving the bran and outer covering during the soaking and boiling process [50]. In addition, parboiling can lower the glycaemic index and decrease the amount of readily digestible starch in the grain during soaking and boiling, which can benefit people with diabetes or other metabolic disorders [10,29].

2.4 Extrusion

Extrusion is a widely used method for semi-dry cooking of grains and foods, such as baby meals, snack foods, breakfast cereals, and pasta [51]. The extrusion technology has been reported to affect many technological properties of extruded products made from millets. According to Lohani and Muthukumarappan [52], extrusion increased starch digestibility, dietary fibre content, water solubility index, total phenolic content, antioxidant activity, and crispness. The biochemical properties are affected by alterations in lipids, protein matrix, and starch granules, which are influenced by processing conditions. Minor changes in the content of protein, soluble and insoluble fibre, phosphorus, and calcium may also occur during processing [53].

2.5 Roasting

Roasting is a common and traditional method used in households and rural areas to enhance the flavour of food by browning its outer layer using an open flame, an oven, or another heat source. Roasting can significantly impact the taste and aroma of millet, adding a distinct flavour profile and aroma [54]. Roasting also has beneficial effects on millet’s nutritional quality as it eliminates anti-nutritional or harmful compounds such as alkaloids, saponins, goitrogenic compounds, glycosides, hemagglutinin, and trypsin inhibitors, making millets safer for consumption [15]. Furthermore, roasting can also enhance the antioxidant activity of millets by liberating bound phenolic chemicals due to the heat treatment. Studies have shown that roasting can increase the total phenolic content of minor millet grains by 17%, demonstrating the potential use of roasted millet food items as functional foods [55]. However, it should be noted that the beneficial antioxidants present in millets may be adversely impacted by roasting. Singh et al. [56] found that roasting finger millet resulted in a decrease in moisture, protein, and fat contents by 2.67, 1.4, and 0.12%, respectively. However, the mineral content such as calcium and iron increased from 337.31 to 341.24 mg/100 g and 3.45 to 3.91 mg/100 g, respectively. Ash and crude fibre content also increased by 0.9 and 0.3%, respectively. This increase in mineral content could be due to the decrease in phytic acid content.

According to studies conducted by Yousaf et al. [41], the total phenolic content of proso millet significantly increased from 295 to 670 mg/100 g (FAE) after being roasted for 10 min at 110°C. The roasting process was suggested to promote the hydrolysis of C-glycosyl flavones, which in turn, could result in the release of phenolic compounds. However, it is important to note that while roasting can enhance the phenolic content of millets, it may also have adverse effects on other beneficial chemicals and antioxidants present in millets.

2.6 Puffing

Puffing is an ancient technique that results in crispy, porous food with an extended shelf life. Puffed snack foods are desirable due to their texture, colour, flavour, and unique shapes, making them popular among consumers. Dharshini and Meera [57] found that popping finger millet resulted in the removal of impurities, enhancing the grain’s flavour, aroma, and quality.

The process of puffing involves the gelatinization of starch, making it more soluble and easily digestible. In addition, puffing has been found to decrease the levels of anti-nutritional factors and increase the amount of dietary fibre in the final product [15]. Puffed grains have also been reported to be a rich source of minerals and phenolic compounds, making them a valuable addition to various culinary preparations. The nutritional profile of grains is significantly influenced by the puffing process. Studies evaluating different types of kodo millet have shown that puffing increases the carbohydrate content due to starch addition by the endosperm. Moreover, the increase in protein content is attributed to the hydrolysis of protein into lower-molecular-weight protein. The heat generated during the puffing process also leads to a decrease in moisture content, whereas a reduction in fat content may be attributed to the thermal processing of denatured lipolytic enzymes [31]. The puffing process has a significant impact on the beneficial properties of grains, such as their digestibility.

3.1 Promoting heart health and reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease with a minor millet diet

Millets are a rich source of magnesium, which can lower blood pressure and reduce the risk of strokes and heart attacks, especially in individuals with atherosclerosis. The potassium content of millets acts as a vasodilator, helping to regulate blood pressure and decrease the chances of developing cardiovascular diseases. These compounds have protective effects against heart disease and cancer [58]. Furthermore, the high fibre content in millets plays a critical role in reducing cholesterol levels by eliminating LDL and enhancing the effects of HDL. By incorporating millets into the diet, individuals can potentially promote heart health and reduce the risk of developing chronic diseases [59]. Various factors such as an unhealthy diet, lack of physical activity, smoking, and obesity increase the risk of heart attacks and strokes. Cardiovascular disease is currently prevalent and increasing in numerous countries worldwide. Research has revealed that rats fed with barnyard millet’s native and treated starch exhibited the lowest levels of blood glucose, serum cholesterol, and triglycerides in comparison to those given rice and other millet types. Furthermore, when genetically obese type-2 diabetic mice were on a high-fat diet, their plasma levels of adiponectin and HDL cholesterol improved upon consuming proso millet protein [34]. Millets are an excellent source of magnesium, which has been proven to alleviate migraines and reduce the risk of heart attack. Additionally, they contain various phytochemicals, such as phytic acid, which can decrease cholesterol levels. In rats with hyperlipidaemia, finger millet has been found to reduce plasma triglycerides, potentially helping to prevent cardiovascular disease [60].

3.2 Minor millets as a nutritious and low-glycaemic food choice for managing diabetes mellitus

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic illness that impacts the way the body metabolizes carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. It is the most widespread hormonal disorder and is a result of inadequate insulin production (type 1) or resistance to insulin and the insulin-producing response (type 2). The ingestion of foods abundant in magnesium, like finger millet, can enhance the efficacy of insulin and glucose receptors, thus avoiding diabetes. This is because finger millets elicit a lower glycaemic response, thanks to their rich fibre content (Figure 1) and capacity to hinder alpha-amylase, which curtails starch digestion and absorption. Diabetes mellitus is a chronic ailment marked by increased glucose levels in the bloodstream resulting from modifications in the metabolism of lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates. It is the most prevalent endocrine anomaly and may arise from inadequate insulin production (type 1) or a blend of reduced insulin secretion and insulin resistance (type 2), thereby reducing glucose regulation [61]. Ingesting diets rich in magnesium, such as those that include barnyard millet, can decrease the likelihood of developing diabetes by enhancing the function of glucose and insulin receptors. Barnyard millet contains high levels of fibre and alpha-amylase inhibitors, which minimize starch absorption and digestion, resulting in a reduced glycaemic response. The magnesium content of millet is advantageous in preventing type 2 diabetes as it regulates insulin activity by producing additional digestive enzymes for carbohydrates [62].

Figure 1

Millet components and their role in health and well-being (source: previous studies [10,11,12,13]).

While synthetic α-glucosidase and pancreatic amylase inhibitors are critical in managing postprandial hyper-glycemia, natural inhibitors may provide a safer alternative. Incorporating whole grain foods into the diet has been recommended to prevent and manage diabetes. This is supported by the observation of lower diabetes rates among populations that consume these foods. The antidiabetic effects of millet varieties’ bioactive compounds are attributed to their capacity to hinder clinically relevant digestive enzymes such as α-amylase and α-glucosidase [27]. The bioactive compounds present in millet grains exhibit antidiabetic properties by regulating glucose-induced oxidative stress and suppressing the activity of enzymes that digest starch. Protein concentrate extracted from Korean foxtail millet and proso millet has been shown to enhance glycaemic responses by reducing insulin levels and increasing plasma adiponectin and HDL cholesterol levels [63]. Populations that consume millet have reported fewer instances of diabetes. The phenolic compounds found in millet can hinder the action of enzymes such as alpha-glucosidase and pancreatic amylase, leading to a decrease in post-meal high blood sugar levels by impeding the breakdown of complex carbohydrates. Furthermore, compounds like aldose reductase function as inhibitors to prevent the build-up of sorbitol, which reduces the risk of cataracts associated with diabetes. According to the study, the consumption of finger millet by rats with diabetes can assist in managing blood sugar levels, enhancing the antioxidant status, and accelerating the recovery of skin wounds [63].

Extruded products that include pseudocereals, such as amaranth, buckwheat, and millet, have been discovered to exhibit a considerable reduction in both quickly and slowly digestible carbohydrates compared to control products. This is based on predictive in vitro glycaemic profiling. Consumption of millet has been linked to lower rates of diabetes in populations. This is due to the presence of phenolics in millet, which can hinder alpha-glucosidase and pancreatic amylase, leading to a decrease in post-meal hyper-glycemia by partly obstructing the breakdown of complex carbohydrates. Moreover, substances like aldose reductase can prevent the accumulation of sorbitol and reduce the risk of diabetes-related cataracts. According to research, finger millet intake can regulate blood sugar levels, enhance antioxidant capacity, and accelerate wound healing in diabetic rats [32].

3.3 Minor millets as a functional food for the prevention and management of gastrointestinal disorders

Studies have indicated that the consumption of minor millets can have a positive impact on digestive health, specifically in decreasing the chances of gastrointestinal disorders. The fibre content present in minor millets aids in regulating the digestive system, which can help prevent unpleasant symptoms like constipation, bloating, and cramps. Additionally, as minor millets are gluten-free, they can serve as a suitable alternative for individuals with celiac disease. By integrating minor millets into one’s diet, they can boost their overall gut health and lower the risk of developing severe gastrointestinal ailments, including colon cancer or gastric ulcers. Managing the digestive process can enhance nutrient absorption and minimize the possibility of severe gastrointestinal problems like colon cancer or gastric ulcers. The fibre content present in millets can mitigate digestive issues like bloating, cramping, constipation, and excess gas. Those who have celiac disease, a gluten-triggered enteropathy condition related to the immune system, must stick to a gluten-free diet, which considerably limits their grain-based food options. Although wheat, barley, and rye are rich in gluten, swapping them with gluten-free substitutes like quinoa, buckwheat, amaranth, sorghum, corn, and wild rice can be helpful for individuals who need to follow a gluten-free diet. Millet, being naturally gluten-free, has enormous potential in the food industry to meet the rising demand for gluten-free alternatives. This makes it an excellent choice for individuals who have celiac disease [62].

3.4 Minor millets as an anti-cancer food choice

Millets contain beneficial compounds, such as phytate, tannins, and phenolic acids, that have been linked to a decreased risk of colon and breast cancer in animal studies. Studies have suggested that the consumption of millet and sorghum, which are rich in fibre and phenolic compounds, may lead to a lower occurrence of oesophageal cancer compared to consuming wheat or maize. Furthermore, research has indicated that consuming over 30 g of fibre per day can significantly reduce the risk of breast cancer in women by more than half [27]. Although commonly referred to as “anti-nutrients,” the existence of phenolic acids, tannins, and phytate in millets has demonstrated their ability to guard against cancer in vitro. A few studies have indicated that the components present in millets, namely phenolic acids, tannins, and phytate, can potentially lower the probability of specific cancers, including colon and breast cancer [62,64]. According to research, millets contain high amounts of phenolic acids, phytates, and tannins, which are considered anti-nutrients. These anti-nutrients have been found to decrease the risk of colon and breast cancer. The phenolics present in millets have also been found to be effective in preventing cancer initiation and progression in vitro [50]. Millets contain antioxidants that have multiple benefits. Besides counteracting cancer-causing free radicals, these grains can eliminate various toxins found in the liver and kidneys. Quercetin, curcumin, ellagic acid, and other catechins found in these grains help remove foreign substances and toxins from the body. This is achieved by promoting the appropriate elimination of toxins and neutralizing enzyme activity present in these organs.

3.5 Detoxifying the body with minor millets

Millets have a variety of antioxidants, such as curcumin, quercetin, ellagic acid, and catechins, which can help eliminate free radicals and toxins from the liver and kidneys. The significance of polyphenols in human health has gained more attention, and studies have demonstrated that both soluble and insoluble phenolic extracts from different millet types possess antioxidant, metal-chelating, and reducing abilities. The hydrolysates of protein obtained from foxtail millet that has been defatted were discovered to possess significant antioxidant capabilities. These results imply that millets have the potential to act as a natural antioxidant source in food products and can also be used as a nutraceutical and functional food component to enhance health and lower the probability of developing diseases [2]. Millets possess a variety of nutraceutical properties that can enhance human health, including decreasing blood pressure, lowering the chance of heart disease, preventing cancer and cardiovascular conditions, managing diabetes, and reducing the incidence of tumours. These benefits can be attributed to the presence of antioxidants like phenolics and flavonoids, which can function as chelators of metal ions and safeguard against cellular damage caused by free radicals. Studies have revealed that phenolic extracts from diverse millet strains possess antioxidant features and exhibit anti-cancer effects by eliminating peroxyl and hydroxyl radicals. These findings underline the potential of millet as a valuable source of antioxidants that promote good health [65].

3.6 Minor millets as prebiotics

Millets possess prebiotic features which encourage the growth of beneficial gut microorganisms. These characteristics, combined with their abundant fibre content, also aid in preventing digestive difficulties like constipation. Research has shown that millet foods have the potential to act as prebiotics, boosting the effectiveness of probiotics and leading to significant health benefits. The combination of millets and probiotics can create a synergistic or synbiotic effect. Several millet’s bran and seed coats contain constituents such as arabinoxylans, inulin, and xylo-oligosaccharides having prebiotic potential. These prebiotics stimulate probiotic strains and increase their antibacterial and antioxidant activities. By producing short-chain fatty acids, the xylo-oligosaccharides isolated from millet of Lactobacillus planatarum were discovered to have considerable prebiotic activity and to inhibit four pathogenic microorganisms. By enhancing the intestinal microbiota, prebiotics improve the health of their hosts by boosting their immune systems and preventing the spread of harmful microbes [66]. It has been suggested that the novel malignant phenotype where tumours start is chronic inflammation. There have been reports of millet-derived substances having anti-inflammatory effects in both in vitro and in vivo experimental settings. Prebiotics are substances in food that cannot be broken down and absorbed in the digestive system. They work by promoting the growth and activity of certain beneficial bacteria in the colon. Whole grain millet has been shown to have prebiotic effects, as the malting process leads to positive changes in its composition that support the growth of digestive-aiding bacteria [32].

The increase in the desire for gluten-free grains has led to growth in the popularity of millets. Millets are not only gluten-free but also one of the least allergenic grains, which can alkalize the body. This makes them an excellent choice for individuals who have food sensitivities or allergies. Traditional gluten-free millet products include pasta, injera, sourdough bread, non-sourdough bread, cookies, extruded foods, fat substitutes, and other eating foods [67]. Vegetarians have greatly appreciated millets for their rich protein content. These grains possess a lower glycaemic index and also comprise lignans that can potentially reduce the chances of breast cancer and heart disease. Millets are also a source of niacin (vitamin B3), which helps regulate cholesterol levels. Additionally, they are alkaline-forming foods, which are recommended for maintaining optimal health and preventing illness by balancing digestive enzymes. Vegetarians have greatly appreciated millets for their rich protein content. These grains possess a lower glycaemic index and also comprise lignans that can potentially reduce the chances of breast cancer and heart disease [68].

3.7 Minor millets in promoting healthy weight and preventing obesity

There is no direct correlation between millets and obesity. In fact, millets have been promoted as a nutritious alternative to wheat-based foods, especially for those with gluten sensitivity or food allergies. Millets are abundant in protein, fibre, and micronutrients, making them an excellent addition to a well-balanced diet. However, overeating calories can lead to weight gain, regardless of the origin of the calories. Ingesting a diet with an elevated number of calories, whether it originates from millets or any other food source, can potentially lead to weight gain and the onset of obesity. To uphold a healthy weight, it is imperative to have a well-balanced diet that comprises diverse types of food in appropriate amounts and participate in consistent physical exercise [12]. Including millets in a nutritious diet is beneficial, but it is crucial to bear in mind that excessive consumption, even of healthy foods, should be avoided by practicing moderation. In India, obesity is a significant concern that is linked to several chronic illnesses like diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. Studies have demonstrated that a diet rich in fibre can help reduce the risk of obesity. Consuming diets that are high in fibre can enhance the performance of the colon and decrease the occurrence of chronic ailments by improving digestion and absorption. Millet, a grain with abundant dietary fibre and distinct chemical and physical characteristics, including food content, consistency, hydration, and absorption capacity, has a significant impact on bodily functions. It aids in the suppression of appetite, promotes feelings of fullness, and, as a result, lowers the likelihood of becoming overweight [24]. In India, obesity is a significant new challenge and is linked to various long-term illnesses such as diabetes and CVD. However, consuming a diet high in dietary fibre can lower the occurrence of obesity. Consuming foods that are rich in dietary fibre can improve the function of the digestive system and slow down the process of digestion and absorption. This can help to reduce the risk of developing chronic illnesses [29].

3.8 Millets and celiac disease

Celiac disease is a common genetic condition where people with a genetic predisposition react to the gluten proteins found in wheat and other cereals. This results in a harmful immune response to gluten, causing severe abdominal pain. For those with celiac disease, millet can be a healthy option as it is gluten-free. Research indicates that prolonged consumption of millet-based food items does not have an impact on the levels of anti-transglutaminase antibodies. People who have celiac disease experience an immune reaction when they ingest gluten, which results in the assault of the small intestine, causing harm to the finger-shaped structures called villi that are accountable for soaking up nutrients. If villi are damaged, the body is unable to absorb the necessary nutrients [24]. With the increasing desire for unique, delicious, and healthy food options, combined with the growing number of individuals with celiac disease, a new market has emerged for cereal products that are produced using grains besides wheat and rye. The competition in this market has led to the rise in popularity of oats, sorghum, and millet. A prevalent lifelong condition known as celiac disease, caused by the consumption of gluten in vulnerable individuals, is widespread globally. Previously, it was thought to be a rare condition primarily affecting European children [34]. Celiac disease is a hereditary condition that is activated by ingesting gluten. Being devoid of gluten, millets can alleviate celiac disease symptoms by decreasing the inflammation caused by conventional cereal grains containing gluten [34]. Regulating the digestive system can improve nutrient absorption and reduce the chances of developing serious gastrointestinal conditions like gastric ulcers and colon cancer. Millet’s significant fibre content can assist in the relief of constipation, bloating, excessive gas, and cramps. Celiac disease, an immune-triggered intestinal condition, is often set off by the consumption of gluten in susceptible individuals, serving as another illustration [1].

3.9 Millets and aging

The process known as nonenzymatic glycosylation, which involves the chemical reaction between the amino group of proteins and the aldehyde group of reducing sugars, is a significant contributor to the complications associated with diabetes and aging. Millet grains are abundant in phenolics and antioxidants, and although they contain substances such as phytates, tannins, and phenols that may play a role in promoting healthy aging and combating metabolic syndrome, they also have potential antioxidant properties. According to research, extracts derived from finger millet and kodo millet in methanol can hinder the glycation and cross-linking of collagen, which suggests that these millets can safeguard against aging [69]. Non-enzymatic glycosylation, a chemical reaction between protein amino groups and reducing sugars’ aldehyde groups, is involved in this process. This process is a significant contributor to the complications associated with diabetes and aging. Millets contain high amounts of antioxidants and phenolic compounds such as phytates, phenols, and tannins that may have a beneficial effect on health, aging, and metabolic syndrome by contributing to their antioxidant activity. The process known as non-enzymatic glycosylation is a chemical reaction that occurs between the amino groups found in proteins and the aldehyde reduction group present in sugars. This reaction is a major contributor to both the aging process and the development of diabetes. Kodo millet and other types of millets contain antioxidants and phenolics, including tannins, phytates, and phenols, that can provide beneficial antioxidant properties for health, metabolic syndrome, and the aging process [70].

3.10 Antimicrobial activity of millets

Millet seeds contain diverse secondary metabolites that display a broad range of biological characteristics. These bioactive secondary metabolites, including phenolic and flavonoid compounds found in different varieties of millet, demonstrate antibacterial and antifungal effects [27]. The phenolic compounds present in finger millet grains possess strong antimicrobial properties, which make them a promising alternative to conventional pharmaceuticals for treating a range of bacterial and fungal infections. When compared to the extract from the entire flour, the extract derived from the seed coat demonstrated stronger antimicrobial effects against Bacillus cereus and Aspergillus flavus [71]. Hence, natural alternatives like phenolic acid extracts and other bioactive components can potentially be utilized for food preservation and therapeutic purposes. It has been proven that millet fractions and extracts possess antimicrobial properties. In a controlled experiment, researchers tested seed protein extracts from different types of millets (such as sorghum, Japanese barnyard millet, foxtail millet, samai millet, and pearl millet) to see if they could inhibit the growth of three types of harmful fungi: Rhizoctonia solani, Macrophomina phaseolina, and Fusarium oxysporum. The results showed that the protein extracts from pearl millet were the most successful at preventing the growth of all three types of fungi [72].