Home Physical Sciences Valorization of baobab fruit shell as a filler fiber for enhanced polyethylene degradation and soil fertility
Article Open Access

Valorization of baobab fruit shell as a filler fiber for enhanced polyethylene degradation and soil fertility

  • Musa Abubakar Tadda ORCID logo EMAIL logo , Mostafa Gouda ORCID logo EMAIL logo , Umar Abdulbaki Danhassan , Abubakar Shitu , Kamel M. Eltohamy , Jialong Zhou , Qili Yu , Dezhao Liu and Songming Zhu EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: November 5, 2025
Download Article (PDF)
Become an author with De Gruyter Brill
Submit Manuscript Author Information
Green Processing and Synthesis
From the journal Green Processing and Synthesis Volume 14 Issue 1

Abstract

Baobab fruit shell waste (BFS) is well known for its high contribution to the sustainable green environment. This study investigated BFS as a filler fiber mixed with polyethylene (PE) for its degradation behavior and its potential as a nutrient source for soil. Screened BFS was crushed and blended with PE at four levels (PE/BFS: 100/0, 95/5, 90/10, and 85/15 wt%). Extruded mixtures were characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and diffusive gradients in thin films (DGT), along with a soil burial test, following standard methods. SEM-EDS results indicated an enrichment of blends with trace essential nutrients (Na, Mg, P, K, Ca), which are crucial for metabolism, protein stabilization, and enhancing denitrifiers in microbial cells. TGA and mechanical studies indicated that PE/BFS degraded at a faster rate (starting at 249.1 °C) than the control (376.8 °C). The elongation at break and tensile strength of pure PE decreased with increased BFS content, with elongation at break showing a sharper reduction (p < 0.05). DGT results confirmed the presence of beneficial compounds and nutrients in the soil with BFS blends, suggesting its potential as a plant nutrient source. It is crucial to further valorize BFS and organic waste into value-added products for environmental sustainability.

Keywords: baobab fruit shell (BFS); polyethylene (PE) degradation; soil fertility; diffusive gradients in thin films (DGT); microplastics; crop growth

1 Introduction

Burning biomass is one of the most significant global sources of air pollution, as it releases greenhouse gases (GHGs) equivalent to 53.8 billion metric tons of CO2e globally into the atmosphere, resulting in a detrimental effect on the health of all living things [1], 2]. Although using biomass as an energy source, especially for cooking and heating houses during winter, has a long history [1], its negative consequences are being felt globally [3]. For decades, numerous studies have reported various health issues directly related to GHG emissions and proposed solutions to address this menace, including the reuse of biomass in other sectors (e.g., renewable energy, building materials) instead of open burning [3], 4].

Correspondingly, microplastic (MP) pollution has been another silent disaster plaguing our environment for a long time [5]. The MP sources are numerous and categorized as primary (virgin plastic pellets, paint, sewage treatment plants, vehicle tires, and personal care products) and secondary (plastic mulch, domestic plastic waste, and fishing waste) sources [6], 7]. It has been reported that MP can cause cancer in humans, exterminate aquatic species, degrade soil fertility by blocking pore spaces, increase soil temperature, kill soil microbes, and have many other effects [8], [9], [10]. The aforementioned adverse effects can persist for longer than expected, particularly due to their recalcitrant nature, which can take years to be eliminated from the human body and the environment [10], 11]. Therefore, it can be deduced that MP’s devastating effects, due to its ubiquitous nature, necessitate a collective effort through research and development (R&D) to ensure a cleaner environment for all beings. Meanwhile, this can be achieved by developing alternatives to plastics, such as blending plastics with organic biomass (which degrades more quickly) and establishing a sustainable and environmentally friendly management system to remove them from the environment easily.

Moreover, using organic plant materials to enhance plastic degradation has been gaining acceptance due to the nature of these materials and the possibility of their blend to completely biodegrade in soil within a year or even less, which could benefit the environment [12]. Plant materials, such as baobab powder, have been reported as an excellent filler fibre for enhancing the biodegradation of PBS (poly(butylene succinate)) and increasing its abundance in bioreactors [13]. The baobab (Adansonia digitata), also known as the “Tree of Life,” is a highly distinctive tree primarily found in the arid and semi-arid regions of sub-Saharan Africa [14]. The baobab tree’s parts, including its roots, stem, leaves, fruit pulp, seeds, shells, and fibrous filaments, are all considered highly useful, with over 300 applications across the medicinal, food, and building sectors [15], 16]. However, baobab fruit shell (BFS), which occupies more than 80 % of the baobab fruit [17], is considered waste and discarded indiscriminately, posing a danger to the environment.

The BFS and other similar organic biomass wastes are currently poorly managed. In some places, they are even burned in the open air, negatively affecting the environment in many ways (air, land, and water pollution) [18]. Interestingly, previous literature has found many beneficial compounds and essential nutrients in the BFS and other parts of the baobab tree, such as Magnesium (Mg), Calcium (Ca), Iron (Fe), Potassium (K), Phosphorus (P), Sodium (Na), and Manganese (Mn) [19]. Some researchers have considered producing activated carbon from BFS to create economic value instead of discarding it as waste [18], 20], 21]. Also, BFS was found to be rich in lignin (nearly 55 %) compared to cellulose and hemicellulose polymers (about 25 % and 21 %, respectively) [22], which enhances its structural integrity and makes it suitable for mulch applications. Additionally, despite BFS being a locally available agricultural by-product in many African regions, it remains vastly underutilized. Its durable, fibrous nature ensures slower decomposition compared to softer biomass alternatives, offering prolonged soil coverage. Moreover, BFS has a neutral pH and minimal phytotoxicity, reducing risks to soil health and plant growth, and could also be used in making briquettes [23]. Thus, considering the benefits mentioned above and the potential of BFS, it can be viewed as a potential filler fibre that could enhance plastic degradation when used to produce a mulch and improve plant growth by providing the necessary nutrients.

The use of mulch cover (i.e., plasticulture) cannot be overstated, as it provides farmers with numerous advantages by enhancing crop ripening and accelerating its growth [24]. Mulch covers are made from either low-density polyethylene (LDPE) or high-density polyethylene (HDPE), which can be black or clear in colour depending on the intended use; the black types warm the soil more than the clear types [25]. However, practicing plasticulture is accompanied by a great challenge, especially when the materials become old and need replacement or after the cropping season, which mostly ends with pieces of plastic buried in the soil [26]. Measuring the quantity of plastics left in soils after using bio-degradable mulch is crucial, as incomplete bio-degradation might lead to a build-up of plastics in the soil [27]. The assessment process can be challenging due to the ability of plastics to fragment into micro- and nanoparticles, making them hard to separate and identify from soil samples [12], 27]. Besides, the cost, management, and high-temperature generation under the mulch cover made from PE were additional disadvantages associated with plasticulture [28]. Although plastic pollution in water ecosystems is a topic of considerable discussion, less attention has been given to the severe threats it poses to agricultural landscapes worldwide [5]. Additionally, PE, being recalcitrant due to its slow degradation while still being widely used globally, has attracted considerable attention in finding ways to enhance its degradation to ensure a sustainable and serene environment free from plastic pollution [29].

So far, there is currently limited information on the potential use of BFS waste, particularly in comparison to other studies, which have examined the use of plastic mulches versus starch-based biodegradable plastic mulch [12], 26]. To date, no research has examined the capacity of BFS to enhance soil fertility and its degradability when used as a filler fiber in PE. To reduce microplastic pollution and improve environmental management and remediation, this study aims to investigate whether BFS waste can simultaneously increase soil fertility and promote PE breakdown when used as a filler fibre. During this study, standard methods, laboratory procedures, and techniques were employed, including scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and diffusive gradients in thin films (DGT), in addition to a soil burial test.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Materials

The extrusion-grade low-density biodegradable PE was acquired from Dongguan Polymer Materials Co., Ltd. (Guangdong, China). The PE’s physical characteristics were: density, 0.92 g/cm3 at 25 °C; molecular weight, 9.0 × 104 g/mol; melting point, 120 °C; melt flow index, 0.3 g/10 min. The BFS used (dried fresh shells with the pulp and seeds removed) was supplied by air from Kano State, Nigeria. The grinder (BFT-200A, China), mixer (CW Brabender, USA), and extruder (HAAKE PolyLab OS, Germany). ZrO-Chelex DGT membranes and membrane holders were purchased from EasySensor Co., Ltd. (Nanjing, China).

2.2 Preparation and characterization of PE/BFS blends

The PE granules and BFS were vacuum-dried for 24 h at 60 °C and 37 °C before mixing. The BFS was subsequently ground into a powder using a 90 mm mesh filter, and the PE and BFS were then dry-mixed at 95/5, 90/10, and 85/15 wt% using a lab mixer (BFT-500A, China). After dry mixing the samples, a rotary thermal batch mixer (HL-200, Science and Technology Instrument Factory, Jilin University, China) was used to produce the blends using the following parameters: mixing chamber volume = 50 g; number of times each sample was added to the mixer = 10 (50 g × 10 = 500 g/sample); PE/BFS ratio = 95/5, 90/10, and 85/15 wt%; mixing time = 15 min/sample; mixing temperature = 180 °C; mixing speed = 20 rpm. The homogeneous PE/BFS blends prepared were then extracted from the thermal batch mixer, which had irregular shapes, and later cut into small rectangular pieces of approximately 0.5 × 0.5 × 0.25 cm. The selection of 95/5, 90/10, and 85/15 wt% ratios was based on previous literature, where baobab powder (BP) was mixed with PBS at BP ratios of 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 wt% [30]. Hence, through thermogravimetric and dynamic-mechanical analysis, BP ratios above 20 wt% yielded very fragile PBS/BP blends, which were found to be highly unstable due to containing a significant amount of ash [30].

Subsequently, the prepared PE/BFS blends were characterized using SEM, EDS, and TGA techniques, and then the mechanical properties of the samples were checked. Pure PE was used as the control in this study. At least three replicates were considered during the analysis. Figure 1 illustrates how the BFS sample can be sourced from baobab trees and how it is considered waste.

Figure 1: Illustration of how the BFS was sourced from the baobab trees.
Figure 1:

Illustration of how the BFS was sourced from the baobab trees.

2.3 Characterization methods and experimental procedures

2.3.1 Surface morphology analysis (SEM-EDS)

The elemental composition and surface morphology of the pure PE and PE/BFS blends were performed using GeminiSEM300 (ZEISS-Microscopy, Germany) at different magnifications. The device had a Bruker EDS detector to provide the needed SEM-EDS results. Smaller fresh samples were cut and attached to sample holders, each named accordingly following standard procedures. Before testing, the samples were coated with a thin layer of gold in an ion sputter (MC1000-Hitachi, Japan).

2.3.2 Structural analysis using fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)

To identify potential changes in key functional groups brought about by the addition of BFS, the chemical structure of pure PE and PE/BFS blends was characterized using an FTIR device (Nicolet iS50 FT-IR, Thermo Scientific, USA). The wavenumber range scanned for the samples was 4,000–400 cm−1.

2.3.3 Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)

TGA was carried out on the pure PE and PE/BFS blends under nitrogen flow (40 ml/min) using TGA-Q500 (TA-Instruments, USA). This study aims to investigate the effect of temperature increase on the samples, thereby examining the thermal degradation behavior of the tested samples. The test temperature range was 50–600 °C at a rate of 10 °C/min, while the sample weight used was 4.9242 ± 0.06216 mg.

2.3.4 Mechanical properties testing

The tensile properties of the pure PE and PE/BFS blends were tested using a Zwick/Roell Z020 (Zwick, Germany) at a cross-head speed of 30 mm/min. Five replicates of dumbbell-shaped samples were tested, with their average used in calculating the mean value. Briefly, the broad-waisted dumbbell-shaped mechanical test specimens (75 × 12.5 × 1.8 mm3) were produced using the HAAKE Minijet II (Thermo Scientific, USA). The operating conditions of the Minijet II were as follows: mould temperature = 45 °C; injection chamber temperature = 200 °C; injection pressure = 800 bar; pressure application time = 10 seconds; post-pressure = 400 bar; and post-pressure time = 15 seconds. After the machine was ready, the prepared PE/BFS blends were then injected into the mold and then placed into the machine. The process continued as the molded specimens were removed from the mold following standard laboratory procedures.

2.3.5 Soil burial test for nutrient enrichment assessment

The soil burial test was conducted according to Vasile et al. [31], with slight modification. Briefly, natural soil, which typically falls into the sandy-loam soil category (Table 1), with excellent water retention ability, was used in this study. The soil was collected from Lishui City (28.35521°N, 119.76349°E), Liandu District, Zhejiang Province, China. The detailed properties of the soil sample used are given in Table 1. Before adding the samples to the soil, small rectangular pieces were cut from the PE/BFS samples (approximately 0.5 × 0.5 × 0.25 cm), oven-dried, and then transferred into a desiccator, where they were kept for 48 h at ambient temperature before weighing and adding them to the soil. Soil samples with pure PE granules added were considered the control. The other soil samples contained PE/BFS granules (95/5, 90/10, 85/15 wt%) of approximately 10 ± 0.05 g, which were mixed thoroughly before being added to open containers (500 cm3), with three replicates for each treatment. Before adding the PE/BFS granules to the soil, approximately 280 g of the soil samples were measured and added to open containers. The samples were then buried in the soil after thorough mixing. The containers were then serially marked, placed outside, and exposed to the natural atmosphere, along with other experiments, where the temperature range was approximately 28–35 °C. The soil was kept moist throughout the experiment to prevent affecting the microfloral content [31]. The soil was then allowed to remain under the above conditions for 45 days, with checks conducted every other day. The 45 days chosen were to simulate the average number of days it takes tomatoes to mature from the transplanting date to harvest (e.g., the Early Sub-Arctic Plenty variety takes 42 days), depending on the array [32]. Table 1 shows the summarized characteristics of the studied soil sample.

Table 1:

Summarized characteristics of the studied soil sample.

pH Sand Silt Loam TFea TPb TAlc OMd CECe WCf
(%) (%) (%) (g/kg) (g/kg) (g/kg) (g/kg) (cmol/kg) (%)
5.82 69.36 18.43 12.21 1.00 0.50 1.10 15.80 71.43 1.50

  1. aTFe, total iron; bTP, total phosphorus; cTAl, total aluminium; dOM, organic matter; eCEC, cation exchange capacity; fWC, water content; soil sample size (n) = 12.

2.3.6 Diffusive gradients in thin films (DGT) deployment and analysis

The method of Eltohamy et al. [33] was used to measure the maximum water-holding capacity (MWHC) of the soil by adding Milli-Q water (18.2 MΩ cm, Millipore) until water glistened on the soil surface. One hundred eighty grams of soil samples were soaked in 50 % MWHC and incubated for 48 h at 25 ± 1 °C. The water content was then increased for a further 24 h to 100 % MWHC. After that, the water content was raised to 100 % MWHC for 24 h. We employed ZrO-Chelex binding gel (0.4 mm thickness), agarose diffusive gel (0.8 mm thickness), a 450 nm pore size filter membrane (0.10 mm thickness; Durapore® PVDF membrane, Millipore), and a DGT exposure window (3.14 cm2) with dual-mode DGT holders (EasySensor Co. Ltd., Nanjing, China). For optimal interaction with the soil, DGTs were filled with soil and gently shaken by hand after deployment for 24 h at 25 ± 1 °C. There were three duplicates of every soil sample.

To remove any remaining soil particles, DGTs were washed with Milli-Q water after retrieval. Before analysis, binding gels were separated and eluted for 16 h using a 1 M sodium hydroxide solution. Miniaturized molybdenum blue and phenanthroline colourimetric techniques were used to identify labile P and Fe [34]. Using 103Rh as an internal standard, the inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (ICP-MS) device (Agilent Technologies 7700, USA) was used to analyze the other labile metals (Mn, Cu, and Zn). The DGT deployment and retrieval diagrams for the nutrient analysis are displayed in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Illustrations of the DGT deployment and retrieval for nutrients analysis: (a) DGT membrane before adding the soil sample; (b) DGT membrane after adding the soil sample; (c) DGT membranes after completing the deployment of the samples; (d) DGT membranes after retrieving the binding gels. A1–A3 represent the control (i.e., pure PE containing samples); B1–B3 represent the PE/BFS (95/5); C1–C3 represent the PE/BFS (90/10); D1–D3 represent the PE/BFS (85/15).
Figure 2:

Illustrations of the DGT deployment and retrieval for nutrients analysis: (a) DGT membrane before adding the soil sample; (b) DGT membrane after adding the soil sample; (c) DGT membranes after completing the deployment of the samples; (d) DGT membranes after retrieving the binding gels. A1–A3 represent the control (i.e., pure PE containing samples); B1–B3 represent the PE/BFS (95/5); C1–C3 represent the PE/BFS (90/10); D1–D3 represent the PE/BFS (85/15).

2.4 Statistical analysis

SPSS software (version 25.0, IBM, USA) and MS Excel were employed to evaluate and analyze the data. The findings were analyzed using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Duncan’s test at p < 0.05. Graphs and visualizations were drawn using OriginPro 2021 software (OriginLab Corporation, USA).

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Elemental characterization and morphology of PE/BFS blends and pure PE

The findings of the SEM-EDS techniques used to characterize the prepared PE/BFS and PE are displayed in Figure 3. The results (Figure 3(a)) showed that carbon (C) predominated the pure PE, which is known as the most basic carbon-based polymer conceivable [35]. Nevertheless, as shown in Figure 3(b)–(d) show that the new PE/BFS mixes were enhanced with vital elements (Na, Mg, P, K, and Ca) at trace levels. It was observed that the trace levels of these essential elements varied in the EDS results of the mixes, which may be attributed to the increase in carbon content and decrease in oxygen content in the mixes, as shown in Figure 3(b)–(d). Additionally, these vital elements, confirmed by the EDS results to be added to the blends, play a unique role in cellular metabolism, stabilizing proteins and serving as enzyme cofactors, thereby enhancing the abundance of denitrifiers in microbial cells [13], 36].

Figure 3: SEM-EDS micrographs showing the elemental enrichment of (a) Pure PE and PE/BFS blends at: (b) 95/5; (c) 90/10; (d) 85/15 wt%.
Figure 3:

SEM-EDS micrographs showing the elemental enrichment of (a) Pure PE and PE/BFS blends at: (b) 95/5; (c) 90/10; (d) 85/15 wt%.

As shown in the SEM micrographs (500×, 1,000× for the surface, and 500× for the cross-section at an electron voltage of 3.0 kV (EHT)) in Figure 4, morphological changes were observed on the surfaces due to the addition of BFS to pure PE. When compared to the micrographs of the blends (Figure 4(b)–(d), it was found that the surface morphology of pure PE was significantly coarser, stiffer, and unevenly distributed (Figure 4(a)). However, from the PE/BFS micrographs (Figure 4(a)–(c)), it was observed that as the ratio of BFS increased in the blends, smoother surfaces emerged, which also reduced surface macro-voids and the interfacial tension coefficient of pure PE [37]. Additionally, the cross-sectional SEM micrographs (Figure 4 (a-3, b-3, c-3, d-3)) revealed that the filler fiber was well-mixed, demonstrating a homogeneous distribution across all samples. This consistent morphology was observed throughout the different blends.

Figure 4: SEM micrographs showing microscopic changes in the pure PE (surface: a-1, a-2; and cross-section: a-3) and PE/BFS blends at 95/5 wt% (surface: b-1, b-2; and cross-section: b-3); 90/10 wt% (surface: c-1, c-2; and cross-section: c-3); 85/15 (d) wt%. The attached numbers −1, −2, and −3 represent images taken at 500×, 1,000×, and 500× magnifications, respectively.
Figure 4:

SEM micrographs showing microscopic changes in the pure PE (surface: a-1, a-2; and cross-section: a-3) and PE/BFS blends at 95/5 wt% (surface: b-1, b-2; and cross-section: b-3); 90/10 wt% (surface: c-1, c-2; and cross-section: c-3); 85/15 (d) wt%. The attached numbers −1, −2, and −3 represent images taken at 500×, 1,000×, and 500× magnifications, respectively.

A previous study, which reported similar findings after adding baobab powder to PBS [30], also supports these observations. For instance, the PE/BFS (85/15) blend with 15 wt% BFS (Figure 4(d)) exhibited a smoother surface and fewer surface pores, making it more prone to degradation than the blend with only 5 wt% BFS (Figure 4(b)). Furthermore, a report by Vohlídal [38] supports our findings, confirming that the composition of the filler material directly influences the degradation rate of synthetic polymers. This leads to a reduction in the strength of the parent material before complete polymer degradation occurs. Therefore, based on the findings from both the EDS (Figure 3) and SEM (Figure 4) results, it can be deduced that as the BFS content increases, the PE becomes more prone to degradation due to a decrease in its strength. At the same time, the BFS adds essential nutrients beneficial to living organisms.

3.2 Structural analysis of the PE/BFS blends, pure PE, and the BFS

Figure 5 shows the FTIR spectra of the BFS, pure PE, and PE/BFS (95/5, 90/10, and 85/15) blends. It was observed from the FTIR spectra that the absorption bands assigned to C–H deformation for cellulose and hemicellulose were found in the BFS’s unique spectra (1,244 cm−1) [39]. Additionally, the absorption band observed at 1,026 cm−1 for BFS corresponds to the primary alcohol bond (C–O) [13]. While for the pure PE (control) and the PE/BFS, the absorption bands observed at 2,920, 1,470, and 720 cm−1 could be attributed to asymmetric stretching vibration of –CH2− groups, methyl of lignin’s asymmetric bending (–CH3), and the aromatic rings of lignin, respectively [13].

Figure 5: FTIR spectra of the BFS, pure PE, and PE/BFS (95/5, 90/10, and 85/15) blends.
Figure 5:

FTIR spectra of the BFS, pure PE, and PE/BFS (95/5, 90/10, and 85/15) blends.

3.3 Degradation behaviour and mechanical property analyses of the PE/BFS blends and the pure PE

To determine the degradation trend and thermal stability of the fresh samples, TGA-DTG analyses were conducted before adding the samples to the soil. As depicted in Figure 6, the TGA-DTG results showed that the thermal degradation of pure PE began at 376.8 °C and attained the highest weight loss of 98.6 % at about 485.7 °C, which were consistent with results obtained by Zhang et al. [40] for PE (T s  = 377.5 °C; T f  = 489.8 °C). For the pure BFS, its DTG curve showed an entirely different pattern with two notable changes at 179.2 and 450.3 °C. This indicates the nature of the biomass burning, which has a higher ash content than the other samples (pure PE and PE/BFS). Interestingly, in terms of the TGA curve, the pure BFS results showed a closer pattern to that of PE/BFS (85/15 wt%) after testing the sample under the same experimental conditions. However, the results of the PE/BFS blends (PE/BFS: 95/5, 90/10, and 85/15) clearly showed two inflection points at 293.9 °C and 402.5 °C, which arise due to particle interaction between the PE and BFS. It was also noted that the inflection point increases with the BFS concentration increase, as the blends’ thermal degradation began at 249.1 °C, which was significantly lower than the pure PE’s temperature (376.8 °C). These discoveries suggest that BFS plays a significant role in accelerating the degradation of PE, which is a positive development in helping to mitigate plastic pollution and protect our environment.

Figure 6: TGA and DTG curves showing the thermal behaviour of the BFS, pure PE, and PE/BFS (95/5, 90/10, and 85/15) blends.
Figure 6:

TGA and DTG curves showing the thermal behaviour of the BFS, pure PE, and PE/BFS (95/5, 90/10, and 85/15) blends.

Furthermore, the TGA results showed that the weight losses of 97.7 %, 95.9 %, and 94.7 % (Figure 6) were recorded for the PE/BFS blends of 85/15, 90/10, and 95/5, respectively, compared to the weight loss in the control (pure PE). This could be due to the higher ash percentages in the blends compared to their content in the pure PE. It could also indicate that less carbon was released during pyrolysis of the samples in the TGA-DTG analysis, thereby reducing environmental carbon pollution [13]. Additionally, it was noted that the DTG curves of the blends with the highest BFS content (i.e., 90/10 and 85/15) exhibited different responses, with the most notable difference at 289.1 °C (p < 0.05), indicating the effect of BFS as a filler in increasing the degradation rate of PE. Besides, it was noted that DTG peaks decrease with the increase in the BFS content, with the PE/BFS (85/15) recording the lowest peak temperature of 433.3 °C, which again signifies that the blends degraded faster (i.e., PE/BFS: 85/15 > 90/10 > 95/5) than the control (Pure PE). Additionally, these results were consistent with the SEM-EDS results shown in Figure 3, indicating that as the BFS content in the blends increases, the surface smoothness also increases, making it more prone to degradation. These results also suggest that the PE/BFS blend preparation was successful, and the mixing was homogenous with consistent material distribution.

The analyzed mechanical properties of the pure PE and PE/BFS blends are presented in Figure 7. It was observed that both elongation at break (Figure 7(a)) and tensile strength (Figure 7(b)) of the pure PE decrease with an increase in BFS contents in the blends, with the elongations at break showing sharper and significant reduction (p < 0.05) as indicated in Figure 7(a). For the Young’s modulus of the samples (Figure 7(c)), substantial increases were recorded (p < 0.05) in the blends compared to the control (pure PE) whereby 82.4 % increase was recorded in the PE/BFS blend with the highest BFS content (85/15) compared to the control, as polymers’ Young’s modulus increased with fibre loading [41]. The improved Young’s modulus seen in the blends compared to pure PE resulted from the enhanced interaction of carbonyl and OH groups of PE and BFS, which allows transferring stress more efficiently in the blends [42] than in pure PE. Besides, the improved Young’s modulus in the blends compared to pure PE was consistent with the results reported previously when rice husk and starch were blended with polymers [42]. This is because the addition of lignocellulosic fiber into polymers has been reported to enhance the polymer’s degradation [30], 43]. Notably, BFS was found to have contained about 55 % lignin [22], which gives it additional quality to qualify its high Young’s modulus discovered in PE/BFS blends (Figure 7(c)), as richer lignocellulosic polymers were reported to have improved adhesion with crystals and nanocrystals of materials [44]. Thus, the above findings imply that the higher the BFS levels, the faster the degradability of the PE, and the less energy is expended.

Figure 7: Mechanical properties variations of the pure PE and PE/BFS (95/5, 90/10, and 85/15) blends.
Figure 7:

Mechanical properties variations of the pure PE and PE/BFS (95/5, 90/10, and 85/15) blends.

3.4 Assessing nutrient bioavailability with DGT in PE/BFS-subjected soils

This study evaluated the impact of PE/BFS blends on soil nutrient bioavailability using the DGT technique after 45 days of post-soil amendment. Three essential nutrients were chosen as proxies of essential plant nutrients, P, Fe, and Mn, given their measurable effectiveness via the DGT method. As measured, the labile concentrations of these elements serve as a direct indicator of their availability to plants, reflecting their potential uptake [33].

Based on the obtained results (Figure 8(a)–(e)), a comparison between soils subjected to PE/BFS blends and pure PE revealed the bioavailability of the above nutrients, albeit at trace levels (p > 0.05), which may be attributed to several factors. Firstly, the observed variability among replicate samples from the independent soil preparations for DGT analysis might have obscured subtle effects. Secondly, the 45-day duration of the experiment, although enough for tomatoes to be ready for harvest, might have been insufficient for the PE/BFS components to undergo significant degradation, which is necessary for a noticeable enhancement of soil fertility. Hence, an extended and interval-based investigation could be a solution to more accurately monitor the dynamic changes in soil nutrient bioavailability over time. Meanwhile, as shown in Figure (8), a slight increase in labile P content was noted in soils amended with the 95/5 PE/BFS blend (0.26 mg/L), followed by the 90/10 and 85/15 blends (0.25 mg/L each), compared to pure PE (0.24 mg/L) (Figure 8(b)). This observation suggests a potential, albeit marginal, of PE/BFS blends in improving P bioavailability, a critical factor given the challenge of P limitation in crop productivity due to its low soil bioavailability [45]. Therefore, it could be hypothesized that further optimization of PE/BFS blend properties could enhance this effect by mixing the blends with the soil well in advance of planting the crops, allowing for better nutrient release into the soil. In addition to tomatoes, other vegetable crops, such as potatoes, okra, eggplants, and lettuce, can effectively utilize this mulch material, especially in small-scale farming systems. Additionally, this mulch material is suitable for use in tropical and semi-arid agroecosystems, where moisture conservation, weed suppression, and soil temperature regulation are crucial for crop productivity.

Figure 8: Soil labile concentrations of phosphorus (P), iron (Fe), and manganese (Mn) assessed using the DGT technique following 45 days of soil amendment with the pure PE and PE/BFS (95/5, 90/10, and 85/15) blends.
Figure 8:

Soil labile concentrations of phosphorus (P), iron (Fe), and manganese (Mn) assessed using the DGT technique following 45 days of soil amendment with the pure PE and PE/BFS (95/5, 90/10, and 85/15) blends.

Interestingly, the 95/5 PE/BFS blend also showed a slight increase in labile Fe (Figure 8(a)) and Mn (Figure 8(c)) content compared to other blends and pure PE, potentially indicating the solubilization of Fe- and Mn-oxides. This solubilization could enhance the release of P associated with these oxides, as the dissolution of Fe- and Mn-oxides to release P is a known soil phenomenon [46], 47]. It is noteworthy that the soil contained some of these elements, albeit in trace amounts, which could potentially cause significant reactions between the available components in the blends. Conversely, labile concentrations of Cu (Figure 8(d)) and Zn (Figure 8(e)) were higher in soils amended with pure PE, suggesting that PE/BFS blends might play a role in the immobilization of these metals. This observation highlights the complex interactions between PE/BFS blends and soil metal dynamics, underscoring the need for further investigation to elucidate the underlying mechanisms.

4 Conclusions

In the present study, BFS was successfully incorporated into PE as a filler fiber to achieve the dual goals of enhancing PE degradation and improving soil fertility. The SEM-EDS results demonstrated that BFS should be used instead of being burned outside or thrown out indiscriminately, as it contains vital nutrients essential for the healthy growth of crops. Simultaneously, adding BFS to PE enhanced the pure PE’s surface morphology, resulting in faster degradation. Moreover, DGT analysis revealed that the soil had been supplemented with essential elements that support plant growth. Therefore, using waste BFS as a filler fibre promotes PE degradation and increases soil fertility, ultimately protecting and sustaining our ecosystem. Thus, this process not only contributes to the degradation of the polyethylene but also enriches the surrounding soil, fostering a healthier environment for plant growth. Hence, it is recommended that future studies be extended beyond the 45-day experimental period to capture the long-term effects of BFS mulch on soil health, crop performance, and degradation dynamics under various soil and field conditions. Again, longer-term trials would allow for a better understanding of BFS’s influence on nutrient cycling, mulch longevity, and seasonal interactions. Additionally, incorporating soil microbial profiling using molecular tools, such as 16S rRNA sequencing, would provide further insights into how the mulch affects microbial community structure, diversity, and functional activity – critical indicators of soil quality and ecological sustainability.

Corresponding authors: Musa Abubakar Tadda, Key Laboratory of Equipment and Informatization in Environment Controlled Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Key Laboratory of Intelligent Equipment and Robotics for Agriculture of Zhejiang Province, College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China; Hangzhou Xiaoshan East-Sea Aquaculture Co., Ltd., Hangzhou, 311200, China; and Department of Agricultural and Environmental Engineering, Bayero University, Kano, 700241, Nigeria, E-mail: ; Mostafa Gouda, Key Laboratory of Equipment and Informatization in Environment Controlled Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Key Laboratory of Intelligent Equipment and Robotics for Agriculture of Zhejiang Province, College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China; and Department of Nutrition & Food Science, National Research Centre, Dokki, Giza, 12622, Egypt, E-mail: ; and Songming Zhu, Key Laboratory of Equipment and Informatization in Environment Controlled Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Key Laboratory of Intelligent Equipment and Robotics for Agriculture of Zhejiang Province, College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China, E-mail:

Funding source: Key Research and Development Program of Zhejiang Province

Award Identifier / Grant number: 2023C02050

Funding source: Postdoctoral Fellowship of Hangzhou Xiaoshan East-Sea Aquaculture Co., Ltd., Hangzhou

Funding source: The National Key R&D Program of China

Award Identifier / Grant number: 2022YFD2001705

Acknowledgments

The facilities provided by Zhejiang University were well appreciated. The authors also wish to thank Dr. Shehu A. Tadda, Engr. Hassan A. Sabari, and Abubakar I. Mansur for sourcing and shipping the baobab fruit shell used in this study.

  1. Funding: This study was supported by the Postdoctoral Fellowship of Hangzhou Xiaoshan East-Sea Aquaculture Co., Ltd., Hangzhou, the National Key R&D Program of China (Grant No. 2022YFD2001705), and the Key Research and Development Program of Zhejiang Province (No. 2023C02050).

  2. Author contributions: M.A.T. Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Data Curation, Validation, Formal Analysis, Writing – original draft. M.G. Data Analysis, Funding, Visualization. U.A.D. Investigation, Data Curation, Validation. A.S. Data Curation and Validation. K.M.E. Investigation, Data Curation, and Validation. J.Z. Investigation and Data Curation. Q.Y. Data Visualization and Validation. L.D. Methodology and Supervision. Z.S. Conceptualization, Methodology, Supervision, Data visualization, Validation, Funding acquisition. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

  3. Data availability statement: The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

  4. Conflicts of interest: The authors state no conflicts of interest.

References

1. Chen, J, Li, C, Ristovski, Z, Milic, A, Gu, Y, Islam, MS, et al.. A review of biomass burning: emissions and impacts on air quality, health and climate in China. Sci Total Environ 2017;579:1000–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.11.025.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

2. Liu, Z, Deng, Z, Davis, SJ, Giron, C, Ciais, P. Monitoring global carbon emissions in 2021. Nat Rev Earth Environ 2022;3:217–19. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-022-00285-w.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

3. Huang, T, Ma, J, Song, S, Ling, Z, Macdonald, RW, Gao, H, et al.. Health and environmental consequences of crop residue burning correlated with increasing crop yields midst India’s green revolution. npj Clim Atmos Sci 2022;5:81. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41612-022-00306-x.Search in Google Scholar

4. Coppola, AI, Wagner, S, Lennartz, ST, Seidel, M, Ward, ND, Dittmar, T, et al.. The black carbon cycle and its role in the earth system. Nat Rev Earth Environ 2022;3:516–32. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-022-00316-6.Search in Google Scholar

5. Khan, A, Jie, Z, Wang, J, Nepal, J, Ullah, N, Zhao, Z-Y, et al.. Ecological risks of microplastic contamination: green solutions and future perspectives. Sci Total Environ 2023;899:165688. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165688.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

6. Wang, C, Zhao, J, Xing, B. Environmental source, fate, and toxicity of microplastics. J Hazard Mater 2021;407:124357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124357.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

7. An, L, Liu, Q, Deng, Y, Wu, W, Gao, Y, Ling, W. Sources of microplastic in the environment. In: Handbook of Environmental Chemistry. Cham, Switzerland: Springer Nature; 2020, 95:143–59 pp.10.1007/698_2020_449Search in Google Scholar

8. Yang, L, Zhang, Y, Kang, S, Wang, Z, Wu, C. Microplastics in soil: a review on methods, occurrence, sources, and potential risk. Sci Total Environ 2021;780:146546. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146546.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

9. World Economic Forum, Ellen MacArthur Foundation, McKinsey & Company. The new plastics economy: rethinking the future of plastics. Cowes, UK: Ellen MacArthur Foundation; 2016.Search in Google Scholar

10. Kannan, K, Vimalkumar, K. A review of human exposure to microplastics and insights into microplastics as obesogens. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2021;12:1–19. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2021.724989.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

11. Tadda, MA, Altaf, R, Gouda, M, Rout, PR, Shitu, A, Ye, Z, et al.. Impact of saddle-chips biocarrier on treating mariculture wastewater by moving bed biofilm reactor (MBBR): mechanism and kinetic study. J Environ Chem Eng 2021;9:106710. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2021.106710.Search in Google Scholar

12. Goldberger, JR, DeVetter, LW, Dentzman, KE. Polyethylene and biodegradable plastic mulches for strawberry production in the United States: experiences and opinions of growers in three regions. HortTechnology 2019;29:619–28. https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTTECH04393-19.Search in Google Scholar

13. Tadda, MA, Gouda, M, Shitu, A, Yu, Q, Zhao, X, Ying, L, et al.. Baobab fruit powder promotes denitrifiers’ abundance and improves poly(butylene succinate) biodegradation for a greener environment. J Environ Chem Eng 2023;11:109654. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2023.109654.Search in Google Scholar

14. Baky, MH, Badawy, MT, Bakr, AF, Hegazi, NM, Abdellatif, A, Farag, MA. Metabolome-based profiling of African baobab fruit (Adansonia Digitata L.) using a multiplex approach of MS and NMR techniques in relation to its biological activity. RSC Adv 2021;11:39680–95. https://doi.org/10.1039/D1RA08277A.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

15. Ismail, BB, Guo, M, Pu, Y, Wang, W, Ye, X, Liu, D. Valorisation of baobab (Adansonia Digitata) seeds by ultrasound assisted extraction of polyphenolics. Optimisation and comparison with conventional methods. Ultrason Sonochem 2019;52:257–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2018.11.023.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

16. Kaimba, GK, Mithöfer, D, Muendo, KM. Commercialization of underutilized fruits: baobab pulp supply response to price and non-price incentives in Kenya. Food Policy 2021;99:101980. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2020.101980.Search in Google Scholar

17. Chiacchio, MF, Tagliamonte, S, Visconti, A, Ferracane, R, Mustafa, A, Vitaglione, P. Baobab-fruit shell and fibrous filaments are sources of antioxidant dietary fibers. Molecules 2022;27:5563. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27175563.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

18. Kodzwa, J, Danha, C, Mangori, L, Chemura, A. Activated carbon from baobab fruit shells through domestic processes. Zimbabwe J Technol Sci 2015;1:19–28.Search in Google Scholar

19. Rahul, J, Jain, MK, Singh, SP, Kamal, RK, Anuradha, Naz, A, et al.. Adansonia Digitata L. (Baobab): a review of traditional information and taxonomic description. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed 2015;5:79–84, https://doi.org/10.1016/S2221-1691-15-30174-X.Search in Google Scholar

20. Nedjai, R, Kabbash, NA, Alam, MZ, Alkhatib, MFR. Optimisation of activated carbon production from baobab fruit shells by chemical activation with KOH for the removal of phenol. Water Conserv Manag 2022;6:45–50. https://doi.org/10.26480/wcm.01.2022.45.50.Search in Google Scholar

21. Nedjai, R, Kabbashi, NA, Alam, MZ, Al-Khatib, MFR. Production and characterization of activated carbon from baobab fruit shells by chemical activation using ZnCl2, H3PO4 and KOH. J Phys Conf Ser 2021;2129:012009. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2129/1/012009.Search in Google Scholar

22. Kabbashi, NA, Mirghani, MES, Alam, MZ, Qudsieh, SY, Bello, IA. Characterization of the baobab fruit shells as adsorption material. Int Food Res J 2017;24:472–4.Search in Google Scholar

23. Offiah, VO, Falade, KO. Potentials of Baobab in food systems. Appl Food Res 2023;3:100299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.afres.2023.100299.Search in Google Scholar

24. Miles, C, Wallace, R, Wszelaki, A, Martin, J, Cowan, J, Walters, T, et al.. Deterioration of potentially biodegradable alternatives to black plastic mulch in three tomato production regions. HortScience 2012;47:1270–7. https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI.47.9.1270.Search in Google Scholar

25. Iqbal, R, Raza, MAS, Valipour, M, Saleem, MF, Zaheer, MS, Ahmad, S, et al.. Potential agricultural and environmental benefits of mulches – a review. Bull Natl Res Cent 2020;44:75. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42269-020-00290-3.Search in Google Scholar

26. Baudoin, W, Nono-Womdim, R, Lutaladio, N, Hodder, A, Castilla, N, Leonardi, C, et al.. Good agricultural practices for greenhouse vegetable crops: principles for mediterranean climate areas. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO); 2013.Search in Google Scholar

27. Ghimire, S, Flury, M, Scheenstra, EJ, Miles, CA. Sampling and degradation of biodegradable plastic and paper mulches in field after tillage incorporation. Sci Total Environ 2020;703:135577. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135577.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

28. Rafiqah, SA, Khalina, A, Harmaen, AS, Tawakkal, IA, Zaman, K, Asim, M, et al.. A review on properties and application of bio-based poly(butylene succinate). Polymers (Basel) 2021;13:1–28. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091436.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

29. Ghatge, S, Yang, Y, Ahn, J-H, Hur, H-G. Biodegradation of polyethylene: a brief review. Appl Biol Chem 2020;63:27. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13765-020-00511-3.Search in Google Scholar

30. Tadda, MA, Gouda, M, Lin, X, Shitu, A, Abdullahi, HS, Zhu, S, et al.. Impacts of baobab (adansonia digitata) powder on the poly(butylene succinate) polymer degradability to form an eco-friendly filler-based composite. Front Mater 2021;8:1–10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmats.2021.768960.Search in Google Scholar

31. Vasile, C, Pamfil, D, Râpă, M, Darie-Niţă, RN, Mitelut, AC, Popa, EE, et al.. Study of the soil burial degradation of some PLA/CS biocomposites. Compos Part B Eng 2018;142:251–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2018.01.026.Search in Google Scholar

32. Vanderlinden, C. The spruce. New York, USA: People Inc.; 2021:1–9 pp.Search in Google Scholar

33. Eltohamy, KM, Li, J, Gouda, M, Menezes-Blackburn, D, Milham, PJ, Khan, S, et al.. Nano and fine colloids suspended in the soil solution regulate phosphorus desorption and lability in organic fertiliser-amended soils. Sci Total Environ 2023;858:160195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.160195.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

34. Wang, Y, Ding, S, Ren, M, Li, C, Xu, S, Sun, Q, et al.. Enhanced DGT capability for measurements of multiple types of analytes using synergistic effects among different binding agents. Sci Total Environ 2019;657:446–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.12.016.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

35. Baker, I. Fifty materials that make the world. In: Fifty materials that make the world. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2018:111–15 pp.10.1007/978-3-319-78766-4_21Search in Google Scholar

36. Michael, H, Sanja, AS, Stefanie, H, Rainer, GJ, Florian, W. Functions of elements in soil microorganisms. Microbiol Res 2021;252:126832.10.1016/j.micres.2021.126832Search in Google Scholar PubMed

37. Brown, SB. Polymer blends handbook. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands; 2014.Search in Google Scholar

38. Vohlídal, J. Polymer degradation: a short review. Chem Teach Int 2021;3:213–20. https://doi.org/10.1515/cti-2020-0015.Search in Google Scholar

39. Shitu, A, Zhu, S, Qi, W, Tadda, MA, Liu, D, Ye, Z. Performance of novel sponge biocarrier in MBBR treating recirculating aquaculture systems wastewater: microbial community and kinetic study. J Environ Manag 2020;275:111264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.111264.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

40. Zhang, Y, Fu, Z, Wang, W, Ji, G, Zhao, M, Li, A. Kinetics, product evolution, and mechanism for the pyrolysis of typical plastic waste. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 2022;10:91–103. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.1c04915.Search in Google Scholar

41. Jordan, JL, Rowland, RL, Greenhall, J, Moss, EK, Huber, RC, Willis, EC, et al.. Elastic properties of polyethylene from high pressure sound speed measurements. Polymer (Guildf) 2021;212:123164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymer.2020.123164.Search in Google Scholar

42. Yap, SY, Sreekantan, S, Hassan, M, Sudesh, K, Ong, MT. Characterization and biodegradability of rice husk-filled polymer composites. Polymers (Basel) 2020;13:104. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13010104.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

43. Imam, SH, Cinelli, P, Gordon, SH, Chiellini, E. Characterization of biodegradable composite films prepared from blends of poly(vinyl alcohol), cornstarch, and lignocellulosic fiber. J Polym Environ 2005;13:47–55. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-004-1215-6.Search in Google Scholar

44. Marcuello, C, Foulon, L, Chabbert, B, Aguié-Béghin, V, Molinari, M. Atomic force microscopy reveals how relative humidity impacts the young’s modulus of lignocellulosic polymers and their adhesion with cellulose nanocrystals at the nanoscale. Int J Biol Macromol 2020;147:1064–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.10.074.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

45. Guo, Y, Lu, Y, Eltohamy, KM, Liu, C, Fang, Y, Guan, Y, et al.. Contribution of biogas slurry-derived colloids to plant P uptake and phosphatase activities: spatiotemporal response. Environ Sci Technol 2023;57:16564–74. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.3c05108.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

46. Scalenghe, R, Edwards, AC, Barberis, E, Ajmone-Marsan, F. Release of phosphorus under reducing and simulated open drainage conditions from overfertilised soils. Chemosphere 2014;95:289–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.09.016.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

47. Obour, AK, Silveira, ML, Vendramini, JMB, Sollenberger, LE, O’Connor, GA. Fluctuating water table effect on phosphorus release and availability from a Florida spodosol. Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst 2011;91:207–17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10705-011-9456-y.Search in Google Scholar
Received: 2025-04-25
Accepted: 2025-09-07
Published Online: 2025-11-05

© 2025 the author(s), published by De Gruyter, Berlin/Boston

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Optimized green synthesis of silver nanoparticles from guarana seed skin extract with antibacterial potential
  3. Green adsorbents for water remediation: Removal of Cr(vi) and Ni(ii) using Prosopis glandulosa sawdust and biochar
  4. Green approach for the synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles from methanolic stem extract of Andrographis paniculata and evaluation of antidiabetic activity: In silico GSK-3β analysis
  5. Development of a green and rapid ethanol-based HPLC assay for aspirin tablets and feasibility evaluation of domestically produced bioethanol in Thailand as a sustainable mobile phase
  6. A facile biodegradation of polystyrene microplastic by Bacillus subtilis
  7. Enhanced synthesis of fly ash-derived hydrated sodium silicate adsorbents via low-temperature alkaline hydrothermal treatment for advanced environmental applications
  8. Impact of metal nanoparticles biosynthesized using camel milk on bacterial growth and copper removal from wastewater
  9. Preparation of Co/Cr-MOFs for efficient removal of fleroxacin and Rhodamine B
  10. Applying nanocarbon prepared from coal as an anode in lithium-ion batteries
  11. Improved electrochemical synthesis of Cu–Fe/brass foil alloy followed by combustion for high-efficiency photoelectrodes and hydrogen production in alkaline solutions
  12. Precipitation of terephthalic acid from post-consumer polyethylene terephthalate waste fractions
  13. Biosynthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles: Multifunctional potential applications in anticancer, antibacterial, and B. subtilis DNA gyrase docking
  14. Anticancer and antimicrobial effects of green-synthesized silver nanoparticles using Teucrium polium leaves extract
  15. Green synthesis of eco-friendly bioplastics from Chlorella and Lithothamnion algae for safe and sustainable solutions for food packaging
  16. Optimizing coal water slurry concentration via synergistic coal blending and particle size distribution
  17. Green synthesis of Ag@Cu and silver nanowire using Pterospermum heterophyllum extracts for surface-enhanced Raman scattering
  18. Green synthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles from Algerian propolis: Exploring biochemical, structural, antimicrobial, and anti-diabetic properties
  19. Simultaneous quantification of mefenamic acid and paracetamol in fixed-dose combination tablet dosage forms using the green HPTLC method
  20. Green synthesis of titanium dioxide nanoparticles using green tea (Camellia sinensis) extract: Characteristics and applications
  21. Pharmaceutical properties for green fabricated ZnO and Ag nanoparticle-mediated Borago officinalis: In silico predications study
  22. Synthesis and optimization of gemcitabine-loaded nanoparticles by using Box–Behnken design for treating prostate cancer: In vitro characterization and in vivo pharmacokinetic study
  23. A comparative analysis of single-step and multi-step methods for producing magnetic activated carbon from palm kernel shells: Adsorption of methyl orange dye
  24. Sustainable green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using walnut septum waste: Characterization and antibacterial properties
  25. Efficient electrocatalytic reduction of CO2 to CO over Ni/Y diatomic catalysts
  26. Greener and magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles as a recyclable catalyst for Knoevenagel condensation and degradation of industrial Congo red dye
  27. Recycling of HDPE-giant reed composites: Processability and performance
  28. Fabrication of antibacterial chitosan/PVA nanofibers co-loaded with curcumin and cefadroxil for wound healing
  29. Cost-effective one-pot fabrication of iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide nanomaterials for supercapacitor charge storage
  30. Novel trimetallic (TiO2–MgO–Au) nanoparticles: Biosynthesis, characterization, antimicrobial, and anticancer activities
  31. Green-synthesized chromium oxide nanoparticles using pomegranate husk extract: Multifunctional bioactivity in antioxidant potential, lipase and amylase inhibition, and cytotoxicity
  32. Therapeutic potential of sustainable zinc oxide nanoparticles biosynthesized using Tradescantia spathacea aqueous leaf extract
  33. Chitosan-coated superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles synthesized using Carica papaya bark extract: Evaluation of antioxidant, antibacterial, and anticancer activity of HeLa cervical cancer cells
  34. Antioxidant potential of peptide fractions from tuna dark muscle protein isolate: A green enzymatic approach
  35. Clerodendron phlomoides leaf extract-mediated synthesis of selenium nanoparticles for multi-applications
  36. Optimization of cellulose yield from oil palm trunks with deep eutectic solvents using response surface methodology
  37. Nitrogen-doped carbon dots from Brahmi (Bacopa monnieri): Metal-free probe for efficient detection of metal pollutants and methylene blue dye degradation
  38. High energy density pseudocapacitor based on a nanoporous tungsten(VI) oxide iodide/poly(2-amino-1-mercaptobenzene) composite
  39. Green synthesized Ag–Cu nanocomposites as an improved strategy to fight multidrug-resistant bacteria by inhibition of biofilm formation: In vitro and in silico assessment study
  40. In vitro evaluation of antibacterial activity and associated cytotoxicity of biogenic silver nanoparticles using various extracts of Tabernaemontana ventricosa
  41. Fabrication of novel composite materials by impregnating ZnO particles into bacterial cellulose nanofibers for antimicrobial applications
  42. Solidification floating organic drop for dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction estimation of copper in different water samples
  43. Kinetics and synthesis of formation of phosphate composites from low-grade phosphorites in the presence of phosphate–siliceous shales and oil sludge
  44. Removal of minocycline and terramycin by graphene oxide and Cr/Mn base metal–organic framework composites
  45. Microfluidic preparation of ceramide E liposomes and properties
  46. Therapeutic potential of Anamirta cocculus (L.) Wight & Arn. leaf aqueous extract-mediated biogenic gold nanoparticles
  47. Antioxidant-rich Micromeria imbricata leaf extract as a medium for the eco-friendly preparation of silver-doped zinc oxide nanoparticles with antibacterial properties
  48. Influence of different colors with light regime on Chlorella sp., biomass, pigments, and lipids quantity and quality
  49. Experimental vibrational analysis of natural fiber composite reinforced with waste materials for energy absorbing applications
  50. Green synthesis of sea buckthorn-mediated ZnO nanoparticles: Biological applications and acute nanotoxicity studies
  51. Production of liquid smoke by consecutive electroporation and microwave-assisted pyrolysis of empty fruit bunches
  52. Synthesis of MPAA based on polyacrylamide and gossypol resin and applications in the encapsulation of ammophos
  53. Application of iron-based catalysts in the microwave treatment of environmental pollutants
  54. Enhanced adsorption of Cu(ii) from wastewater using potassium humate-modified coconut husk biochar
  55. Adsorption of heavy metal ions from water by Fe3O4 nano-particles
  56. Green synthesis of parsley-derived silver nanoparticles and their enhanced antimicrobial and antioxidant effects against foodborne resistant bacteria
  57. Unwrapping the phytofabrication of bimetallic silver–selenium nanoparticles: Antibacterial, Anti-virulence (Targeting magA and toxA genes), anti-diabetic, antioxidant, anti-ovarian, and anti-prostate cancer activities
  58. Optimizing ultrasound-assisted extraction process of anti-inflammatory ingredients from Launaea sarmentosa: A novel approach
  59. Eggshell membranes as green carriers for Burkholderia cepacia lipase: A biocatalytic strategy for sustainable wastewater bioremediation
  60. Research progress of deep eutectic solvents in fuel desulfurization
  61. Enhanced electrochemical synthesis of Ni–Fe/brass foil alloy with subsequent combustion for high-performance photoelectrode and hydrogen production applications
  62. Valorization of baobab fruit shell as a filler fiber for enhanced polyethylene degradation and soil fertility
  63. Valorization of Agave durangensis bagasse for cardboard-type paper production circular economy approach
  64. Review Article
  65. Sustainable innovations in garlic extraction: A comprehensive review and bibliometric analysis of green extraction methods
  66. Natural sustainable coatings for marine applications: advances, challenges, and future perspectives
  67. Integration of traditional medicinal plants with polymeric nanofibers for wound healing
  68. Rapid Communication
  69. In situ supported rhodium catalyst on mesoporous silica for chemoselective hydrogenation of nitriles to primary amines
  70. Special Issue: Valorisation of Biowaste to Nanomaterials for Environmental Applications
  71. Valorization of coconut husk into biochar for lead (Pb2+) adsorption
  72. Corrigendum
  73. Corrigendum to “An updated review on carbon nanomaterials: Types, synthesis, functionalization and applications, degradation and toxicity”
https://doi.org/10.1515/gps-2025-0083
Keywords for this article
baobab fruit shell (BFS); polyethylene (PE) degradation; soil fertility; diffusive gradients in thin films (DGT); microplastics; crop growth
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Optimized green synthesis of silver nanoparticles from guarana seed skin extract with antibacterial potential
  3. Green adsorbents for water remediation: Removal of Cr(vi) and Ni(ii) using Prosopis glandulosa sawdust and biochar
  4. Green approach for the synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles from methanolic stem extract of Andrographis paniculata and evaluation of antidiabetic activity: In silico GSK-3β analysis
  5. Development of a green and rapid ethanol-based HPLC assay for aspirin tablets and feasibility evaluation of domestically produced bioethanol in Thailand as a sustainable mobile phase
  6. A facile biodegradation of polystyrene microplastic by Bacillus subtilis
  7. Enhanced synthesis of fly ash-derived hydrated sodium silicate adsorbents via low-temperature alkaline hydrothermal treatment for advanced environmental applications
  8. Impact of metal nanoparticles biosynthesized using camel milk on bacterial growth and copper removal from wastewater
  9. Preparation of Co/Cr-MOFs for efficient removal of fleroxacin and Rhodamine B
  10. Applying nanocarbon prepared from coal as an anode in lithium-ion batteries
  11. Improved electrochemical synthesis of Cu–Fe/brass foil alloy followed by combustion for high-efficiency photoelectrodes and hydrogen production in alkaline solutions
  12. Precipitation of terephthalic acid from post-consumer polyethylene terephthalate waste fractions
  13. Biosynthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles: Multifunctional potential applications in anticancer, antibacterial, and B. subtilis DNA gyrase docking
  14. Anticancer and antimicrobial effects of green-synthesized silver nanoparticles using Teucrium polium leaves extract
  15. Green synthesis of eco-friendly bioplastics from Chlorella and Lithothamnion algae for safe and sustainable solutions for food packaging
  16. Optimizing coal water slurry concentration via synergistic coal blending and particle size distribution
  17. Green synthesis of Ag@Cu and silver nanowire using Pterospermum heterophyllum extracts for surface-enhanced Raman scattering
  18. Green synthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles from Algerian propolis: Exploring biochemical, structural, antimicrobial, and anti-diabetic properties
  19. Simultaneous quantification of mefenamic acid and paracetamol in fixed-dose combination tablet dosage forms using the green HPTLC method
  20. Green synthesis of titanium dioxide nanoparticles using green tea (Camellia sinensis) extract: Characteristics and applications
  21. Pharmaceutical properties for green fabricated ZnO and Ag nanoparticle-mediated Borago officinalis: In silico predications study
  22. Synthesis and optimization of gemcitabine-loaded nanoparticles by using Box–Behnken design for treating prostate cancer: In vitro characterization and in vivo pharmacokinetic study
  23. A comparative analysis of single-step and multi-step methods for producing magnetic activated carbon from palm kernel shells: Adsorption of methyl orange dye
  24. Sustainable green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using walnut septum waste: Characterization and antibacterial properties
  25. Efficient electrocatalytic reduction of CO2 to CO over Ni/Y diatomic catalysts
  26. Greener and magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles as a recyclable catalyst for Knoevenagel condensation and degradation of industrial Congo red dye
  27. Recycling of HDPE-giant reed composites: Processability and performance
  28. Fabrication of antibacterial chitosan/PVA nanofibers co-loaded with curcumin and cefadroxil for wound healing
  29. Cost-effective one-pot fabrication of iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide nanomaterials for supercapacitor charge storage
  30. Novel trimetallic (TiO2–MgO–Au) nanoparticles: Biosynthesis, characterization, antimicrobial, and anticancer activities
  31. Green-synthesized chromium oxide nanoparticles using pomegranate husk extract: Multifunctional bioactivity in antioxidant potential, lipase and amylase inhibition, and cytotoxicity
  32. Therapeutic potential of sustainable zinc oxide nanoparticles biosynthesized using Tradescantia spathacea aqueous leaf extract
  33. Chitosan-coated superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles synthesized using Carica papaya bark extract: Evaluation of antioxidant, antibacterial, and anticancer activity of HeLa cervical cancer cells
  34. Antioxidant potential of peptide fractions from tuna dark muscle protein isolate: A green enzymatic approach
  35. Clerodendron phlomoides leaf extract-mediated synthesis of selenium nanoparticles for multi-applications
  36. Optimization of cellulose yield from oil palm trunks with deep eutectic solvents using response surface methodology
  37. Nitrogen-doped carbon dots from Brahmi (Bacopa monnieri): Metal-free probe for efficient detection of metal pollutants and methylene blue dye degradation
  38. High energy density pseudocapacitor based on a nanoporous tungsten(VI) oxide iodide/poly(2-amino-1-mercaptobenzene) composite
  39. Green synthesized Ag–Cu nanocomposites as an improved strategy to fight multidrug-resistant bacteria by inhibition of biofilm formation: In vitro and in silico assessment study
  40. In vitro evaluation of antibacterial activity and associated cytotoxicity of biogenic silver nanoparticles using various extracts of Tabernaemontana ventricosa
  41. Fabrication of novel composite materials by impregnating ZnO particles into bacterial cellulose nanofibers for antimicrobial applications
  42. Solidification floating organic drop for dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction estimation of copper in different water samples
  43. Kinetics and synthesis of formation of phosphate composites from low-grade phosphorites in the presence of phosphate–siliceous shales and oil sludge
  44. Removal of minocycline and terramycin by graphene oxide and Cr/Mn base metal–organic framework composites
  45. Microfluidic preparation of ceramide E liposomes and properties
  46. Therapeutic potential of Anamirta cocculus (L.) Wight & Arn. leaf aqueous extract-mediated biogenic gold nanoparticles
  47. Antioxidant-rich Micromeria imbricata leaf extract as a medium for the eco-friendly preparation of silver-doped zinc oxide nanoparticles with antibacterial properties
  48. Influence of different colors with light regime on Chlorella sp., biomass, pigments, and lipids quantity and quality
  49. Experimental vibrational analysis of natural fiber composite reinforced with waste materials for energy absorbing applications
  50. Green synthesis of sea buckthorn-mediated ZnO nanoparticles: Biological applications and acute nanotoxicity studies
  51. Production of liquid smoke by consecutive electroporation and microwave-assisted pyrolysis of empty fruit bunches
  52. Synthesis of MPAA based on polyacrylamide and gossypol resin and applications in the encapsulation of ammophos
  53. Application of iron-based catalysts in the microwave treatment of environmental pollutants
  54. Enhanced adsorption of Cu(ii) from wastewater using potassium humate-modified coconut husk biochar
  55. Adsorption of heavy metal ions from water by Fe3O4 nano-particles
  56. Green synthesis of parsley-derived silver nanoparticles and their enhanced antimicrobial and antioxidant effects against foodborne resistant bacteria
  57. Unwrapping the phytofabrication of bimetallic silver–selenium nanoparticles: Antibacterial, Anti-virulence (Targeting magA and toxA genes), anti-diabetic, antioxidant, anti-ovarian, and anti-prostate cancer activities
  58. Optimizing ultrasound-assisted extraction process of anti-inflammatory ingredients from Launaea sarmentosa: A novel approach
  59. Eggshell membranes as green carriers for Burkholderia cepacia lipase: A biocatalytic strategy for sustainable wastewater bioremediation
  60. Research progress of deep eutectic solvents in fuel desulfurization
  61. Enhanced electrochemical synthesis of Ni–Fe/brass foil alloy with subsequent combustion for high-performance photoelectrode and hydrogen production applications
  62. Valorization of baobab fruit shell as a filler fiber for enhanced polyethylene degradation and soil fertility
  63. Valorization of Agave durangensis bagasse for cardboard-type paper production circular economy approach
  64. Review Article
  65. Sustainable innovations in garlic extraction: A comprehensive review and bibliometric analysis of green extraction methods
  66. Natural sustainable coatings for marine applications: advances, challenges, and future perspectives
  67. Integration of traditional medicinal plants with polymeric nanofibers for wound healing
  68. Rapid Communication
  69. In situ supported rhodium catalyst on mesoporous silica for chemoselective hydrogenation of nitriles to primary amines
  70. Special Issue: Valorisation of Biowaste to Nanomaterials for Environmental Applications
  71. Valorization of coconut husk into biochar for lead (Pb2+) adsorption
  72. Corrigendum
  73. Corrigendum to “An updated review on carbon nanomaterials: Types, synthesis, functionalization and applications, degradation and toxicity”
Sign up now to receive a 20% welcome discount
Institutional Access
How does access work?
Have an idea on how to improve our website?
Please write us.
© 2025 De Gruyter Brill
Downloaded on 5.12.2025 from https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/gps-2025-0083/html
Scroll to top button