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Fabrication of novel composite materials by impregnating ZnO particles into bacterial cellulose nanofibers for antimicrobial applications

  • Sasiporn Audtarat , Wullapa Wongsinlatam , Jaruwan Thepsiri and Thananchai Dasri EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: July 29, 2025
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Green Processing and Synthesis
From the journal Green Processing and Synthesis Volume 14 Issue 1

Abstract

Composite materials containing zinc oxide (ZnO) particles have excellent antimicrobial properties and are non-toxic. ZnO particles were synthesized using a simple hydrothermal method employing glucose as a green reducing agent. This work aims to improve the synergistic effects of bacterial cellulose (BC) composites with ZnO particles (BC@ZnO composite). BC is produced by Gluconacetobacter xylinus using agricultural wastes as a substrate. ZnO particles were directly distributed on the surfaces of BC, which is a carrier with the capability to transport and deliver active ingredients. The morphological and structural characteristics were evaluated by field emission scanning electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. ZnO has a unique star-like structure with a diameter of about 1.3 μm and is composed of small flakes with a thickness of about 29 nm. ZnO was uniformly embedded throughout the BC matrix. X-ray diffraction confirmed the structural identity of ZnO, consistent with the hexagonal wurtzite structure, and revealed pure cellulose crystals with altered crystallinity peaks. The antimicrobial activity of composite materials against pathogenic Staphylococcus aureus and Klebsiella pneumoniae demonstrated significant inhibition against both bacteria. These results indicate that the synthesized BC@ZnO composite materials are promising for antimicrobial applications in various biomedical fields.

Graphical abstract

Keywords: bacterial cellulose; zinc oxide; composite; antimicrobial

1 Introduction

In recent years, many new nanostructured materials have been used in a wide range of applications owing to their multifunctional properties [1,2,3,4]. Composite materials containing functional materials such as metallic compounds incorporated into or within polymers have attracted considerable research interest, especially in materials science [5,6,7]. Globally, scientists have been working to fabricate new materials that precisely fulfill the needs of different applications. Organic nanofiber polymers and metal oxide particles are two typical materials that have attracted increasing attention from researchers in recent years. This is due to their unique properties and wide range of applications, including biomedical, catalysis, new membranes, smart textiles, energy storage, and environmental applications [8,9,10,11,12,13]. Nanofibers and metal oxides are a new type of composites with diverse structures that exhibit improved properties based on their components. Nanofibers have exceptionally high surface area-to-volume ratios and porous structures that enable deposition and stabilization of nanostructured materials. Zinc oxide (ZnO) and nanofillers are commonly utilized for fiber surface modification due to their thermal, mechanical, and physical characteristics [10,11,14]. Previous studies on polymer matrix composites with ZnO have demonstrated diverse properties. However, the poor dispersion of ZnO in polymer matrices and the aggregation of ZnO need to be improved to reduce the aggregation in the matrix [15]. Additionally, some synthetic methods involve harsh chemicals that affect the biodegradability and environmental friendliness of the composite [16]. Bacterial cellulose (BC) is a natural polymer. It is a homopolysaccharide of glucose linked by β-1,4-glycosidic bonds [17], which has received much attention from the materials science community. Their unique structural and mechanical properties include high crystallinity, vapor permeability, molding ability, biocompatibility, structural integrity, high water-holding capacity, purity (nearly 100% cellulose), and polymeric nature. These properties enable easier BC purification and make them suitable for biomedical applications such as tissue engineering and wound dressing [18,19,20]. BC is produced by various bacterial species such as Gluconacetobacter, Agrobacterium, and Aerobacter, among others, using readily available raw materials such as sugarcane bagasse and banana extract [17,18,19,20,21]. The BC used in this work is produced by Gluconacetobacter xylinus BNKC 19, cultivated in an alternative nutrient source extracted from banana extract, an agricultural waste product [17,18].

Metal oxides are widely used in various industrial and biomedical applications. Among them, ZnO particles are of great interest owing to their wide band gap (3.37 eV) and large exciton binding energy (60 meV) [22,23]. Therefore, they are utilized in a wide range of applications, including photodetectors, sensors, and solar cells, as well as being used for their antibacterial, anticancer, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory activities in medical products and cosmetics [22,23,24,25]. Environmentally friendly materials are often composited with natural nanofibers due to their low weight, cost-effectiveness, enhanced mechanical properties, and biodegradability [20,21]. In the current study, ZnO was synthesized using a hydrothermal method. There are no harmful chemicals or dangerous physical techniques involved in this process. It is cost-effective and sustainable. The obtained ZnO particles are then composited with BC produced in the Biomolecular Laboratory (Faculty of Interdisciplinary Studies, Khon Kaen University, Thailand). This work aims to prepare BC@ZnO composite materials by a simple and environmentally friendly method and to test the obtained composite materials against pathogenic bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus and Klebsiella pneumoniae. The desired properties of both components are combined to create a multifunctional material with enhanced performance. The antimicrobial activities of the obtained composite materials showed significant inhibition against both bacteria. These results suggested that crosslinking ZnO with biopolymer nanofibers like BC nanofibers, BC@ZnO, represents a potentially valuable approach to fabricating new types of nanohybrid sheets. The novelty lies in the combination of highly biocompatible cellulose and synergistic ZnO, making it an alternative material that is both sustainable and environmentally friendly, which can be used in various food packaging, textile, biomedical, and water purification applications.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Chemicals and materials

Zinc acetate dihydrate (Zn(CH3COO)2·2H2O) was purchased from QRëC (New Zealand). Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and glucose (C6H12O6) were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich. The pathogenic bacteria S. aureus and K. pneumoniae, as well as BC-producing Gluconacetobacter xylinus, were obtained from the Biomolecular Laboratory (Faculty of Interdisciplinary Studies, Khon Kaen University, Thailand) using a method for modifying the BC culture medium from banana extract, yeast extract, and peptone [17,18]. Deionized water was used in all experiments.

2.2 Synthesis of ZnO particles

In this process, 1 g of zinc acetate was dissolved in 25 mL of deionized water and mixed with 0.8 g of NaOH under continuous stirring. Then, 1 g of glucose was added to the mixture and stirred until glucose was completely dissolved. The color of the solution remained cloudy white. The precursor solution was placed into a Teflon-lined stainless steel autoclave and heated to 120°C for 18 h. After the reaction was complete, the container was naturally cooled to room temperature. The ZnO precipitate was collected by centrifugation at 4,000 rpm for 5 min. The obtained ZnO particles were washed several times with deionized water, followed by ethanol to remove impurities and unreacted precursors. After purification, the particles were dried at 60°C for 24 h and stored before further use.

2.3 Production of BC

BC was produced using G. xylinus BNKC 19 [17] in a modified agricultural waste-based culture medium according to Jittaut et al. [18]. It consisted of mixing 83.2 mL·L−1 of banana extract (total sugar content is consistent with the glucose level of a standard Hestrin–Schramm medium of 20 g·L−1), 5 g·L−1 of yeast extract, and 5 g·L−1 of peptone. Single colonies were grown in Hestrin–Schramm medium and incubated at 30°C for 5 days, then transferred to the modified medium, and static culture was carried out for 7 days at 30°C. BC pellicles were collected and boiled in a 0.5 N sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution for 10 min to remove impurities. The pellicles were rinsed with deionized water until their pH became neutral. Purified BC pellicles were stored in deionized water at 4°C before further experimentation.

2.4 Preparation of BC@ZnO composites

ZnO powder was dispersed in deionized water at concentrations of 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.5, and 1% (w/v). After sonicating the prepared colloids for 30 min, 15 pieces of 2 cm × 2 cm × 0.2 cm wet BC membranes were soaked in the ZnO colloid solution with continuous stirring at 200 rpm for 24 h. The prepared samples were kept in zip bags until further tests. Each sample was coded as BC@ZnO-1, BC@ZnO-2, BC@ZnO-3, BC@ZnO-4, and BC@ZnO-5 according to the composition of BC@ZnO composites.

2.5 Characterization

UV-visible spectra of ZnO were recorded using a Shimadzu UV-1800 spectrophotometer over the 300–600 nm wavelength range. The BC and BC@ZnO samples were obtained by freeze-drying in a bulk tray dryer (model GAMMA 2-16 LSC, CHRIST). The structure and surface morphology of freeze-dried BC and BC@ZnO were determined using field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). The sample surfaces were coated with gold before examination under FESEM (Helios NanoLab G3 CX) at ×20,000 magnification at 5 keV. X-ray diffraction (XRD) was used to analyze the crystal structures of the composite materials (Bruker D8 Advance, Germany) with an operating voltage of 40 kV at 15 mA employing Kβ filtered Cu (Kα) (λ = 0.15406 nm) radiation. Measurements were made from 5 to 80° (2θ range).

2.6 Antimicrobial property studies

The antimicrobial activity of BC@ZnO composites and pure BC was evaluated using the agar diffusion method against pathogenic bacteria, Gram-positive S. aureus, and Gram-negative K. pneumoniae. Samples with a diameter of 12 mm and a thickness of 2 mm were sterilized using UV radiation under an ESCO Streamline Class II Biological Safety Cabinet model SC2-4EI using a UV-C lamp with a wavelength of 253.7 nm for 1 h, which is effective in deactivating microorganisms. Before use, both types of bacteria were grown in a nutrient broth medium and incubated at 37°C for 18–24 h. Fresh bacteria with an optical density of 0.5 at a 600 nm wavelength (OD 600 nm) were swabbed onto the surfaces of nutrient agar (NA) plates using sterile cotton swabs. Sterilized BC and BC@ZnO composite samples were placed on top of NA plates and incubated at 37°C for 18–24 h. Streptomycin was used as a positive control, while the pure BC nanofiber was used as a negative control for each experimental set of S. aureus and K. pneumoniae. The antimicrobial activity was estimated by measuring the diameter of the inhibition zones, including the diameter of the sample disc, recorded in millimeters. The results are expressed as mean values ± standard deviation of three independent experiments. Data were tabulated and assessed by one-way analysis of variance followed by Duncan’s multiple range tests at significance (p < 0.05) using the SPSS (Version 29) software.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Morphological and structural characteristics

ZnO particles were synthesized using a hydrothermal method. BC is produced by G. xylinus bacteria using alternative sources of nutrients from agricultural wastes. Then, the ZnO particles were composited with BC nanofibers. In the process of ZnO synthesis, glucose performs several important functions by acting as a reducing agent, facilitating the conversion of Zn²⁺ ions to ZnO. Monosaccharides like glucose, which have linear chains and aldehyde groups, are excellent reducing agents [26]. Additionally, glucose acts as a structural determinant and stabilizing agent by influencing the surface morphology and preventing the aggregation of glucose-capped ZnO [27]. The synthesized ZnO particles were first characterized using UV-Vis spectroscopy to confirm the formation of ZnO. These results are shown in Figure 1a. The ZnO solutions were scanned over wavelengths (λ) ranging from 300 to 600 nm. An absorption peak was found at around 372 nm (Figure 1a), which is ascribed to the intrinsic band gap of ZnO. A similar absorption band that represents ZnO was also obtained from previous work, in which absorption bands were observed from 355 to 380 nm [28,29,30,31,32]. These absorption bands confirm the presence of ZnO and its properties, which are well known for UV protection in sunscreen products [33,34]. For further investigation, ZnO was analyzed under FESEM to observe its morphology and structure. The results are illustrated in Figure 1b and c. As seen in these figures, the morphology of ZnO reveals unique star-like structures with diameters of about 1.3 µm, which can be observed at low to high magnification (×20 k). This star-like structure consists of small flakes with jagged edges connecting to other flakes at the center with a thickness of about 29 nm. A similar ZnO structure was also reported by Ramimoghadam et al. [34]. The morphology of ZnO structures determines their applications. Different morphologies, such as flower-, rose-, flake-, star-, and rod-like structures of ZnO, have been reported [33]. Previous work was aimed at producing ZnO with different structures [33,34,35,36]. Next, FESEM-EDS analysis was employed to determine the elemental constituents in the samples. The purity of ZnO was determined via EDS analysis. Figure 1d presents the EDS spectrum of ZnO. The obtained results revealed two elements, Zn (81.04%) and O (18.96%). These results confirmed that ZnO has high purity. A similar finding was also observed in previous studies [31,37], which showed mass percentages of zinc (Zn) and oxygen (O) equal to 73.6% and 26.1% by weight, respectively. Hasnidawani and co-workers discussed the theoretical approach they employed to determine the respective mass percentages of Zn and O (80.3% and 19.7%) [38]. The synthesized ZnO particles were highly pure, consisting of Zn and O.

Figure 1 (a) UV-Vis spectrum of the synthesized ZnO; FESEM images of ZnO at different magnifications: (b) ×50 k and (c) ×20 k; and (d) EDS analysis.
Figure 1

(a) UV-Vis spectrum of the synthesized ZnO; FESEM images of ZnO at different magnifications: (b) ×50 k and (c) ×20 k; and (d) EDS analysis.

FESEM images of pure BC (Figure 2a) reveal that, in the absence of ZnO, highly interconnected nanofibers with a three-dimensional network were formed with irregularly shaped pores. This feature is unique to BC nanofibers and is not seen in other biopolymers. The distance between BC nanofibers and their highly porous structures (Figure 2a) allows guest-structured materials, like ZnO, to readily diffuse throughout their porous interior network (Figure 2b–f) [39]. After BC nanofibers are immersed in ZnO dispersion, ZnO particles form and attach to the surfaces of the BC nanofibers. The ZnO added to BC nanofibers, consisting of BC@ZnO-1, BC@ZnO-2, BC@ZnO-3, BC@ZnO-4, and BC@ZnO-5, showed the morphologies as shown in Figure 2b–f, respectively. Increased ZnO concentrations result in a dense BC network, causing compact and dense BC nanofibers with decreased porosity. The BC@ZnO-5 sample (Figure 2f) at the highest concentration shows the formation of ZnO within the porous structure of the BC matrix. The elemental composition was determined via EDS analysis. These results are shown in Figure 3. By analyzing the morphological images in Figure 3a, the EDS spectrum shows four elements: carbon (C) (28.94% atomic), nitrogen (N) (3.65% atomic), zinc (33.28% atomic), and oxygen (34.13% atomic), as shown in Figure 3b. The carbon and oxygen contents are elementary components of pure BC nanofibers. A similar finding was also reported in previous work [40]. This result shows that ZnO can be grafted onto the BC surfaces through a simple immersion treatment. XRD was used to analyze the components and the crystalline nature of the samples, pure BC nanofibers, ZnO, and their nanohybrids of BC@ZnO. These results are shown in Figure 4. For the BC nanofibers, the XRD pattern of cellulose I was found in two diffraction peaks at around 14.8° and 22.5°, which is related to the characteristic planes of I α and I β cellulose phases, respectively. These observations are consistent with previous work on BC nanofibers [17,18,19,41]. This indicates that the typical crystalline form of cellulose has the observed peaks at 2θ = 14.30°, 16.70°, and 22.66°, which is attributed to the typical reflection planes (110), (110), and (200) of the cellulose I structure (JCPDS card No. 50-2241) [41]. From the diffracted XRD peaks of BC, the crystallinity index of BC can be estimated using the formula CrI ( % ) = I 002 − I am I 002 × 100 , where I 002 is the maximum intensity of the peak at 2θ = 22.5°, and I am corresponds to the intensity of the baseline at 2θ between 15° and 18°, which is a representative of the amorphous cellulose fraction of cellulose [42]. From the relation, the crystallinity index of BC can be found to be approximately 83%. The ratio between I α and I β polymorphs was found to be 1.76, calculated according to Vazquez et al. [42]. ZnO exhibits sharp diffraction peaks at around 2θ = 32°, 34°, 36°, 47°, 56°, 63°, 66°, 68°, 69°, 73°, and 77°, corresponding to the (100), (002), (101), (102), (110), (103), (200), (112), (201), (004), and (202) planes, respectively. This agrees with our previous research on ZnO [43]. The XRD results confirm that the prepared ZnO powders with their various morphologies correspond to a single phase of the hexagonal wurtzite structure of ZnO (space group P63mc; JCPDS card No. 36-1451) [34]. Using the obtained XRD diffraction data, the interplanar spacing parameter ( d hkl ) can be subsequently calculated using the following equation [44]:

(1) d hkl = 1 4 3 h 2 + k 2 + hk a 2 + l 2 c 2

Figure 2 FESEM images of (a) pure BC, and BC@ZnO composites at different ZnO concentrations: (b) BC@ZnO-1, (c) BC@ZnO-2, (d) BC@ZnO-3, (e) BC@ZnO-4, and (f) BC@ZnO-5.
Figure 2

FESEM images of (a) pure BC, and BC@ZnO composites at different ZnO concentrations: (b) BC@ZnO-1, (c) BC@ZnO-2, (d) BC@ZnO-3, (e) BC@ZnO-4, and (f) BC@ZnO-5.

Figure 3 (a) FESEM images of BC@ZnO-5 composites, and (b) EDS analysis of BC@ZnO-5 composites.
Figure 3

(a) FESEM images of BC@ZnO-5 composites, and (b) EDS analysis of BC@ZnO-5 composites.

Figure 4 XRD patterns of pure BC nanofiber, ZnO, and BC@ZnO samples.
Figure 4

XRD patterns of pure BC nanofiber, ZnO, and BC@ZnO samples.

The lattice parameters a and c in Eq. 1 are defined as a = λ 3 sin θ 100 and c = λ sin θ 002 , where λ is the X-ray radiation wavelength (1.5418 Å ), sin θ 100 and θ 002 are the angles of diffraction peaks (100) and (002), respectively. The indices h , k , and l are the crystal planes of the materials. Therefore, the interplanar spacing d hkl parameters were 2.804, 2.596, 2.467, 1.905, 1.619, 1.472, 1.402, 1.373, 1.353, 1.298, and 1.233 Å for the (100), (002), (101), (102), (110), (103), (200), (112), (201), (004), and (202) planes, respectively, which are in good agreement with those of Perillo et al. [44]. Moreover, the unit cell volume, V uc , for the hexagonal structure can be calculated by using V uc = 3 3 2 a 2 c . The calculated lattice parameters a and c , the cell volume, and the c a ratio of ZnO are presented in Table 1. All parameters are in good agreement with those from Perillo et al. [44]. After ZnO particles were loaded on the surfaces of BC nanofibers, the diffraction peaks of BC nanofiber ZnO particles were still observed. It can be deduced from the XRD patterns of BC@ZnO composites that the presence of ZnO did not change the crystal structure of the BC matrix. The ZnO structures crystallized in the BC nanofibers matrix, and no other impurity peaks or any peak shifts were observed in the EDS analysis of Figure 4.

Table 1

Calculated unit cell parameters, cell volume, and c/a ratio of ZnO

Parameters Values
This work Ref. [44]
a [Å] 3.238 3.249
c [Å] 5.192 5.206
c/a 1.603 1.602
V uc [Å3] 46.105 47.630

3.2 Evaluation of antibacterial activity

The antibacterial activity of pure BC and BC@ZnO composites prepared using different ZnO concentrations was examined against S. aureus (a Gram-positive bacterium) and K. pneumoniae (a Gram-negative bacterium) using an agar diffusion method. Their bacterial inhibition zones are shown in Figures 5 and 6. Pure BC did not exhibit any antibacterial activity while BC@ZnO composites showed good activity against S. aureus and K. pneumoniae, as evidenced by inhibition zones around the samples. The BC@ZnO-5 composites exhibited antibacterial activities against S. aureus and K. pneumoniae with inhibition zones of 15.83 ± 0.29 and 14.67 ± 0.29 mm, respectively, showing higher antibacterial activity against S. aureus than K. pneumoniae, as shown in Table 2. This may have been due to the specific composition and structure of the Gram-negative bacterium’s cell wall, which has an additional outer membrane composed of lipopolysaccharides. This improves the barrier properties of the outer membrane and thus increases its resistance [45]. The enhanced antimicrobial activity exhibited by the BC@ZnO composites may be due to the smaller crystal size of ZnO in the composite material and the larger surface area provided by cellulose [46]. The ZnO concentration in the composite played an important role in the activity of the prepared composite material. As the ZnO concentration increased, the widths of the inhibition zones of both bacterial strains widened significantly [47].

Figure 5 Antimicrobial activities of BC@ZnO composites using an agar diffusion method against (a) S. aureus and (b) K. pneumoniae (0: pure BC, 1: BC@ZnO-1, 2: BC@ZnO-2, 3: BC@ZnO-3, 4: BC@ZnO-4, 5: BC@ZnO-5, and 6: streptomycin antibiotic).
Figure 5

Antimicrobial activities of BC@ZnO composites using an agar diffusion method against (a) S. aureus and (b) K. pneumoniae (0: pure BC, 1: BC@ZnO-1, 2: BC@ZnO-2, 3: BC@ZnO-3, 4: BC@ZnO-4, 5: BC@ZnO-5, and 6: streptomycin antibiotic).

Figure 6 Antimicrobial activity of ZnO at different concentrations against S. aureus (blue) and K. pneumoniae (orange).
Figure 6

Antimicrobial activity of ZnO at different concentrations against S. aureus (blue) and K. pneumoniae (orange).

Table 2

Zones of inhibition (in mm) of the samples against the tested microorganisms

Zone of inhibition (mm)
S. aureus K. pneumoniae
BC 12.00 ± 0.00d 12.00 ± 0.00e
BC@ZnO-1 12.67 ± 0.76d 12.00 ± 0.00e
BC@ZnO-2 12.67 ± 0.76d 12.00 ± 0.00e
BC@ZnO-3 13.83 ± 0.29c 13.33 ± 0.58d
BC@ZnO-4 14.33 ± 0.29c 14.00 ± 0.50c
BC@ZnO-5 15.83 ± 0.29b 14.67 ± 0.29b
Streptomycin 17.67 ± 0.29a 21.29 ± 0.29a

Mean values with different superscripts in each row are significantly different by Duncan’s multiple range test (p < 0.05).

The antibacterial mechanism of ZnO structures in composites could be attributed to various mechanisms, including the interaction of ZnO with the cell membrane. Cells were partially damaged and distorted in shape compared to the untreated ones. These morphological changes may be caused by several chemical and physical effects of ZnO [48]. This includes cell membrane abnormalities caused by the accumulation of positively charged Zn2+ on the membrane surfaces and energy metabolism abnormalities due to the internalization of ZnO into cells [49]. ZnO can slowly release Zn2+ and penetrate through cell membranes, resulting in protein denaturation and reproductive disruption. Additionally, Zn2+ can also alter electron transport processes, leading to abnormal cellular respiration [50]. Zn2+ may be electrostatically attracted to the negatively charged areas of the bacterial cell membrane surface, causing an imbalance of cell membrane charges. This results in abnormal cell shapes and bacterial lysis [4]. However, reactive oxygen species (ROS) are widely accepted for cell inactivation. When in contact with bacterial cells, ZnO produces ROS such as superoxides (O2−), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and hydroxyl radicals (OH−) [51,52]. ROS can cleave the chemical bonds of organic compounds in bacterial cells to produce bactericidal effects. This results in bactericidal activity since O2− cannot pass through the cell membrane. Then, OH− accumulates on the cell membrane surface, causing the membrane to rupture. Concurrently, H2O2 penetrates cell membranes, causing membrane and DNA damage [53]. With a larger contact area, more ROSs are produced, resulting in greater antibacterial activity. Cellulose is a substrate that promotes good dispersion of ZnO, resulting in a larger surface area [45].

4 Conclusions

In this work, BC nanofibers were prepared by simple impregnation with ZnO to obtain a material with antimicrobial properties for biomedical applications. The fabricated BC@ZnO composite membranes were physically characterized and evaluated for their antimicrobial properties. UV-Vis spectroscopy and XRD analysis were employed to investigate the decoration formation. FESEM and EDS analyses showed the formation of BC@ZnO composite nanofibers with homogeneous dispersion of ZnO, which were uniformly covered by BC nanofibers to form a coating layer. The BC@ZnO composites exhibit antibacterial properties, as illustrated by the formation of inhibition zones for S. aureus and K. pneumoniae. Inhibition zone width depends on the ZnO concentration in BC@ZnO membranes. The antimicrobial properties of the formed composite membranes are due to ZnO. These BC@ZnO composite membranes have great potential for application as antimicrobial biomembranes for wound healing.

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Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge the use of the facilities and support of the Faculty of Interdisciplinary Studies, Khon Kaen University, Nong Khai Campus. We are grateful to the faculty and staff of the Biosafety Laboratory Level 2, Faculty of Interdisciplinary Studies, for their assistance.

  1. Funding information: This research received funding support from the National Science Research and Innovation Fund (NSRF).

  2. Author contributions: Sasiporn Audtarat: methodology, data curation, original draft and editing, visualization, and investigation. Wullapa Wongsinlatam: data curation, writing, and investigation. Jaruwan Thepsiri: data curation, writing, and investigation. Thananchai Dasri: supervision, conceptualization, methodology, data curation, writing – review and editing, visualization, and investigation.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

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Received: 2025-02-24
Accepted: 2025-06-25
Published Online: 2025-07-29

© 2025 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  3. Green adsorbents for water remediation: Removal of Cr(vi) and Ni(ii) using Prosopis glandulosa sawdust and biochar
  4. Green approach for the synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles from methanolic stem extract of Andrographis paniculata and evaluation of antidiabetic activity: In silico GSK-3β analysis
  5. Development of a green and rapid ethanol-based HPLC assay for aspirin tablets and feasibility evaluation of domestically produced bioethanol in Thailand as a sustainable mobile phase
  6. A facile biodegradation of polystyrene microplastic by Bacillus subtilis
  7. Enhanced synthesis of fly ash-derived hydrated sodium silicate adsorbents via low-temperature alkaline hydrothermal treatment for advanced environmental applications
  8. Impact of metal nanoparticles biosynthesized using camel milk on bacterial growth and copper removal from wastewater
  9. Preparation of Co/Cr-MOFs for efficient removal of fleroxacin and Rhodamine B
  10. Applying nanocarbon prepared from coal as an anode in lithium-ion batteries
  11. Improved electrochemical synthesis of Cu–Fe/brass foil alloy followed by combustion for high-efficiency photoelectrodes and hydrogen production in alkaline solutions
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  13. Biosynthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles: Multifunctional potential applications in anticancer, antibacterial, and B. subtilis DNA gyrase docking
  14. Anticancer and antimicrobial effects of green-synthesized silver nanoparticles using Teucrium polium leaves extract
  15. Green synthesis of eco-friendly bioplastics from Chlorella and Lithothamnion algae for safe and sustainable solutions for food packaging
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  17. Green synthesis of Ag@Cu and silver nanowire using Pterospermum heterophyllum extracts for surface-enhanced Raman scattering
  18. Green synthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles from Algerian propolis: Exploring biochemical, structural, antimicrobial, and anti-diabetic properties
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  53. Application of iron-based catalysts in the microwave treatment of environmental pollutants
  54. Enhanced adsorption of Cu(ii) from wastewater using potassium humate-modified coconut husk biochar
  55. Adsorption of heavy metal ions from water by Fe3O4 nano-particles
  56. Green synthesis of parsley-derived silver nanoparticles and their enhanced antimicrobial and antioxidant effects against foodborne resistant bacteria
  57. Unwrapping the phytofabrication of bimetallic silver–selenium nanoparticles: Antibacterial, Anti-virulence (Targeting magA and toxA genes), anti-diabetic, antioxidant, anti-ovarian, and anti-prostate cancer activities
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  59. Eggshell membranes as green carriers for Burkholderia cepacia lipase: A biocatalytic strategy for sustainable wastewater bioremediation
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  61. Enhanced electrochemical synthesis of Ni–Fe/brass foil alloy with subsequent combustion for high-performance photoelectrode and hydrogen production applications
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  71. Special Issue: Valorisation of Biowaste to Nanomaterials for Environmental Applications
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https://doi.org/10.1515/gps-2025-0047
Keywords for this article
bacterial cellulose; zinc oxide; composite; antimicrobial
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Optimized green synthesis of silver nanoparticles from guarana seed skin extract with antibacterial potential
  3. Green adsorbents for water remediation: Removal of Cr(vi) and Ni(ii) using Prosopis glandulosa sawdust and biochar
  4. Green approach for the synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles from methanolic stem extract of Andrographis paniculata and evaluation of antidiabetic activity: In silico GSK-3β analysis
  5. Development of a green and rapid ethanol-based HPLC assay for aspirin tablets and feasibility evaluation of domestically produced bioethanol in Thailand as a sustainable mobile phase
  6. A facile biodegradation of polystyrene microplastic by Bacillus subtilis
  7. Enhanced synthesis of fly ash-derived hydrated sodium silicate adsorbents via low-temperature alkaline hydrothermal treatment for advanced environmental applications
  8. Impact of metal nanoparticles biosynthesized using camel milk on bacterial growth and copper removal from wastewater
  9. Preparation of Co/Cr-MOFs for efficient removal of fleroxacin and Rhodamine B
  10. Applying nanocarbon prepared from coal as an anode in lithium-ion batteries
  11. Improved electrochemical synthesis of Cu–Fe/brass foil alloy followed by combustion for high-efficiency photoelectrodes and hydrogen production in alkaline solutions
  12. Precipitation of terephthalic acid from post-consumer polyethylene terephthalate waste fractions
  13. Biosynthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles: Multifunctional potential applications in anticancer, antibacterial, and B. subtilis DNA gyrase docking
  14. Anticancer and antimicrobial effects of green-synthesized silver nanoparticles using Teucrium polium leaves extract
  15. Green synthesis of eco-friendly bioplastics from Chlorella and Lithothamnion algae for safe and sustainable solutions for food packaging
  16. Optimizing coal water slurry concentration via synergistic coal blending and particle size distribution
  17. Green synthesis of Ag@Cu and silver nanowire using Pterospermum heterophyllum extracts for surface-enhanced Raman scattering
  18. Green synthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles from Algerian propolis: Exploring biochemical, structural, antimicrobial, and anti-diabetic properties
  19. Simultaneous quantification of mefenamic acid and paracetamol in fixed-dose combination tablet dosage forms using the green HPTLC method
  20. Green synthesis of titanium dioxide nanoparticles using green tea (Camellia sinensis) extract: Characteristics and applications
  21. Pharmaceutical properties for green fabricated ZnO and Ag nanoparticle-mediated Borago officinalis: In silico predications study
  22. Synthesis and optimization of gemcitabine-loaded nanoparticles by using Box–Behnken design for treating prostate cancer: In vitro characterization and in vivo pharmacokinetic study
  23. A comparative analysis of single-step and multi-step methods for producing magnetic activated carbon from palm kernel shells: Adsorption of methyl orange dye
  24. Sustainable green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using walnut septum waste: Characterization and antibacterial properties
  25. Efficient electrocatalytic reduction of CO2 to CO over Ni/Y diatomic catalysts
  26. Greener and magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles as a recyclable catalyst for Knoevenagel condensation and degradation of industrial Congo red dye
  27. Recycling of HDPE-giant reed composites: Processability and performance
  28. Fabrication of antibacterial chitosan/PVA nanofibers co-loaded with curcumin and cefadroxil for wound healing
  29. Cost-effective one-pot fabrication of iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide nanomaterials for supercapacitor charge storage
  30. Novel trimetallic (TiO2–MgO–Au) nanoparticles: Biosynthesis, characterization, antimicrobial, and anticancer activities
  31. Green-synthesized chromium oxide nanoparticles using pomegranate husk extract: Multifunctional bioactivity in antioxidant potential, lipase and amylase inhibition, and cytotoxicity
  32. Therapeutic potential of sustainable zinc oxide nanoparticles biosynthesized using Tradescantia spathacea aqueous leaf extract
  33. Chitosan-coated superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles synthesized using Carica papaya bark extract: Evaluation of antioxidant, antibacterial, and anticancer activity of HeLa cervical cancer cells
  34. Antioxidant potential of peptide fractions from tuna dark muscle protein isolate: A green enzymatic approach
  35. Clerodendron phlomoides leaf extract-mediated synthesis of selenium nanoparticles for multi-applications
  36. Optimization of cellulose yield from oil palm trunks with deep eutectic solvents using response surface methodology
  37. Nitrogen-doped carbon dots from Brahmi (Bacopa monnieri): Metal-free probe for efficient detection of metal pollutants and methylene blue dye degradation
  38. High energy density pseudocapacitor based on a nanoporous tungsten(VI) oxide iodide/poly(2-amino-1-mercaptobenzene) composite
  39. Green synthesized Ag–Cu nanocomposites as an improved strategy to fight multidrug-resistant bacteria by inhibition of biofilm formation: In vitro and in silico assessment study
  40. In vitro evaluation of antibacterial activity and associated cytotoxicity of biogenic silver nanoparticles using various extracts of Tabernaemontana ventricosa
  41. Fabrication of novel composite materials by impregnating ZnO particles into bacterial cellulose nanofibers for antimicrobial applications
  42. Solidification floating organic drop for dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction estimation of copper in different water samples
  43. Kinetics and synthesis of formation of phosphate composites from low-grade phosphorites in the presence of phosphate–siliceous shales and oil sludge
  44. Removal of minocycline and terramycin by graphene oxide and Cr/Mn base metal–organic framework composites
  45. Microfluidic preparation of ceramide E liposomes and properties
  46. Therapeutic potential of Anamirta cocculus (L.) Wight & Arn. leaf aqueous extract-mediated biogenic gold nanoparticles
  47. Antioxidant-rich Micromeria imbricata leaf extract as a medium for the eco-friendly preparation of silver-doped zinc oxide nanoparticles with antibacterial properties
  48. Influence of different colors with light regime on Chlorella sp., biomass, pigments, and lipids quantity and quality
  49. Experimental vibrational analysis of natural fiber composite reinforced with waste materials for energy absorbing applications
  50. Green synthesis of sea buckthorn-mediated ZnO nanoparticles: Biological applications and acute nanotoxicity studies
  51. Production of liquid smoke by consecutive electroporation and microwave-assisted pyrolysis of empty fruit bunches
  52. Synthesis of MPAA based on polyacrylamide and gossypol resin and applications in the encapsulation of ammophos
  53. Application of iron-based catalysts in the microwave treatment of environmental pollutants
  54. Enhanced adsorption of Cu(ii) from wastewater using potassium humate-modified coconut husk biochar
  55. Adsorption of heavy metal ions from water by Fe3O4 nano-particles
  56. Green synthesis of parsley-derived silver nanoparticles and their enhanced antimicrobial and antioxidant effects against foodborne resistant bacteria
  57. Unwrapping the phytofabrication of bimetallic silver–selenium nanoparticles: Antibacterial, Anti-virulence (Targeting magA and toxA genes), anti-diabetic, antioxidant, anti-ovarian, and anti-prostate cancer activities
  58. Optimizing ultrasound-assisted extraction process of anti-inflammatory ingredients from Launaea sarmentosa: A novel approach
  59. Eggshell membranes as green carriers for Burkholderia cepacia lipase: A biocatalytic strategy for sustainable wastewater bioremediation
  60. Research progress of deep eutectic solvents in fuel desulfurization
  61. Enhanced electrochemical synthesis of Ni–Fe/brass foil alloy with subsequent combustion for high-performance photoelectrode and hydrogen production applications
  62. Valorization of baobab fruit shell as a filler fiber for enhanced polyethylene degradation and soil fertility
  63. Valorization of Agave durangensis bagasse for cardboard-type paper production circular economy approach
  64. Green priming strategies using seaweed extract and citric acid to improve early growth and antioxidant activity in lentil
  65. Review Article
  66. Sustainable innovations in garlic extraction: A comprehensive review and bibliometric analysis of green extraction methods
  67. Natural sustainable coatings for marine applications: advances, challenges, and future perspectives
  68. Integration of traditional medicinal plants with polymeric nanofibers for wound healing
  69. Rapid Communication
  70. In situ supported rhodium catalyst on mesoporous silica for chemoselective hydrogenation of nitriles to primary amines
  71. Special Issue: Valorisation of Biowaste to Nanomaterials for Environmental Applications
  72. Valorization of coconut husk into biochar for lead (Pb2+) adsorption
  73. Corrigendum
  74. Corrigendum to “An updated review on carbon nanomaterials: Types, synthesis, functionalization and applications, degradation and toxicity”
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