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Forage yield, seed, and forage qualitative traits evaluation by determining the optimal forage harvesting stage in dual-purpose cultivation in safflower varieties (Carthamus tinctorius L.)

  • Mohammad Hadi Kargar , Saeed Sayfzadeh EMAIL logo , Hamid Jabari , Hamid Reza Zakerin and Farid Golzardi
Published/Copyright: May 8, 2024
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Open Agriculture
From the journal Open Agriculture Volume 9 Issue 1

Abstract

Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.), adapted to arid and semiarid regions, is grown for seed and petal production, but the present study aimed to evaluate the possibility of simultaneous forage and seed production in the autumn and middle types of safflower varieties in dual-purpose cultivation in semiarid areas in the shortfall forage period. An experiment was done based on a randomized complete block design with nine treatments and three replications at the Seed and Plant Improvement Institute, Agriculture Research, Education and Extension Organization, Karaj, Iran. The treatments included the cultivation of Parnian, Goldasht, and Golmehr varieties with the purpose of seed harvesting as control treatments; the same varieties (Parnian, Goldasht, and Golmehr), once with the aim of forage harvesting at 50% stem elongation stage and seed harvesting; and again with the aim of forage harvesting at 50% branching stage and seed harvesting. The results showed that forage harvesting at the 50% branching stage significantly increased the dry and fresh forage yield compared to the 50% stem elongation stage. The highest fresh and dry forage yields (DFY) (42,229 and 11,266 kg/ha) were related to the Golmehr variety at the 50% branching stage. Forage harvesting at the stem elongation stage decreased the crude protein, protein content, and digestibility compared to the branching stage in three safflower varieties. Parnian variety had the maximum seed yield (2,226 kg/ha) without forage harvesting. The highest seed yield in the second year (2018–2019) of the experiment belonged to the Golmehr variety (1,310 kg/ha) to harvest forage at 50% stem elongation (rapid stem growth) and seed harvest treatment, which compared to the first year (2017–2018), showed an increase of 25%. Finally, the forage harvested amount of all three varieties studied was higher in the branching stage than in the stem elongation stage. These results implied that the Golmehr variety (11,266 kg/ha DFY and 520 kg/ha seed yield) is for dual-purpose cultivation, and the Parnian variety (2,226 kg/ha seed yield) is suitable for only seed production for the semiarid region of Karaj in Iran and similar areas in terms of climate.

Keywords: branching stage; forage quantitative and qualitative yield; harvest stage; safflower; stem elongation stage

Abbreviations

ADF

acid detergent fiber

BHBH

bush height before forage harvest

BHPM

bush height at re-growth in the physiological maturity stage

CF

crude fiber

Cp

crude protein

DDM

digestible dry matter

DE

digestible energy

DFY

dry forage yield

DMI

dry matter intake

DP

digestible protein

FFY

fresh forage yield

NDF

neutral detergent fiber

NEL

net energy of lactation

RFV

relative feed value

TDN

total digestible nutrients

WSC

water-soluble carbohydrate

1 Introduction

Global requests for animal products will increase by 70% in 2050 compared to 2000, originating from universal population growth, increasing incomes, and urbanization. In the meantime, the increase in production, including the production of animal sources, strengthens the investigation of more efficient use of housing technologies and feed resources [1]. On the other hand, improving the sustainability of dairy products can be achieved by reducing the harm or negative impacts associated with dairy [2]. According to this opinion, producing sufficiently high-quality forage in the shortfall period during April in the semiarid regions of Karaj in Iran and similar areas in terms of climate as a negative effect on the production of dairy products is a way to overcome this challenge. Meanwhile, oilseed crops such as safflower have a remarkable role in fulfilling the energy requirements for humans and livestock [3]. Dual-purpose safflower genotypes were used to achieve research goals (autumn and mid-season safflower varieties). These genotypes can produce seeds and forage at the same time [4]. These varieties can be used as fresh forage (immediately harvested), silage forage (harvested at the end of the soft pulp stage), or seed harvesting [5].

Among edible oils for human beings, safflower seeds are one of the richest sources of unsaturated fatty acids like linoleic acid [3]. In addition to oil, this plant can also be used for animal feed [6]. It has been reported to be suitable for ruminant feed due to its high digestibility and significant dry matter forage yields of up to 22 t/ha [7]. It can be forage-grazed directly by livestock or preserved by ensiling or hay-making [8]. Compared to alfalfa-grass hay or a blend of vetch and oats, safflower forage has been effectively employed as the only feeding for various animals without negatively impacting dairy performance [9]. When picked between mid-budding and early flowering stages, safflower is an excellent feed because it is less thorny and, thus, more appealing to animals [10]. Safflower is often grown on low-fertility soils with few inputs and no irrigation [11].

Safflower has been cultivated successfully in dry and semiarid regions with finite water since it is a tap-rooted and drought-resistant plant [12]. Also, Aloe vera and Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) are no exception due to their tolerance potential as xerophytes [13,14]. It is one of the most adapted oilseed crops to dryland cropping systems [15]. Safflower has a higher feed value in dry conditions and stays green, making it an attractive forage in Mediterranean settings [9]. Therefore, it can be an essential forage for arid agro-climatic conditions due to its drought tolerance and good forage quality [16].

Nevertheless, it is sensitive to dry soil conditions in which kernel filling (flowering) is affected by water stress conditions [15]. To improve plant productivity, it is substantial to supply adequate water and nutrient acquisition in semiarid regions, typically characterized by variable and unpredictable rainfall, wide daily temperature ranges, frequent strong winds, and poor moisture-storing capacity of soils [17].

Forage analysis standard characteristics, such as neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and acid detergent fiber (ADF), are key forage quality evaluation attributes. The ADF content is a strong indicator of forage digestibility, while NDF is the indicator to determine intake potential [18–20]. The relative feed value (RFV) is an index that determines the consumption rate and the produced energy value and is used for comparing the forage quality in different varieties and treatments; the higher the RFV, the higher the forage quality [21].

The safflower green forage digestibility and intake have been evaluated mixed with vetch–oats in sheep as confined [22]. Safflower is an excellent source of nutrition for ruminants [16]. Forage crops are usually harvested to achieve the desired balance between yield and nutritional value. The forage quantity and quality are affected by several factors like varieties, harvesting time, harvesting, and storage methods, and the quality of forage in different parts of the plant is significantly different [19]. The harvest stage has a significant impact on safflower forage yield and quality [23,24].

Jabari et al. [25] examined the effects of harvesting time on the quantitative and qualitative of safflower. According to their results, the crude protein (Cp) content of safflower forage varied between 9 and 21% of dry matter, partly as a function of the growth days.

The forage digestibility decreases with further plant development and maturity because of the polymerization of water-soluble carbohydrates (WSCs) through cell wall lignification metabolism [26,27]. Previously, the early flowering stage has been reported as the appropriate harvesting time to achieve optimal safflower forage yield and quality [28]. However, there is a lack of information on the appropriate harvesting stage of safflower forage, the dual-purpose cultivation of safflower, and the simultaneous production of feed and seed.

Therefore, the present study aimed to evaluate seed yield potential and safflower varieties forage by determining the optimal forage harvesting stage in a dual-purpose cultivation system.

2 Materials and methods

This study was conducted as 2-year experiments at the Research Farm of Seed and Plant Improvement Institute, Karaj, Iran (35°47′19″N, 51°12′43″E, 1,322 m) during the cultivation seasons of 2017–2019. The studied area has a semiarid climate with an average annual rainfall of 243 mm (based on 30 years of meteorological data from Alborz province) and average maximum and minimum daily temperatures of 30 and 1°C, respectively. Local climatic and edaphic data are presented in Figure 1 and Table 1, respectively. Rainfall and temperature information was received through Alborz province, Iran’s automatic agriculture meteorological research station. This research used spineless varieties (Goldasht, Golmehr, and Parnian). The characteristics of the studied varieties are shown in Table 2.

Figure 1 Rainfall and mean air temperature at the experimental site during 2017–2019.
Figure 1

Rainfall and mean air temperature at the experimental site during 2017–2019.

Table 1

Soil physicochemical properties for a field experiment carried out in Karaj, Iran

Cropping year Soil depth (cm) Sand (%) Clay (%) Silt (%) Soil texture pH EC (ds/m) OC (%) N (%) P (ppm) K (ppm)
2017–2018 0–30 18 30 52 Silty clay loam 7.24 2.22 0.51 0.12 8.4 570
2018–2019 0–30 20 32 48 Silty clay loam 7.8 1.0 0.58 0.14 8.2 460

Abbreviations: pH: potential of hydrogen; EC: electrical conductivity; OC: organic carbon; N: nitrogen; P: phosphorus; K: potassium; ppm: parts per million.

Table 2

Some agronomic characteristics and phenological of the three safflower varieties under study [44,69]

Agronomic characteristics Variety
Goldasht Golmehr Parnian
Growth habit Spring (Cold-tolerant) Autumn Intermediate
Flower color Red Red White
Thorn condition Without thorns Without thorns Without thorns
Height (cm) 130–150 150–180 140–160
Stem diameter (mm) 9.42 16.62 8.17
Head diameter (mm) 35.8 27.9 29
Number of sub-branches 8 8 8
Average grain yield (kg/ha) 1,700–2,000 2,700–2,900 2,800–3,000
Thousand grain weight (g) 35–40 25–30 39–40
Seed oil content (%) 24–25 25–27 24–25
Seed shattering resistance Resistant Resistant Resistant
Reaction to cold Tolerant Tolerant Tolerant
Days until flowering (days) 213 221 213
Growing degree days until flowering 1,282 1,383 1,282
Physiological maturity Early maturity Late maturity Early maturity

Abbreviations: cm: centimeter; mm: millimeter; kg/ha: kilogram per hectare; g: gram.

The experiment was conducted over 2 years using a randomized complete block design with nine treatments and three replications, as described below.

Parnian, Goldasht, and Golmehr varieties were considered only with the aim of seed harvesting (as controls); the same varieties once for forage harvesting in 50% stem elongation stage, and then seed harvesting, and again for forage harvesting in the 50% branching stage, and then seed harvesting.

Before planting (October 12, 2017, and 2019), the field was disked and tilled to prepare a seedbed, and according to the soil test data (Table 1), the amount of fertilizer required for each experimental plot was calculated based on 100 kg/ha phosphate of ammonium and 50 kg/ha urea fertilizer mixed with soil, which was used simultaneously before being plowed once and harrowed twice. Potassium fertilizer was not used because the amount of absorbable potassium in the soil was higher than the critical level (Table 1). The plots consisted of four planting lines of 4 m. The sowing machine was used for planting on October 12, 2017, and in 2019. Planting was done in two rows on stacks with a width of 60 cm (row distance of 30 cm). The space between plants on rows was 4 cm, 30 kg of seed was utilized per hectare, and the ultimate plant density was 83 p/m2.

During the rosette stage (six leaves), Haloxyfop-R-Methyl EC 10.8% w/v (Gallant supper) herbicide was used at a ratio of 1:1,000 to fight narrow-leaved weeds. Safflower fly was a problem, even though the available varieties did not suffer from any particular disease.

During the growth period, Diazinon 60% EC (Basudin) was used to the extent of 1 l/ha to control the safflower fly (Acanthiophilus helianthi L.).

Collecting forage samples in spring (in April and May), depending on the type of treatment in the 50% stem elongation or 50% branching stages, to measure the fresh and dry forage yield (DFY) was done by removing the marginal effects (first and last rows, half a meter above and below each experimental plot). For this purpose, cutting was done from a height of 20 cm above the crown using scissors from the two middle rows (four planting lines) with a length of 3 m. The volume of the collected sample was 3.6 m−2 from each experimental plot. The time of 50% elongation of the stem is determined by observing the first internode with a length of 1 cm in 50% of the plants in each plot. “After the stem elongation stage is the “branching” stage where branching occurs, so the time of 50% branching was determined by observing branching at an angle of 30–70° in 50% of the plants in each plot” [29].

Immediately, fresh forage yield (FFY) weight was determined with an accurate scale, and after being oven-dried at 70°C until constant weight, the dry matter yield of the forage was determined.

To measure bush height, the number of ten plants in each plot was randomly selected, and the bush height from the crown to the end of the inflorescence was measured using a ruler in centimeters in two stages: first, before the collection of forage samples and again after re-growth, were carried out at the physiological maturity stage. “Physiological maturity time is when the heads turn yellow, and only traces of green can be seen on the bracts” [29].

After collecting samples in forage harvest treatments, urea fertilizer (at 70 kg/ha) was used once to improve seed production. Also, irrigation was done three times with a furrow irrigation system (each time with a volume of 670 m−3 with a time interval of 7 days). Bush height was assessed twice: first before forage harvest at branching (bush height before forage harvest [BHBH]) and second following re-growth in physiological maturity (bush height at re-growth in the physiological maturity stage [BHPM]).

The harvesting of safflower varieties to determine the seed yield at the harvested maturity stage in July (July 16, 2017, and 2019) was carried out by hand on an area equal to 3.6 m−2. Also, the threshing operation and the determination of seed yield were carried out by hand. In the harvested maturity, 75% of the heads are entirely brown, and the grains are easily separated from them [29].

The percentage of forage ash was determined using an electric furnace and the following formula [30] (equation (1)):

(1) % Ash = W 3 − W 1 W 2 − W 1 × 100 ,

where W 1 is the plant weight, W 2 is the plant weight and dry matter plant, and W 3 is the plant weight and ash (in g).

Digestible dry matter (DDM) was assessed by a two-step digestion method [31]. The dry tissue Cp content was determined using the Kjeldahl method. Its ADF, NDF, WSC, and crude fiber (CF) contents were determined according to Soest [32], and the ash content was measured by burning the samples at 500°C for 5 h [32]. RFV (%), dry matter intake (DMI, % of body weight), total digestible nutrients (TDN, % of DM), and net energy of lactation (NEL, Mcal/kg DM) were calculated using the following equations (equations (2)–(6)) [33,34]:

(2) RFV = DDM ×  DMI × 0.775 ,

(3) DDM = 88.9 − ( 0.779 × ADF )

(4) DMI = 120 / NDF ,

(5) TDN = ( − 1.291 × ADF ) + 101.35 ,

(6) NEL = ( 1.044 − ( 0.0119 × ADF ) ) × 2.205 .

Digestible protein (DP, % of DM) and digestible energy (DE, Mcal/kg DM) were calculated using the following equations (equations (7) and (8)) [35]:

(7) DP  = ( Crude protein × 0.9 ) – 3 ,

(8) DE  = TDN × 0.04409 .

2.1 Statistical method

After the Bartlett test was carried out to check the uniformity of data variance and test assumptions for the variance analysis, a composite analysis of variance was carried out, including the normalization of the data, the normal distribution of the test’s remaining errors, and the error uniformity test (p = 0.05) [36]. Analyses of variance were performed using the Statistical Analysis System software v9.1 package (SAS Institute, Cary, NC, USA) with six treatments for forage quality traits and nine treatments for grain yield. The treatment mean values were compared using Duncan’s multiple range test tests at a 0.05 probability level.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Bush height

The ANOVA results showed that, except for the interaction effect of cultivar*year, the year (p value = 0.05) and the variety (p value = 0.01) significantly affected BHBH (Table 3). BHBH in the second cropping year (124.8 cm) increased by 4.25% compared to the first year (119.5 cm; Table 4). Low temperatures, particularly in April, May, and June, along with increased rainfall in the second year, have proved beneficial in raising the bush height (Figure 1). These results are in agreement with those of Sefaoglu and Ozer [37].

Table 3

ANOVA for some quantitative traits of three safflower varieties (Goldasht, Golmehr, Parnian)

Source of variation df Mean squares
BHBH BHPM FFY DFY
Year 1 256.0* 144.0** 619,113,924ns 27,027,868*
Rep (year) 4 27.1 5.5 200,285,383 2,999,357
Variety 5 1259.5** 578.5** 108,556,530** 5,019,352**
Variety * year 5 7.6ns 4.8ns 3,813,966ns 592,818ns
Error 20 22.6 13.0 3,721,799 772,523
C.V. (%) — 3.8 8.1 5.4 8.6
Source of variance df CP WSC ADF Mean squares
NDF CF Ash DP SD
Year 1 0.2ns 1.4ns 6.3ns 7.6ns 10.3ns 0.17* 0.18ns 1775,978**
Rep (year) 4 7.9 6.14 3.6 2.0 24.8 0.2 6.39 39,421
Variety 5 28.6* 53.19** 59.9** 33.7ns 219.8* 0.78** 23.20* 3721,193**
Variety * year 5 0.1ns 0.1ns 0.9ns 3.2ns 1.1ns 0.2ns 0.1ns 449,848**
Error 20 10.3 4.1 10.3 13.1 41.1 0.18 8.3 27,494
C.V. (%) — 18.3 16.8 9.6 11.4 10.7 4.2 22.7 5.16

*, **, and ns mean significant at 5 and 1% probability level and non-significant, respectively.

Abbreviations: df: degrees of freedom; Rep: replication; C.V.: coefficient of variation; BHBH: bush height before forage harvest; BHPM: bush height at re-growth in the physiological maturity stage; FFY: fresh forage yield; DFY: dry forage yield.

Abbreviations: Cp: Crude protein; WSC: water-soluble carbohydrate; ADF: acid detergent fiber; NDF: neutral detergent fiber; CF: crude fiber; DP: digestible protein; SD: seed yield.

Table 4

ANOVA of the effect of harvesting time of safflower varieties on the trait of seed yield

Source of variation df Mean squares Seed yield
Year 1 1,775,978**
Replication (year) 4 39,421
Treatments 8 3,721,193**
Year * treatments 8 449,848**
Error 32 27,494
C.V. (%) — 5.16

*, **, mean significant at 5 and 1% probability level, and non-significant, respectively.

Abbreviations: df: degrees of freedom; Rep: replication; C.V.: coefficient of variation.

The Goldasht variety, collected during the stem-elongation stage, had the shortest bush height (102.50 cm), and the Golmehr and Parnian varieties (harvested during the branching stage) had the greatest BHBH (p = 0.05) (Figure 2). The superior height of the Golmehr variety compared to other varieties is due to its genetic potential. The results are in agreement with those of Bahadorkhah and Kazameini [38].

Figure 2 BHBH (stem elongation, branching) and at plant re-growth at maturity for three safflower varieties (Goldasht, Golmehr, Parnian). Mean values having similar letters have no significant difference at a 5% probability level (Duncan’s test). Data are the mean of 2 years.
Figure 2

BHBH (stem elongation, branching) and at plant re-growth at maturity for three safflower varieties (Goldasht, Golmehr, Parnian). Mean values having similar letters have no significant difference at a 5% probability level (Duncan’s test). Data are the mean of 2 years.

Year and variety significantly affected BHPM (Table 3). When the bush height is compared over the years analyzed, there is an increase in this attribute in the second year following re-growth (Table 5). The occurrence of more rainfall in the second year was effective in increasing the height of the plant (Figure 2).

Table 5

Effect of cropping year on BHBH, bush height at plant re-growth, seed yield, and plant ash content

Cropping year BHBH BHPM ASH
(cm) (%)
1st year 119.5b 42.3b 10.2a
2nd year 124.8a 46.3a 10b

Data are the mean of three varieties.

Within each column, mean values having similar letters have no significant difference at a 5% probability level (Duncan´s test).

Abbreviations: BHBH: bush height before forage harvest at branching; BHPM: Bush height at re-growth in the physiological maturity stage; ASH: plant ash content; cm: centimeter.

The Golmehr variety harvested at the stem elongation stage had the highest BHPM (59.6 cm), which indicates a 15.2% increase compared to the Golmehr variety harvested at the branching stage (50.6 cm) (Figure 2). Mousavi-Ojagh [39] reported that various safflower varieties have different bush heights. He stated that Iranian native and commercial varieties (Soffeh, Parnian, and Golmehr) had the highest bush height. This is consistent with our results. Furthermore, Rahmani [40] reported a significant difference among Iranian safflower varieties from the point of view of bush height. The results of this study indicated that Golmehr and Goldasht had the lowest plant height, with 142.41 and 111.57 cm, respectively.

3.2 Forage and seed yield

The results of ANOVA showed that the varieties significantly affected FFY (p = 0.01), while year and variety × year interaction had no significant effect on this trait (Table 3). DFY was affected by year (p = 0.05) and variety (p = 0.01). Variety × year interaction effect on dry forage production was meaningless (Table 3). Safflower dry matter yield ranges from 3.5 to 8 t/ha [41,42].

Golmehr variety at the branching stage had the highest FFY by 42,229 kg/ha, which had a statistically significant difference from other varieties (Figure 3). The highest DFY was related to the Golmehr variety at the 50% branching stage at the rate of 11,266 kg/ha, which had a statistically significant difference from the other varieties (Figure 4).

Figure 3 FFY for three safflower varieties (Goldasht, Golmehr, Parnian). Mean values having similar letters have no significant difference at a 5% probability level (Duncan’s test). Data are the mean of 2 years.
Figure 3

FFY for three safflower varieties (Goldasht, Golmehr, Parnian). Mean values having similar letters have no significant difference at a 5% probability level (Duncan’s test). Data are the mean of 2 years.

Figure 4 DFY for three safflower varieties (Goldasht, Golmehr, Parnian). Mean values having similar letters have no significant difference at a 5% probability level (Duncan´s test). Data are the mean of 2 years.
Figure 4

DFY for three safflower varieties (Goldasht, Golmehr, Parnian). Mean values having similar letters have no significant difference at a 5% probability level (Duncan´s test). Data are the mean of 2 years.

Harvesting forage at the 50% branching stage caused a significant increase in the FFY of the studied varieties compared to the 50% stem elongation stage (Figure 3). The same was true for DFY (Figure 4). Varieties at the 50% stem elongation stage did not differ significantly in FFY and DFY (Figure 3).

Cazzato et al. [43] examined the effect of harvest date at three different stages of safflower (the appearance of primary buds, the appearance of secondary and tertiary buds, and 25% of the flowering stage) in southern Italy. They reported that the DFY of safflower ranged from 4.5 t/ha (primary buds) to 11.6 t/ha (25% of the flowering stage).

The results of ANOVA showed that the effects of year, variety, and year × variety interaction on the safflower seed yield were significant (Table 3). The highest seed yield in both years of the experiment (2,226 and 2,215 kg/ha, respectively) in treatments without forage harvesting was obtained in the Parnian variety (Figures 5 and 6). The mentioned variety had a higher yield than the Golmehr and Goldasht varieties in both years of the experiment (Figures 5 and 6).

Figure 5 The mean comparison interaction effects of the year and variety on seed yield of three safflower varieties (Goldasht, Golmehr, Parnian) during the first year. Mean values having similar letters have no significant difference at a 5% probability level (Duncan’s test).
Figure 5

The mean comparison interaction effects of the year and variety on seed yield of three safflower varieties (Goldasht, Golmehr, Parnian) during the first year. Mean values having similar letters have no significant difference at a 5% probability level (Duncan’s test).

Figure 6 The mean comparison interaction effects of the year and variety on seed yield of three safflower varieties (Goldasht, Golmehr, Parnian) during the second year. Mean values having similar letters have no significant difference at a 5% probability level (Duncan’s test).
Figure 6

The mean comparison interaction effects of the year and variety on seed yield of three safflower varieties (Goldasht, Golmehr, Parnian) during the second year. Mean values having similar letters have no significant difference at a 5% probability level (Duncan’s test).

It seems that the reason for the superiority of the Parnian variety is the genetic potential of this variety, which has produced the highest seed yield compared to other studied varieties (Table 2). Similar results were obtained by Jabari et al. [44].

The highest seed yield in the second year (2018–2019) of the experiment belonged to the Golmehr variety (1,310 kg/ha) with the purpose of harvesting forage at 50% stem elongation (rapid stem growth) and seed harvest, which compared to the first year (2017–2018), showed an increase of 25% (Figures 5 and 6). The occurrence of more rainfall in the second year was effective in increasing the seed yield (Figure 1).

Due to late maturity, the Golmehr variety had more time to reach physiological maturity and produced the highest seed yield than other studied varieties (Table 2). The lateness of the Golmehr variety compared to others is related to its genetic potential (Table 2). Late maturity has led to an increase in the use of environmental factors (light, temperature, humidity, and nutrients), and the plant has produced more plant materials with more photosynthesis, which has led to improved yield [45].

In this connection, it is stated that the seed yield of safflower in rain-fed conditions is 1,500 kg/ha [46]. Also, the role of the number and intensity of rainfall in the yield of agricultural products has been mentioned [47].

According to the results, compared to dual-purpose cultivation, the seed yield in the treatments without forage harvesting was significantly higher in the studied varieties. The reason is that the growth tips are left intact, and no biomass is removed. A decrease in seed yield after forage harvesting has also been reported by Neely et al. [48].

For all varieties, the seed yield obtained from forage harvesting in the branching stage was less than that in the stem elongation stage (Figures 5 and 6). In agreement with these results, Begna et al. [49] reported that forage harvesting reduced seed yield even before bolting. Low seed yield in the treatment of forage harvesting at the branching stage could be due to the plant's less opportunity for re-growth and closer to the reproductive stage (flowering) to compensate for forage harvest damage.

The lower yields of the re-growth at harvesting in the 50% branching stage are probably associated with the consumption of WSCs for supplying energy for plant maintenance (Table 6). A similar yield reduction during re-growth was also observed in other sorghum varieties [50].

Table 6

Forage quality indices for three safflower varieties (Goldasht, Golmehr, and Parnian)

Treatments CP WSC CF Ash
(%)
Goldasht; stem elongation 16.4b 15.7a 29.8b 10.2ab
Goldasht; branching 19.2a 13.2bc 35.5a 10.6a
Golmehr; stem elongation 16.6b 8.5d 32.0ab 9.5c
Golmehr; branching 19.8a 8.4d 31.5ab 10.3ab
Parnian; stem elongation 13.9c 14.0ab 28.6b 10.0bc
Parnian; branching 18.5ab 11.8c 32.0ab 10.1ab

Data are the mean of two experimental years.

Within each column, mean values having similar letters have no significant difference at 5% probability level (Duncan´s test).

Abbreviations: CP: crude protein; WSC: water-soluble carbohydrate; CF: crude fiber.

3.3 Forage quality

The results of ANOVA showed that the effect of the year was significant only on the amount of plant ash content (p = 0.05) and had no significant impact on the other studied quality parameters (Table 3). The mean comparison results of the effect of cropping year on plant ash content showed that the ash content in the second year significantly decreased compared to the first year (10.2 compared to 10%) (Table 5).

According to the results presented in Table 3, the safflower varieties harvested at different stages significantly affected forage quality indices, except for NDF. The forage quality assessment in different harvesting stages showed that Cp forage in the branching stage was higher than in the stem elongation stage (Table 6).

The highest protein content obtained in the Golmehr variety was harvested at the branching stage by 19.8%, which had no significant difference from Goldasht treatments (19.2%) and Parnian harvested at the branching stage (18.5%) (Table 6). Plant harvesting at the stem elongation stage diminished the protein content in studied safflower varieties (Table 6). When the leaf-to-stem ratio has decreased, Cp production has also fallen [51].

Furthermore, data revealed that delaying plant harvesting produced a considerable drop in safflower plant WSC concentration, with Goldasht and Parnian varieties (early maturity varieties) having the highest WSC content by 15.7 and 14%, respectively, while Golmehr varieties (late maturity variety) had the lowest WSC content at both harvesting stages (8.4% at branching and 8.5% at stem elongation stage; Table 6). The reason for this reduction is that the later the harvesting time is, the lower the quality of the forage yield increases.

Cazzato et al. [28] reported that WSC in safflower forage ranged from 128 (primary buds) to 105 and 100 g/kg dry matter at secondary and tertiary bud flowering stages, respectively. Damame et al. [52] examined different harvest times on the quality of millet. They claimed that the highest Cp production was acquired during the milking stage and that the delay in harvest time resulted in a fall in Cp.

In the opinion of Hilscher et al. [53], the WSC percentage increases with plant age. Raei et al. [54] stated that unfavorable climatic conditions, such as high temperatures and low rainfall during the growing season, reduced forage quality by decreasing the production of soluble carbohydrates.

CF was significantly affected by experimental treatments (varieties) (Table 3). The Goldasht variety harvested at the branching stage had the highest CF content of 35.5%, which had no significant difference with other treatments, excluding the Goldasht and Parnian varieties harvested at stem elongation (29.8 and 28.6%) (Table 6). Hence, as plant growth has grown, so has the quantity of plant fiber. This is because as the plant grows, the number of supporting and reinforcing tissues, such as sclerenchyma tissue, increases; hence, with the conclusion of the plant development phase and an increase in the proportion of structural carbohydrates, the percentage of plant fiber increases [55].

Also, Table 6 shows that the Golmehr variety harvested at the stem elongation stage has the lowest ash content compared to the other varieties and the same variety at the branching stage by 9.5 and 10%, respectively. At the branching stage of 50%, the Golmehr variety had a higher leaf area index and a higher leaf-to-stem ratio than other varieties (results not shown). More leaf surfaces with increasing photosynthesis had caused more carbon absorption per unit area and increased ash content [56].

3.4 Forage digestibility

The results of ANOVA showed that the studied varieties significantly affected DDM (Table 7). Forage harvesting had the maximum dry matter digestibility in the branching stage in the Goldasht and Parnian varieties, with an average of 71.5 and 68.2%, respectively, and in the stem elongation stage in the Goldasht variety (66.9%) (Table 8). Among the studied varieties, the Goldasht variety at the branching stage had the highest digestibility indices value compared to other varieties harvested (Table 8).

Table 7

ANOVA for forage digestibility indices for three safflower varieties (Goldasht, Golmehr, Parnian)

Source of variation df Mean squares
DDM DMI TDN RFV NEL DE DP
Year 1 3.10ns 0.011ns 10.6ns 77.1ns 0.04ns 0.020ns 0.18ns
Rep (year) 4 6.3 0.042 6.0 181.1 0.002 0.011 6.39
Variety 5 3.68** 0.373** 99.9** 1614.7** 0.041** 0.194** 23.20*
Variety * year 5 1ns 0.001 0.1 0.7 0.001 0.001 0.01
Error 20 8.14 0.071 17.2 280.7 0.007 0.033 8.3
C.V. (%) — 5.8 13.0 7.1 16.6 5.9 7.1 22.7

Data are the mean of two experimental years.

*, **, and ns mean significant at 5 and 1% probability level and non-significant, respectively.

Abbreviations: DDM: digestibility dry matter; DMI: dry matter intake; TDN: total digestible nutrients; RFV: relative feed value; NEL: net energy for lactation; DE: digestible energy; DP: digestible protein; df: degrees of freedom; Rep: replication; C.V.: coefficient of variation.

Table 8

Forage digestibility indices for three safflower varieties (Goldasht, Golmehr, Parnian)

Treatments DDM DMI TDN RFV
(%)
Goldasht; stem elongation 66.9ab 2.17ab 59.8ab 107.6b
Goldasht; branching 71.5a 2.48a 64.2a 129.0a
Golmehr; Stem elongation 61.8c 1.85bc 52.5c 85.5c
Golmehr; branching 65.9bc 1.80c 56.0bc 86.1c
Parnian; stem elongation 63.9bc 1.94bc 56.6bc 93.4bc
Parnian; branching 68.2ab 2.02bc 60.4ab 100.7bc

Data are the mean of two experimental years.

Within each column, mean values having similar letters have no significant difference at the 5% probability level (Duncan´s test).

Abbreviations: DDM: digestibility dry matter; DMI: dry matter intake; TDN: total digestible nutrients; RFV: relative feed value.

Forage harvest at the stem elongation stage decreased the digestibility of dry matter in all safflower varieties (Table 8). The lowest level of this characteristic was seen in the forage harvest treatment at the stem elongation stage in the Golmehr variety, with an average of 61.8% (Table 8). According to the results presented in Table 8, harvesting at the branching stage resulted in higher forage digestibility compared to the stem elongation stage.

In other words, the growth stage and getting close to maturity affected forage digestibility. The results are in agreement with the results of Atis et al. [57]. Landau et al. [58] found that the leaves of safflower forage were more digestible in vitro than the stems. Generally, high-quality forage has a high yield and the highest digestibility, but not always. Also, stems are more concentrated by cell walls than leaves; thus, stems are often less digestible. With increasing plant growth and the number of leaves in the branching stage, dry matter digestibility is enhanced.

The highest DMI by livestock was observed in forage harvesting treatment in the branching stage in the Goldasht variety with an average of 2.48%, which was not significantly different from the forage harvesting treatment in the stem elongation stage in the Goldasht variety (2.17%) (Table 8).

Similar results have been obtained by Davis [59]. During his research, he stated that the estimated apparent DMI did not differ when comparing steers consuming Alamo hays harvested at the boot and early flowering stage. As the age of the plant increases, the amount of non-structural carbohydrates decreases, and the amount of fiber, lignin, and structural carbohydrates is enhanced [60]. High amounts of structural carbohydrates such as lignin decrease the forage quality by reducing the amount of DMI and diminishing its digestibility [57].

The forage harvesting treatment at the branching stage in the Goldasht variety, with an average of 64.2%, produced the highest amounts of TDN, which was not significantly different from the forage harvesting treatments in the branching stage in the Parnian variety (60.4%) and stem elongation stage in the Goldasht variety (59.8%) (Table 8).

The TDN forage parameter, which is related to the NDF and ADF concentration of the forage, indicates nutrients in the forage that are available to livestock [61]. Increasing the absorption of nutrients, especially nitrogen, increases digestible nutrients in forage, and genotypes with higher nutrient absorption capacity have higher TDN [62].

Late forage harvest generally enhanced the RFV of safflower varieties. The maximum RFV was noted in the forage harvesting at the branching stage in the Goldasht variety with an average of 129%, which indicated superiority over other treatments (Table 8).

The safflower forage had more RFV at the branching stage compared to the stem elongation stage (Table 8); however, the Goldasht variety showed a greater RFV at the stem elongation stage than the other varieties did at the branching stage (Table 8). Based on the results of ANOVA, NEL, DE, and DP were significantly affected by the harvesting stage of different safflower varieties (Table 7).

According to Figure 6, late harvest of forage had no significant effect on the NEL of safflower varieties. The highest NEL was obtained in the forage harvesting treatment in the branching stage in Goldasht and Parnian varieties with an average of 1.54 and 1.47 Mcal/kg dry matter, respectively, which had no statistically significant difference with the forage harvesting in the stem elongation stage in the Goldasht variety.

The lowest amount of NEL was observed in the forage harvesting treatment at the stem elongation stage in Golmehr and Parnian varieties with an average of 1.31 and 1.39 Mcal/kg dry matter, respectively, which had no significant difference with the forage harvesting in the branching stage of Golmehr variety (1.38 Mcal/kg dry matter; Figure 6).

The highest DE value was observed in the forage harvesting treatment at the branching stage in the Goldasht and Parnian varieties by 2.83 and 2.66 Mcal/kg dry matter, respectively, which had no significant difference with the forage harvesting in the stem elongation in the Goldasht variety (2.63 Mcal/kg dry matter; Figure 6).

Figure 7 shows the mean comparison of safflower varieties on plant forage DP content. As can be observed in Figure 7, harvesting at the branching stage resulted in the highest DP content, and CP increased compared to the harvest at the stem elongation stage. Forage harvest at an early stage of maturity is expected to result in forage with a high concentration of energy and, therefore, may be a prerequisite for increased energy intake and production [63].

Figure 7 Plant forage, net lactation energy, and DE for three safflower varieties (Goldasht, Golmehr, Parnian). Mean values having similar letters have no significant difference at a 5% probability level (Duncan’s test). Data are the mean during 2 years of study.
Figure 7

Plant forage, net lactation energy, and DE for three safflower varieties (Goldasht, Golmehr, Parnian). Mean values having similar letters have no significant difference at a 5% probability level (Duncan’s test). Data are the mean during 2 years of study.

In general, later forage harvest increased the DP, with the highest DP observed in the forage harvesting treatment in the branching stage in the Golmehr variety (average of 14.8%), which had no significant difference with other treatments, except the Parnian variety harvested at stem elongation stage (by 9.5%; Figure 7).

Feed intake depends on the physical characteristics and ration chemical composition [64] and is influenced by digestibility and rate of passage from the rumen [65]. Alstrup et al. [66] found that the digestibility of rations positively correlated with fecal dry matter concentration.

Also, Demirbag et al. [67] stated that the phenological growth stage on forage quality had a significant effect. The close matching of nutrient requirements and feed quality is needed for efficient animal production. They found that the higher forage quality was recorded at the first growth stage. Stems containing superior amounts of WSCs, such as sweet sorghum, may have a higher digestibility rate than leaves containing lower WSCs [68]. An increase in the proportion of panicles with advancement in maturity was reported for forage sorghum (Figure 8) [57].

Figure 8 Plant forage, DP content for three safflower varieties (Goldasht, Golmehr, Parnian). Mean values having similar letters have no significant difference at a 5% probability level (Duncan’s test). Data are the mean during 2 years of study.
Figure 8

Plant forage, DP content for three safflower varieties (Goldasht, Golmehr, Parnian). Mean values having similar letters have no significant difference at a 5% probability level (Duncan’s test). Data are the mean during 2 years of study.

4 Conclusions

The typical Mediterranean climate generates a high demand for evaporation in late spring (ca. April–June) when rainfall is low, considerably enhancing severe water deficit risks. Forage shortage in late spring in semiarid areas such as Karaj and other similar areas is a problem that livestock farmers and the dairy industry face. On the other hand, countries like Iran and other parts of the world have limited edible oil production. To overcome these problems, dual-purpose safflower genotypes (Golmehr autumn and Parnian middle-type varieties) were investigated. Finally, the forage harvested amount of all three varieties studied was higher in the branching stage than in the stem elongation stage. The Golmehr autumn variety (11,266 kg/ha DFY and 520 kg/ha seed yield) is for dual-purpose cultivation, and the Parnian middle-type variety with high seed yield (2,226 kg/ha seed yield) is suggested for seed production in semiarid regions. Our suggestions for future studies are to increase the number of studied cultivars in the dual-purpose cultivation of safflower along with the application of drought stress treatments due to the high resistance of safflower to drought. Also, providing more portions of nitrogen fertilizer after forage harvesting can accelerate vegetative growth and increase seed yield.

Acknowledgements

The authors thank the Seed and Plant Improvement Institute (SPII), Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO), Karaj, Iran, and Department of Agronomy, Takestan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Takestan, Iran.

  1. Funding information: Authors state no funding involved.

  2. Author contributions: All authors accepted the responsibility for the content of the manuscript and consented to its submission, reviewed all the results, and approved the final version of the manuscript. Seed and Plant Improvement Institute (SPII), Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO), Karaj, Iran designed the study. M.H.K. conducted the literature review, field and laboratory experiments, sampling, and data recording under F.G. supervision. S.S. and H.J. designed the study and led the research. S.S., H.J., and F.G. monitored, evaluated, and analyzed the study results. Further, H.R.Z., S.S., and F.G. reviewed the article.

  3. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Received: 2023-12-21
Revised: 2024-03-04
Accepted: 2024-03-09
Published Online: 2024-05-08

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Regular Articles
  2. Supplementation of P-solubilizing purple nonsulfur bacteria, Rhodopseudomonas palustris improved soil fertility, P nutrient, growth, and yield of Cucumis melo L.
  3. Yield gap variation in rice cultivation in Indonesia
  4. Effects of co-inoculation of indole-3-acetic acid- and ammonia-producing bacteria on plant growth and nutrition, soil elements, and the relationships of soil microbiomes with soil physicochemical parameters
  5. Impact of mulching and planting time on spring-wheat (Triticum aestivum) growth: A combined field experiment and empirical modeling approach
  6. Morphological diversity, correlation studies, and multiple-traits selection for yield and yield components of local cowpea varieties
  7. Participatory on-farm evaluation of new orange-fleshed sweetpotato varieties in Southern Ethiopia
  8. Yield performance and stability analysis of three cultivars of Gayo Arabica coffee across six different environments
  9. Biology of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on different types of plants feeds: Potency as a pest on various agricultural plants
  10. Antidiabetic activity of methanolic extract of Hibiscus sabdariffa Linn. fruit in alloxan-induced Swiss albino diabetic mice
  11. Bioinformatics investigation of the effect of volatile and non-volatile compounds of rhizobacteria in inhibiting late embryogenesis abundant protein that induces drought tolerance
  12. Nicotinamide as a biostimulant improves soybean growth and yield
  13. Farmer’s willingness to accept the sustainable zoning-based organic farming development plan: A lesson from Sleman District, Indonesia
  14. Uncovering hidden determinants of millennial farmers’ intentions in running conservation agriculture: An application of the Norm Activation Model
  15. Mediating role of leadership and group capital between human capital component and sustainability of horticultural agribusiness institutions in Indonesia
  16. Biochar technology to increase cassava crop productivity: A study of sustainable agriculture on degraded land
  17. Effect of struvite on the growth of green beans on Mars and Moon regolith simulants
  18. UrbanAgriKG: A knowledge graph on urban agriculture and its embeddings
  19. Provision of loans and credit by cocoa buyers under non-price competition: Cocoa beans market in Ghana
  20. Effectiveness of micro-dosing of lime on selected chemical properties of soil in Banja District, North West, Ethiopia
  21. Effect of weather, nitrogen fertilizer, and biostimulators on the root size and yield components of Hordeum vulgare
  22. Effects of selected biostimulants on qualitative and quantitative parameters of nine cultivars of the genus Capsicum spp.
  23. Growth, yield, and secondary metabolite responses of three shallot cultivars at different watering intervals
  24. Design of drainage channel for effective use of land on fully mechanized sugarcane plantations: A case study at Bone Sugarcane Plantation
  25. Technical feasibility and economic benefit of combined shallot seedlings techniques in Indonesia
  26. Control of Meloidogyne javanica in banana by endophytic bacteria
  27. Comparison of important quality components of red-flesh kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis) in different locations
  28. Efficiency of rice farming in flood-prone areas of East Java, Indonesia
  29. Comparative analysis of alpine agritourism in Trentino, Tyrol, and South Tyrol: Regional variations and prospects
  30. Detection of Fusarium spp. infection in potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) during postharvest storage through visible–near-infrared and shortwave–near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy
  31. Forage yield, seed, and forage qualitative traits evaluation by determining the optimal forage harvesting stage in dual-purpose cultivation in safflower varieties (Carthamus tinctorius L.)
  32. The influence of tourism on the development of urban space: Comparison in Hanoi, Danang, and Ho Chi Minh City
  33. Optimum intra-row spacing and clove size for the economical production of garlic (Allium sativum L.) in Northwestern Highlands of Ethiopia
  34. The role of organic rice farm income on farmer household welfare: Evidence from Yogyakarta, Indonesia
  35. Exploring innovative food in a developing country: Edible insects as a sustainable option
  36. Genotype by environment interaction and performance stability of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) cultivars grown in Dawuro zone, Southwestern Ethiopia
  37. Factors influencing green, environmentally-friendly consumer behaviour
  38. Factors affecting coffee farmers’ access to financial institutions: The case of Bandung Regency, Indonesia
  39. Morphological and yield trait-based evaluation and selection of chili (Capsicum annuum L.) genotypes suitable for both summer and winter seasons
  40. Sustainability analysis and decision-making strategy for swamp buffalo (Bubalus bubalis carabauesis) conservation in Jambi Province, Indonesia
  41. Understanding factors affecting rice purchasing decisions in Indonesia: Does rice brand matter?
  42. An implementation of an extended theory of planned behavior to investigate consumer behavior on hygiene sanitation-certified livestock food products
  43. Information technology adoption in Indonesia’s small-scale dairy farms
  44. Draft genome of a biological control agent against Bipolaris sorokiniana, the causal phytopathogen of spot blotch in wheat (Triticum turgidum L. subsp. durum): Bacillus inaquosorum TSO22
  45. Assessment of the recurrent mutagenesis efficacy of sesame crosses followed by isolation and evaluation of promising genetic resources for use in future breeding programs
  46. Fostering cocoa industry resilience: A collaborative approach to managing farm gate price fluctuations in West Sulawesi, Indonesia
  47. Field investigation of component failures for selected farm machinery used in small rice farming operations
  48. Near-infrared technology in agriculture: Rapid, simultaneous, and non-destructive determination of inner quality parameters on intact coffee beans
  49. The synergistic application of sucrose and various LED light exposures to enhance the in vitro growth of Stevia rebaudiana (Bertoni)
  50. Weather index-based agricultural insurance for flower farmers: Willingness to pay, sales, and profitability perspectives
  51. Meta-analysis of dietary Bacillus spp. on serum biochemical and antioxidant status and egg quality of laying hens
  52. Biochemical characterization of trypsin from Indonesian skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) viscera
  53. Determination of C-factor for conventional cultivation and soil conservation technique used in hop gardens
  54. Empowering farmers: Unveiling the economic impacts of contract farming on red chilli farmers’ income in Magelang District, Indonesia
  55. Evaluating salt tolerance in fodder crops: A field experiment in the dry land
  56. Labor productivity of lowland rice (Oryza sativa L.) farmers in Central Java Province, Indonesia
  57. Cropping systems and production assessment in southern Myanmar: Informing strategic interventions
  58. The effect of biostimulants and red mud on the growth and yield of shallots in post-unlicensed gold mining soil
  59. Effects of dietary Adansonia digitata L. (baobab) seed meal on growth performance and carcass characteristics of broiler chickens: A systematic review and meta-analysis
  60. Analysis and structural characterization of the vid-pisco market
  61. Pseudomonas fluorescens SP007s enhances defense responses against the soybean bacterial pustule caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. glycines
  62. A brief investigation on the prospective of co-composted biochar as a fertilizer for Zucchini plants cultivated in arid sandy soil
  63. Supply chain efficiency of red chilies in the production center of Sleman Indonesia based on performance measurement system
  64. Investment development path for developed economies: Is agriculture different?
  65. Power relations among actors in laying hen business in Indonesia: A MACTOR analysis
  66. High-throughput digital imaging and detection of morpho-physiological traits in tomato plants under drought
  67. Converting compression ignition engine to dual-fuel (diesel + CNG) engine and experimentally investigating its performance and emissions
  68. Structuration, risk management, and institutional dynamics in resolving palm oil conflicts
  69. Spacing strategies for enhancing drought resilience and yield in maize agriculture
  70. Composition and quality of winter annual agrestal and ruderal herbages of two different land-use types
  71. Investigating Spodoptera spp. diversity, percentage of attack, and control strategies in the West Java, Indonesia, corn cultivation
  72. Yield stability of biofertilizer treatments to soybean in the rainy season based on the GGE biplot
  73. Evaluating agricultural yield and economic implications of varied irrigation depths on maize yield in semi-arid environments, at Birfarm, Upper Blue Nile, Ethiopia
  74. Chemometrics for mapping the spatial nitrate distribution on the leaf lamina of fenugreek grown under varying nitrogenous fertilizer doses
  75. Pomegranate peel ethanolic extract: A promising natural antioxidant, antimicrobial agent, and novel approach to mitigate rancidity in used edible oils
  76. Transformative learning and engagement with organic farming: Lessons learned from Indonesia
  77. Tourism in rural areas as a broader concept: Some insights from the Portuguese reality
  78. Assessment enhancing drought tolerance in henna (Lawsonia inermis L.) ecotypes through sodium nitroprusside foliar application
  79. Edible insects: A survey about perceptions regarding possible beneficial health effects and safety concerns among adult citizens from Portugal and Romania
  80. Phenological stages analysis in peach trees using electronic nose
  81. Harvest date and salicylic acid impact on peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) properties under different humidity conditions
  82. Hibiscus sabdariffa L. petal biomass: A green source of nanoparticles of multifarious potential
  83. Use of different vegetation indices for the evaluation of the kinetics of the cherry tomato (Solanum lycopersicum var. cerasiforme) growth based on multispectral images by UAV
  84. First evidence of microplastic pollution in mangrove sediments and its ingestion by coral reef fish: Case study in Biawak Island, Indonesia
  85. Physical and textural properties and sensory acceptability of wheat bread partially incorporated with unripe non-commercial banana cultivars
  86. Cereibacter sphaeroides ST16 and ST26 were used to solubilize insoluble P forms to improve P uptake, growth, and yield of rice in acidic and extreme saline soil
  87. Avocado peel by-product in cattle diets and supplementation with oregano oil and effects on production, carcass, and meat quality
  88. Optimizing inorganic blended fertilizer application for the maximum grain yield and profitability of bread wheat and food barley in Dawuro Zone, Southwest Ethiopia
  89. The acceptance of social media as a channel of communication and livestock information for sheep farmers
  90. Adaptation of rice farmers to aging in Thailand
  91. Combined use of improved maize hybrids and nitrogen application increases grain yield of maize, under natural Striga hermonthica infestation
  92. From aquatic to terrestrial: An examination of plant diversity and ecological shifts
  93. Statistical modelling of a tractor tractive performance during ploughing operation on a tropical Alfisol
  94. Participation in artisanal diamond mining and food security: A case study of Kasai Oriental in DR Congo
  95. Assessment and multi-scenario simulation of ecosystem service values in Southwest China’s mountainous and hilly region
  96. Analysis of agricultural emissions and economic growth in Europe in search of ecological balance
  97. Bacillus thuringiensis strains with high insecticidal activity against insect larvae of the orders Coleoptera and Lepidoptera
  98. Technical efficiency of sugarcane farming in East Java, Indonesia: A bootstrap data envelopment analysis
  99. Comparison between mycobiota diversity and fungi and mycotoxin contamination of maize and wheat
  100. Evaluation of cultivation technology package and corn variety based on agronomy characters and leaf green indices
  101. Exploring the association between the consumption of beverages, fast foods, sweets, fats, and oils and the risk of gastric and pancreatic cancers: Findings from case–control study
  102. Phytochemical composition and insecticidal activity of Acokanthera oblongifolia (Hochst.) Benth & Hook.f. ex B.D.Jacks. extract on life span and biological aspects of Spodoptera littoralis (Biosd.)
  103. Land use management solutions in response to climate change: Case study in the central coastal areas of Vietnam
  104. Evaluation of coffee pulp as a feed ingredient for ruminants: A meta-analysis
  105. Interannual variations of normalized difference vegetation index and potential evapotranspiration and their relationship in the Baghdad area
  106. Harnessing synthetic microbial communities with nitrogen-fixing activity to promote rice growth
  107. Agronomic and economic benefits of rice–sweetpotato rotation in lowland rice cropping systems in Uganda
  108. Response of potato tuber as an effect of the N-fertilizer and paclobutrazol application in medium altitude
  109. Bridging the gap: The role of geographic proximity in enhancing seed sustainability in Bandung District
  110. Evaluation of Abrams curve in agricultural sector using the NARDL approach
  111. Challenges and opportunities for young farmers in the implementation of the Rural Development Program 2014–2020 of the Republic of Croatia
  112. Yield stability of ten common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) genotypes at different sowing dates in Lubumbashi, South-East of DR Congo
  113. Effects of encapsulation and combining probiotics with different nitrate forms on methane emission and in vitro rumen fermentation characteristics
  114. Phytochemical analysis of Bienertia sinuspersici extract and its antioxidant and antimicrobial activities
  115. Evaluation of relative drought tolerance of grapevines by leaf fluorescence parameters
  116. Yield assessment of new streak-resistant topcross maize hybrids in Benin
  117. Improvement of cocoa powder properties through ultrasonic- and microwave-assisted alkalization
  118. Potential of ecoenzymes made from nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) leaf and pulp waste as bioinsecticides for Periplaneta americana
  119. Analysis of farm performance to realize the sustainability of organic cabbage vegetable farming in Getasan Semarang, Indonesia
  120. Revealing the influences of organic amendment-derived dissolved organic matter on growth and nutrient accumulation in lettuce seedlings (Lactuca sativa L.)
  121. Identification of viruses infecting sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas Lam.) in Benin
  122. Assessing the soil physical and chemical properties of long-term pomelo orchard based on tree growth
  123. Investigating access and use of digital tools for agriculture among rural farmers: A case study of Nkomazi Municipality, South Africa
  124. Does sex influence the impact of dietary vitD3 and UVB light on performance parameters and welfare indicators of broilers?
  125. Design of intelligent sprayer control for an autonomous farming drone using a multiclass support vector machine
  126. Deciphering salt-responsive NB-ARC genes in rice transcriptomic data: A bioinformatics approach with gene expression validation
  127. Review Articles
  128. Impact of nematode infestation in livestock production and the role of natural feed additives – A review
  129. Role of dietary fats in reproductive, health, and nutritional benefits in farm animals: A review
  130. Climate change and adaptive strategies on viticulture (Vitis spp.)
  131. The false tiger of almond, Monosteira unicostata (Hemiptera: Tingidae): Biology, ecology, and control methods
  132. A systematic review on potential analogy of phytobiomass and soil carbon evaluation methods: Ethiopia insights
  133. A review of storage temperature and relative humidity effects on shelf life and quality of mango (Mangifera indica L.) fruit and implications for nutrition insecurity in Ethiopia
  134. Green extraction of nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) phytochemicals: Prospective strategies and roadblocks
  135. Potential influence of nitrogen fertilizer rates on yield and yield components of carrot (Dacus carota L.) in Ethiopia: Systematic review
  136. Corn silk: A promising source of antimicrobial compounds for health and wellness
  137. State and contours of research on roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) in Africa
  138. The potential of phosphorus-solubilizing purple nonsulfur bacteria in agriculture: Present and future perspectives
  139. Minor millets: Processing techniques and their nutritional and health benefits
  140. Meta-analysis of reproductive performance of improved dairy cattle under Ethiopian environmental conditions
  141. Review on enhancing the efficiency of fertilizer utilization: Strategies for optimal nutrient management
  142. The nutritional, phytochemical composition, and utilisation of different parts of maize: A comparative analysis
  143. Motivations for farmers’ participation in agri-environmental scheme in the EU, literature review
  144. Evolution of climate-smart agriculture research: A science mapping exploration and network analysis
  145. Short Communications
  146. Music enrichment improves the behavior and leukocyte profile of dairy cattle
  147. Effect of pruning height and organic fertilization on the morphological and productive characteristics of Moringa oleifera Lam. in the Peruvian dry tropics
  148. Corrigendum
  149. Corrigendum to “Bioinformatics investigation of the effect of volatile and non-volatile compounds of rhizobacteria in inhibiting late embryogenesis abundant protein that induces drought tolerance”
  150. Corrigendum to “Composition and quality of winter annual agrestal and ruderal herbages of two different land-use types”
  151. Special issue: Smart Agriculture System for Sustainable Development: Methods and Practices
  152. Construction of a sustainable model to predict the moisture content of porang powder (Amorphophallus oncophyllus) based on pointed-scan visible near-infrared spectroscopy
  153. FruitVision: A deep learning based automatic fruit grading system
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  158. Special Issue on FCEM - International Web Conference on Food Choice & Eating Motivation - Part II
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https://doi.org/10.1515/opag-2022-0277
Keywords for this article
branching stage; forage quantitative and qualitative yield; harvest stage; safflower; stem elongation stage
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Regular Articles
  2. Supplementation of P-solubilizing purple nonsulfur bacteria, Rhodopseudomonas palustris improved soil fertility, P nutrient, growth, and yield of Cucumis melo L.
  3. Yield gap variation in rice cultivation in Indonesia
  4. Effects of co-inoculation of indole-3-acetic acid- and ammonia-producing bacteria on plant growth and nutrition, soil elements, and the relationships of soil microbiomes with soil physicochemical parameters
  5. Impact of mulching and planting time on spring-wheat (Triticum aestivum) growth: A combined field experiment and empirical modeling approach
  6. Morphological diversity, correlation studies, and multiple-traits selection for yield and yield components of local cowpea varieties
  7. Participatory on-farm evaluation of new orange-fleshed sweetpotato varieties in Southern Ethiopia
  8. Yield performance and stability analysis of three cultivars of Gayo Arabica coffee across six different environments
  9. Biology of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on different types of plants feeds: Potency as a pest on various agricultural plants
  10. Antidiabetic activity of methanolic extract of Hibiscus sabdariffa Linn. fruit in alloxan-induced Swiss albino diabetic mice
  11. Bioinformatics investigation of the effect of volatile and non-volatile compounds of rhizobacteria in inhibiting late embryogenesis abundant protein that induces drought tolerance
  12. Nicotinamide as a biostimulant improves soybean growth and yield
  13. Farmer’s willingness to accept the sustainable zoning-based organic farming development plan: A lesson from Sleman District, Indonesia
  14. Uncovering hidden determinants of millennial farmers’ intentions in running conservation agriculture: An application of the Norm Activation Model
  15. Mediating role of leadership and group capital between human capital component and sustainability of horticultural agribusiness institutions in Indonesia
  16. Biochar technology to increase cassava crop productivity: A study of sustainable agriculture on degraded land
  17. Effect of struvite on the growth of green beans on Mars and Moon regolith simulants
  18. UrbanAgriKG: A knowledge graph on urban agriculture and its embeddings
  19. Provision of loans and credit by cocoa buyers under non-price competition: Cocoa beans market in Ghana
  20. Effectiveness of micro-dosing of lime on selected chemical properties of soil in Banja District, North West, Ethiopia
  21. Effect of weather, nitrogen fertilizer, and biostimulators on the root size and yield components of Hordeum vulgare
  22. Effects of selected biostimulants on qualitative and quantitative parameters of nine cultivars of the genus Capsicum spp.
  23. Growth, yield, and secondary metabolite responses of three shallot cultivars at different watering intervals
  24. Design of drainage channel for effective use of land on fully mechanized sugarcane plantations: A case study at Bone Sugarcane Plantation
  25. Technical feasibility and economic benefit of combined shallot seedlings techniques in Indonesia
  26. Control of Meloidogyne javanica in banana by endophytic bacteria
  27. Comparison of important quality components of red-flesh kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis) in different locations
  28. Efficiency of rice farming in flood-prone areas of East Java, Indonesia
  29. Comparative analysis of alpine agritourism in Trentino, Tyrol, and South Tyrol: Regional variations and prospects
  30. Detection of Fusarium spp. infection in potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) during postharvest storage through visible–near-infrared and shortwave–near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy
  31. Forage yield, seed, and forage qualitative traits evaluation by determining the optimal forage harvesting stage in dual-purpose cultivation in safflower varieties (Carthamus tinctorius L.)
  32. The influence of tourism on the development of urban space: Comparison in Hanoi, Danang, and Ho Chi Minh City
  33. Optimum intra-row spacing and clove size for the economical production of garlic (Allium sativum L.) in Northwestern Highlands of Ethiopia
  34. The role of organic rice farm income on farmer household welfare: Evidence from Yogyakarta, Indonesia
  35. Exploring innovative food in a developing country: Edible insects as a sustainable option
  36. Genotype by environment interaction and performance stability of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) cultivars grown in Dawuro zone, Southwestern Ethiopia
  37. Factors influencing green, environmentally-friendly consumer behaviour
  38. Factors affecting coffee farmers’ access to financial institutions: The case of Bandung Regency, Indonesia
  39. Morphological and yield trait-based evaluation and selection of chili (Capsicum annuum L.) genotypes suitable for both summer and winter seasons
  40. Sustainability analysis and decision-making strategy for swamp buffalo (Bubalus bubalis carabauesis) conservation in Jambi Province, Indonesia
  41. Understanding factors affecting rice purchasing decisions in Indonesia: Does rice brand matter?
  42. An implementation of an extended theory of planned behavior to investigate consumer behavior on hygiene sanitation-certified livestock food products
  43. Information technology adoption in Indonesia’s small-scale dairy farms
  44. Draft genome of a biological control agent against Bipolaris sorokiniana, the causal phytopathogen of spot blotch in wheat (Triticum turgidum L. subsp. durum): Bacillus inaquosorum TSO22
  45. Assessment of the recurrent mutagenesis efficacy of sesame crosses followed by isolation and evaluation of promising genetic resources for use in future breeding programs
  46. Fostering cocoa industry resilience: A collaborative approach to managing farm gate price fluctuations in West Sulawesi, Indonesia
  47. Field investigation of component failures for selected farm machinery used in small rice farming operations
  48. Near-infrared technology in agriculture: Rapid, simultaneous, and non-destructive determination of inner quality parameters on intact coffee beans
  49. The synergistic application of sucrose and various LED light exposures to enhance the in vitro growth of Stevia rebaudiana (Bertoni)
  50. Weather index-based agricultural insurance for flower farmers: Willingness to pay, sales, and profitability perspectives
  51. Meta-analysis of dietary Bacillus spp. on serum biochemical and antioxidant status and egg quality of laying hens
  52. Biochemical characterization of trypsin from Indonesian skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) viscera
  53. Determination of C-factor for conventional cultivation and soil conservation technique used in hop gardens
  54. Empowering farmers: Unveiling the economic impacts of contract farming on red chilli farmers’ income in Magelang District, Indonesia
  55. Evaluating salt tolerance in fodder crops: A field experiment in the dry land
  56. Labor productivity of lowland rice (Oryza sativa L.) farmers in Central Java Province, Indonesia
  57. Cropping systems and production assessment in southern Myanmar: Informing strategic interventions
  58. The effect of biostimulants and red mud on the growth and yield of shallots in post-unlicensed gold mining soil
  59. Effects of dietary Adansonia digitata L. (baobab) seed meal on growth performance and carcass characteristics of broiler chickens: A systematic review and meta-analysis
  60. Analysis and structural characterization of the vid-pisco market
  61. Pseudomonas fluorescens SP007s enhances defense responses against the soybean bacterial pustule caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. glycines
  62. A brief investigation on the prospective of co-composted biochar as a fertilizer for Zucchini plants cultivated in arid sandy soil
  63. Supply chain efficiency of red chilies in the production center of Sleman Indonesia based on performance measurement system
  64. Investment development path for developed economies: Is agriculture different?
  65. Power relations among actors in laying hen business in Indonesia: A MACTOR analysis
  66. High-throughput digital imaging and detection of morpho-physiological traits in tomato plants under drought
  67. Converting compression ignition engine to dual-fuel (diesel + CNG) engine and experimentally investigating its performance and emissions
  68. Structuration, risk management, and institutional dynamics in resolving palm oil conflicts
  69. Spacing strategies for enhancing drought resilience and yield in maize agriculture
  70. Composition and quality of winter annual agrestal and ruderal herbages of two different land-use types
  71. Investigating Spodoptera spp. diversity, percentage of attack, and control strategies in the West Java, Indonesia, corn cultivation
  72. Yield stability of biofertilizer treatments to soybean in the rainy season based on the GGE biplot
  73. Evaluating agricultural yield and economic implications of varied irrigation depths on maize yield in semi-arid environments, at Birfarm, Upper Blue Nile, Ethiopia
  74. Chemometrics for mapping the spatial nitrate distribution on the leaf lamina of fenugreek grown under varying nitrogenous fertilizer doses
  75. Pomegranate peel ethanolic extract: A promising natural antioxidant, antimicrobial agent, and novel approach to mitigate rancidity in used edible oils
  76. Transformative learning and engagement with organic farming: Lessons learned from Indonesia
  77. Tourism in rural areas as a broader concept: Some insights from the Portuguese reality
  78. Assessment enhancing drought tolerance in henna (Lawsonia inermis L.) ecotypes through sodium nitroprusside foliar application
  79. Edible insects: A survey about perceptions regarding possible beneficial health effects and safety concerns among adult citizens from Portugal and Romania
  80. Phenological stages analysis in peach trees using electronic nose
  81. Harvest date and salicylic acid impact on peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) properties under different humidity conditions
  82. Hibiscus sabdariffa L. petal biomass: A green source of nanoparticles of multifarious potential
  83. Use of different vegetation indices for the evaluation of the kinetics of the cherry tomato (Solanum lycopersicum var. cerasiforme) growth based on multispectral images by UAV
  84. First evidence of microplastic pollution in mangrove sediments and its ingestion by coral reef fish: Case study in Biawak Island, Indonesia
  85. Physical and textural properties and sensory acceptability of wheat bread partially incorporated with unripe non-commercial banana cultivars
  86. Cereibacter sphaeroides ST16 and ST26 were used to solubilize insoluble P forms to improve P uptake, growth, and yield of rice in acidic and extreme saline soil
  87. Avocado peel by-product in cattle diets and supplementation with oregano oil and effects on production, carcass, and meat quality
  88. Optimizing inorganic blended fertilizer application for the maximum grain yield and profitability of bread wheat and food barley in Dawuro Zone, Southwest Ethiopia
  89. The acceptance of social media as a channel of communication and livestock information for sheep farmers
  90. Adaptation of rice farmers to aging in Thailand
  91. Combined use of improved maize hybrids and nitrogen application increases grain yield of maize, under natural Striga hermonthica infestation
  92. From aquatic to terrestrial: An examination of plant diversity and ecological shifts
  93. Statistical modelling of a tractor tractive performance during ploughing operation on a tropical Alfisol
  94. Participation in artisanal diamond mining and food security: A case study of Kasai Oriental in DR Congo
  95. Assessment and multi-scenario simulation of ecosystem service values in Southwest China’s mountainous and hilly region
  96. Analysis of agricultural emissions and economic growth in Europe in search of ecological balance
  97. Bacillus thuringiensis strains with high insecticidal activity against insect larvae of the orders Coleoptera and Lepidoptera
  98. Technical efficiency of sugarcane farming in East Java, Indonesia: A bootstrap data envelopment analysis
  99. Comparison between mycobiota diversity and fungi and mycotoxin contamination of maize and wheat
  100. Evaluation of cultivation technology package and corn variety based on agronomy characters and leaf green indices
  101. Exploring the association between the consumption of beverages, fast foods, sweets, fats, and oils and the risk of gastric and pancreatic cancers: Findings from case–control study
  102. Phytochemical composition and insecticidal activity of Acokanthera oblongifolia (Hochst.) Benth & Hook.f. ex B.D.Jacks. extract on life span and biological aspects of Spodoptera littoralis (Biosd.)
  103. Land use management solutions in response to climate change: Case study in the central coastal areas of Vietnam
  104. Evaluation of coffee pulp as a feed ingredient for ruminants: A meta-analysis
  105. Interannual variations of normalized difference vegetation index and potential evapotranspiration and their relationship in the Baghdad area
  106. Harnessing synthetic microbial communities with nitrogen-fixing activity to promote rice growth
  107. Agronomic and economic benefits of rice–sweetpotato rotation in lowland rice cropping systems in Uganda
  108. Response of potato tuber as an effect of the N-fertilizer and paclobutrazol application in medium altitude
  109. Bridging the gap: The role of geographic proximity in enhancing seed sustainability in Bandung District
  110. Evaluation of Abrams curve in agricultural sector using the NARDL approach
  111. Challenges and opportunities for young farmers in the implementation of the Rural Development Program 2014–2020 of the Republic of Croatia
  112. Yield stability of ten common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) genotypes at different sowing dates in Lubumbashi, South-East of DR Congo
  113. Effects of encapsulation and combining probiotics with different nitrate forms on methane emission and in vitro rumen fermentation characteristics
  114. Phytochemical analysis of Bienertia sinuspersici extract and its antioxidant and antimicrobial activities
  115. Evaluation of relative drought tolerance of grapevines by leaf fluorescence parameters
  116. Yield assessment of new streak-resistant topcross maize hybrids in Benin
  117. Improvement of cocoa powder properties through ultrasonic- and microwave-assisted alkalization
  118. Potential of ecoenzymes made from nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) leaf and pulp waste as bioinsecticides for Periplaneta americana
  119. Analysis of farm performance to realize the sustainability of organic cabbage vegetable farming in Getasan Semarang, Indonesia
  120. Revealing the influences of organic amendment-derived dissolved organic matter on growth and nutrient accumulation in lettuce seedlings (Lactuca sativa L.)
  121. Identification of viruses infecting sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas Lam.) in Benin
  122. Assessing the soil physical and chemical properties of long-term pomelo orchard based on tree growth
  123. Investigating access and use of digital tools for agriculture among rural farmers: A case study of Nkomazi Municipality, South Africa
  124. Does sex influence the impact of dietary vitD3 and UVB light on performance parameters and welfare indicators of broilers?
  125. Design of intelligent sprayer control for an autonomous farming drone using a multiclass support vector machine
  126. Deciphering salt-responsive NB-ARC genes in rice transcriptomic data: A bioinformatics approach with gene expression validation
  127. Review Articles
  128. Impact of nematode infestation in livestock production and the role of natural feed additives – A review
  129. Role of dietary fats in reproductive, health, and nutritional benefits in farm animals: A review
  130. Climate change and adaptive strategies on viticulture (Vitis spp.)
  131. The false tiger of almond, Monosteira unicostata (Hemiptera: Tingidae): Biology, ecology, and control methods
  132. A systematic review on potential analogy of phytobiomass and soil carbon evaluation methods: Ethiopia insights
  133. A review of storage temperature and relative humidity effects on shelf life and quality of mango (Mangifera indica L.) fruit and implications for nutrition insecurity in Ethiopia
  134. Green extraction of nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) phytochemicals: Prospective strategies and roadblocks
  135. Potential influence of nitrogen fertilizer rates on yield and yield components of carrot (Dacus carota L.) in Ethiopia: Systematic review
  136. Corn silk: A promising source of antimicrobial compounds for health and wellness
  137. State and contours of research on roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) in Africa
  138. The potential of phosphorus-solubilizing purple nonsulfur bacteria in agriculture: Present and future perspectives
  139. Minor millets: Processing techniques and their nutritional and health benefits
  140. Meta-analysis of reproductive performance of improved dairy cattle under Ethiopian environmental conditions
  141. Review on enhancing the efficiency of fertilizer utilization: Strategies for optimal nutrient management
  142. The nutritional, phytochemical composition, and utilisation of different parts of maize: A comparative analysis
  143. Motivations for farmers’ participation in agri-environmental scheme in the EU, literature review
  144. Evolution of climate-smart agriculture research: A science mapping exploration and network analysis
  145. Short Communications
  146. Music enrichment improves the behavior and leukocyte profile of dairy cattle
  147. Effect of pruning height and organic fertilization on the morphological and productive characteristics of Moringa oleifera Lam. in the Peruvian dry tropics
  148. Corrigendum
  149. Corrigendum to “Bioinformatics investigation of the effect of volatile and non-volatile compounds of rhizobacteria in inhibiting late embryogenesis abundant protein that induces drought tolerance”
  150. Corrigendum to “Composition and quality of winter annual agrestal and ruderal herbages of two different land-use types”
  151. Special issue: Smart Agriculture System for Sustainable Development: Methods and Practices
  152. Construction of a sustainable model to predict the moisture content of porang powder (Amorphophallus oncophyllus) based on pointed-scan visible near-infrared spectroscopy
  153. FruitVision: A deep learning based automatic fruit grading system
  154. Energy harvesting and ANFIS modeling of a PVDF/GO-ZNO piezoelectric nanogenerator on a UAV
  155. Effects of stress hormones on digestibility and performance in cattle: A review
  156. Special Issue of The 4th International Conference on Food Science and Engineering (ICFSE) 2022 - Part II
  157. Assessment of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acid profiles and ratio of omega-6/omega-3 of white eggs produced by laying hens fed diets enriched with omega-3 rich vegetable oil
  158. Special Issue on FCEM - International Web Conference on Food Choice & Eating Motivation - Part II
  159. Special Issue on FCEM – International Web Conference on Food Choice & Eating Motivation: Message from the editor
  160. Fruit and vegetable consumption: Study involving Portuguese and French consumers
  161. Knowledge about consumption of milk: Study involving consumers from two European Countries – France and Portugal
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