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Green synthesis of eco-friendly bioplastics from Chlorella and Lithothamnion algae for safe and sustainable solutions for food packaging

  • Nahed Ahmed Hussien ORCID logo EMAIL logo , Maria Kamaluldeen Salah Al-Deen , Muzun Saeed Al-zahrani , Shahad Fehaid Alwathnani , Rana Yahya Al-Sahli , Shatha Ruddah Albunyusi , Shahad Salem Al-Humayani , Samar Salman Alharthi , Mathael Faleh Almutairi , Fawz Fahad Algethami and Shouq Mohammed Alqurashi
Published/Copyright: March 6, 2025
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Green Processing and Synthesis
From the journal Green Processing and Synthesis Volume 14 Issue 1

Abstract

Global plastic waste production reaches approximately 400 million metric tons annually. Chemical plastics cause global pollution and take hundreds of years to degrade. Bioplastics are a promising alternative to traditional plastics made from renewable resources, such as plants and algae, and are biodegradable. The present study aims to synthesize eco-friendly bioplastics using green Chlorella and red Lithothamnion algae in addition to glycerol and starch as plasticizers. Moreover, the biosynthesized plastics were characterized using scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM/EDS), and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. In addition, we have checked their biodegradability on the soil surface and in drinking water. The results report the successful synthesis of bioplastics using green Chlorella and red Lithothamnion algae due to texture, flexibility, and shape. SEM images show an irregular surface due to ridges and grooves in the microstructure of the bioplastic films. EDX analysis shows large carbon and oxygen contents due to starch in bioplastic films. FTIR reports peaks were attributed to the –CO, –OH, and –CH groups. Biodegradability was proven as the bioplastic film lost nearly 70% of its biomass on the soil surface (at day 35) and sank in water (at day 34) tests. The present study describes an eco-friendly novel method mostly based on using algae, thereby providing a sustainable blend for the manufacturing of bioplastics for use in several applications, including food package and agriculture, as it is biodegradable.

Keywords: bioplastics; microalgae; Chlorella ; Lithothamnion ; FTIR; biodegradation

1 Introduction

Synthetic plastics, derived from petroleum refining, are widely used in various industries due to their low cost, lightweight, and durability [1,2]. Synthetic polymers’ versatility and diverse properties have produced a broad spectrum of medical and technological products with numerous benefits [2,3]. Plastics have become integral to our daily lives and are used extensively across the ecosystem. The production of plastics has increased exponentially from 1.5 million tonnes in 1950 to 322 million tonnes in 2015, and it is expected to reach 670 million tonnes by 2040 [4].

Although plastics have many advantages, they also contribute to environmental pollution by generating significant waste. This is mainly due to the high quantity of single-use plastics, inadequate end-of-life treatment mechanisms, and insufficient recycling and reuse. Only 9% of the plastic produced worldwide has been recycled. Plastics often break down into microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs), worsening the issue [5]. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has identified MPs as a significant emerging pollutant because of their extensive distribution, small size, and long-lasting environmental occurrence [6,7,8]. This encouraged researchers to produce an eco-friendly plastic derived from biological materials known as bioplastic.

The development of renewable resources has resulted in the creation of bioplastic substitutes. These polymers utilize sustainable materials, such as agricultural waste, instead of petroleum sources, making them more widely accepted than traditional plastics. Additionally, bioplastics are biodegradable under various conditions. Their physical and chemical composition greatly influences the rate at which bioplastics decompose [9]. Bioplastics derived from renewable sources are frequently promoted as a solution to plastic pollution and the depletion of natural resources [10].

Bioplastics are like petroleum-based plastics in structure and properties but differ in raw materials, manufacturing, and end-of-life. However, bioplastics can lower fossil energy consumption by 95%, a product’s carbon footprint by 40%, and greenhouse gas emissions by 200% [11]. Bioplastics are removed from the biosphere and recycled in an eco-friendly strategy. Novel bioplastic materials, including starch-based materials, polylactic acid (PLA), and polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA), offer a range of capabilities, such as biodegradability, composability, and improved barrier qualities [12]. The diversity of used raw materials allows us to improve bioplastics features such as heat resistance, durability, flexibility, transparency, and others [13].

Microalgae, grown on waste resources, could be a better sustainable source of biomass for bioplastic production, as it does not compete with food sources [14,15]. They are abundant in ecosystems that range from 200,000 to several million species [16]. Moreover, microalgal biomass has the potential for mass production and greenhouse gas uptake due to its rapid growth and high carbon fixation efficiency [17,18,19]. Chlorella sp., a green microalgae, belongs to the Chlorophyceae class, order Chlorellales, and family Chlorellaceae. Chlorella sp. is a rich source of single-cell protein with high levels of nutrients, vitamins, trace elements, minerals, protein (51–58%), carbohydrates (12–17%), and lipids (14–22%) [20,21]. Lithothamnion sp. is a red marine microalgae of the Corallinaceae family, phylum Rhodophyta. Lithothamnion sp. is a safe and effective natural source of bioavailable calcium and a multi-mineral supplement with anti-inflammatory properties [22,23].

The goal of the present study is to synthesize bioplastics using green Chlorella and red Lithothamnion microalgae, glycerol alone, and glycerol with starch as plasticizers. Scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM/EDX) and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy were used to characterize the synthesized bioplastics. Their biodegradation was recorded on the soil surface and in drinking water.

2 Materials and methods

For the present study, Chlorella sp. (green algae, Organic Traditions®, North York, Canada) and Lithothamnion sp. (red algae, Swanson, Fargo, USA) powders were purchased and stored under dry and cool conditions. Other chemicals were purchased from local markets and used without purification.

2.1 Gas chromatography–mass spectroscopy analysis

The bioactive compounds of Chlorella and Lithothamnion used in the present study were analyzed using gas chromatography–mass spectroscopy (GC-MS) analysis. A Shimadzu GC-MS-QP2010 Plus system was equipped with an RTX-5 MS capillary column (Restek) to characterize selected algae’s 95% methanolic extracts. The components were identified by matching their recorded spectra with the data bank mass spectra of the WileyRegistry8e library provided by the instrument software.

2.2 Preparation of bioplastics

For each preparation, 2 g of commercial green/red microalgae powder was dissolved in 60 mL of distilled water while being heated and stirred continuously to 60°C (10 min) before adding 1% (v/v) glycerol as a plasticizer. The mixture was blended (1 min), heated to 80°C (1 min), taken off the heating plate, and slowly swirled with a glass rod to eliminate bubbles. Finally, the mixture was manually poured onto Teflon plates. The samples were left to cool at room temperature before removal from the cast. In the other procedure, 1% (v/v) glycerol, 1% (v/v) acetic acid, and 2% (w/v) starch were used as plasticizers instead of glycerol alone and prepared in the same way as mentioned in detail before. The procedure was done according to Consebit et al. [24] with few modifications.

2.3 Characterization of bioplastics

2.3.1 SEM/EDX

For SEM analysis, bioplastics were coated with gold (Cressington Sputter Coater, 108auto, thickness controller MTM-10, UK) for 10 min. Gold is a commonly used coating material for non-conductive samples, such as plastics, to enable standard SEM imaging and analysis. Then, the coated samples were scanned at 20 kV by SEM (JEOL JSM-639OLA, analytical scanning electron microscope, at the Electron Microscope Unit of Taif University) with various magnifications. EDX analysis was done to determine the elemental composition of the formed bioplastics using an Acquisition Parameter Instrument: 6390(LA), acc. voltage: 20.0 kV, probe current: 1.00000 nA, PHA mode: T3, real-time: 68.20 s, live time: 60.00 s, dead time: 12%, counting rate: 2,585 cps, and energy range: 0–20 keV.

2.3.2 Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy analysis

FTIR spectroscopy analyzed bioplastic samples formed from both green and red microalgae at wavelength ranges from 400 to 4,000 cm−1. The results obtained were displayed graphically.

2.4 Biodegradable test

Bioplastic films formed from green and red microalgae powder were cut into 5 cm × 5 cm. For each type, one piece was left on the surface of the soil, and the other was left in a glass of drinking water and checked daily for complete degradation.

3 Results and discussion

In the present study, we have succeeded in plasticizing green Chlorella and red Lithothamnion microalgae with the help of glycerol and starch (Figure 1(a) and (b)). Using glycerol only in the blend fails to plasticize them. According to the manufacturer’s supply, the Chlorella powder package contains proteins (60%), while Lithothamnion contains 95% short-chain fructooligosaccharides. In addition, GC-MS analysis has reported that both algae contain saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, phenolic, aromatic hydrocarbons, terpene chemicals, and their derivatives. These main compounds help in bioplastic synthesis. Bioplastics are a biodegradable and environmentally safe alternative to conventional petrochemical-based plastics made from natural raw materials, reducing dependency on fossil fuels [25]. Microalgae can serve as a good source for bioplastic production due to the high proportion of carbohydrate polymers and/or protein they contain, as found in the present study [26]. Low-cost algae utilization is a viable approach for sustainability and environmental safety, making it a successful biorefinery [25].

Figure 1 Plastic biofilm synthesized using commercial green (a) and red (b) algae. (c)–(e) Flexibility of the green bioplastic film.
Figure 1

Plastic biofilm synthesized using commercial green (a) and red (b) algae. (c)–(e) Flexibility of the green bioplastic film.

Microalgae offer an advantage over plant-based bioplastics as they do not compete for food resources intended for human consumption. Microalgae have lower nutritional demands and can thrive in non-arable environments like wastewater. They utilize inorganic compounds for growth and can produce various metabolites, including proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids [27,28]. These metabolites are valuable for different applications, including producing polysaccharides like alginate, carrageenan, and agar for bioplastics. Microalgae serve as a sustainable source for the commercial production of biopolymers, utilizing either cultivation or natural harvesting methods. Bioplastics can be created by converting algal biomass through various processes, including fermentation, plasticization, blending, and compatibilization [29,30]. According to a recent survey by European Bioplastics, global bioplastics production is projected to increase from 2.4 million tons in 2022 to 7.5 million tons by 2026, presenting a viable alternative to conventional plastics [31].

Chlorella and Spirulina biomass are used to prepare blends of bioplastics and thermoplastics [26]. Another study showed that thermocompression was used to plasticize protein-rich microalgae Spirulina and Chlorella at 150°C and 24 bar with glycerol [32]. Mathiot et al. [33] used microalgae to synthesize starch-based bioplastics; they succeeded in plasticization using Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, but Chlorella cells with a low amount of starch underwent limited disruption and plasticization using glycerol alone during extrusion.

The present study used glycerol and starch as natural plasticizers with a blending technique. Figure 1(c)–(e) shows the flexibility of the formed bioplastics that bend without breaking or rupturing. Plasticizers are organic molecules added to improve flexibility and processability. They reduce the rigidity of the polymer structure, allowing for deformation without rupture [34]. Polymer blending is a common method for modifying properties by physically mixing polymers. The resulting blend’s composition and features depend on the compatibility of the polymers used, which should be thermally compatible [35].

3.1 SEM/EDX analysis

Figure 2(a) and (c) shows the microstructures of the bioplastic surfaces synthesized from green and red microalgae. Bioplastic films may have an irregular surface due to ridges and grooves in their microstructures. During the process of forming bioplastic films, roughness can appear due to granules or leftover starch particles that are found in their microstructures [36]. The existence of imperfections like voids, ridges, grooves, and holes within the microstructure of bioplastic films suggests that the bonding between the starch molecules might be inadequate. To guarantee better bonding, the interfacial interactions between the film constituents can be enhanced by incorporating filler compounds such as graphene oxide into the biopolymer film [37]. The EDX analysis (Figure 2(b) and (d)) shows large contents of carbon and oxygen due to the presence of starch in the bioplastic films. During the manufacturing process of biopolymers, Garcia-Hernandez et al. [38] found residual starch particles in the surface microstructure.

Figure 2 SEM images of the surface morphology of bioplastics synthesized using green (a) and red (c) algae and their main composition using EDX (b: green bioplastics and d: red bioplastics).
Figure 2

SEM images of the surface morphology of bioplastics synthesized using green (a) and red (c) algae and their main composition using EDX (b: green bioplastics and d: red bioplastics).

3.2 FTIR spectroscopy

Figure 3 shows the major functional groups of the present bioplastics (using green and red algae) accurately and efficiently using FTIR spectroscopy [39]. The peaks observed in each of the spectra between 1,103 and 1,028 cm−1 are attributed to the –CO group of anhydro-glucose ring (C–O) due to carbohydrates/starch used in bioplastic preparation [40]. The peaks between 1,400 and 1,636 cm−1 were attributed to the –CH group. Other peaks around 800 cm−1 correspond to the pyranose ring skeletal vibrations in the starch glucose unit in each bioplastic spectrum [41]. Moreover, peaks at wavelengths of 3,390 and 3,626 cm−1 correspond to the –OH group. The peaks in this area correspond to the hydrogen-linked hydroxyl group (O–H) in the carbohydrate structure, responsible for intermolecular hydrogen bonding in bioplastic sheets. Hydroxyl groups are strongly linked to water molecules adsorbed on starch particles, with moisture absorbed due to their presence [41,42,43]. The bioplastic samples displayed peaks at 1,466, 1,444, 1,450, and 1,465 cm−1, which are attributed to the –CH group and likely result from CH2 bending vibrations of the starch in the films. Muscat et al. [44] argued that spectral peaks below 800 cm−1 are associated with the pyranose ring’s skeletal vibrations in the starch’s glucose unit. The present study agrees with Onovo et al. [36]; they successfully synthesized bioplastic films from the Manihot esculenta and Triticum aestivum blend. Onovo et al. [36] identified similar FTIR peaks in all the starch-based bioplastic films.

Figure 3 FTIR spectra of biosynthesized plastic using Chlorella (a) and Lithothamnion (b) microalgae.
Figure 3

FTIR spectra of biosynthesized plastic using Chlorella (a) and Lithothamnion (b) microalgae.

3.3 Biodegradable test

In the present study, we have recorded that both synthesized bioplastics from green and red algae were decomposed (more than 70% of total mass) on the soil surface at day 35 after exposure to natural weathering (Figure 4). Observations were made on the visual changes in bioplastic samples placed on the soil surface daily. Over time, the samples exhibited several changes, such as the appearance of fissures and cracks on the surface, disintegration upon touch, and brittle behavior after 30 days. As previously recorded, the samples also shrank in size after completing the test and became rigid and fragile [36,45]. The present study was set up in Taif governorate in Makkah province of Saudi Arabia. Taif governorate is a high-altitude region (∼1.87 m above sea level); due to its unique geographical position and altitude, it boasts a special climate. Taif climate is classified as a hot desert climate (BWh) according to Koppen and Geiger [46]. Soil analysis in the surface layer (at depth 0–15 cm) is slightly acidic (pH = 6.7), low soil moisture content (1.81%), organic carbon 0.56%, CaCO3% = 10.03, total soluble salts % = 0.95, very low carbonate content ( HCO 3 − % = 0.05), while most common anions are chlorides ( CO − % = 0.15) and sulfates ( SO 4 − % = 0.09) [47].

Figure 4 Gradual biodegradation of bioplastics synthesized using green (upper row (a)–(d)) and red (lower row (a)–(d)) algae on the soil surface.
Figure 4

Gradual biodegradation of bioplastics synthesized using green (upper row (a)–(d)) and red (lower row (a)–(d)) algae on the soil surface.

Figure 5 shows complete degradation of bioplastics formed from green algae and more than 70% of red bioplastic mass at day 34 in drinking water. Daily visual observations were documented on bioplastic samples present in drinking water. The samples showed distinct changes, including the development of cracks on their surface, breaking, and partial/complete dissolution by day 34 for red/green bioplastics. The drinking water used in the present study is neutral (pH 7.4) with total soluble salts of 120 ppm, total hardness of 41, and carbonate content (26 ppm); also, the most common anions are chlorides (19 ppm) and sulfates (26 ppm). The biodegradation of the formed bioplastics in soil/water quickly could be returned to the presence of glycerol in the preparation. Glycerol has higher hygroscopic properties than other plasticizers [48]. Also, starch is naturally hydrophilic, meaning it easily absorbs water from the soil. Natural weather changes such as rain accelerate water absorption into bioplastic, speeding up the soil surface’s degradation process. pH levels, moisture, and bacterial biomass concentration can also contribute to bioplastic degradation [49,50]. Bioplastics with high starch content absorb more water, making them mushy and easier for microorganisms to attack, which accelerates the rate of degradation [51,52]. Polymers with a hydroxyl group (–OH) found in starch are easily degraded by microbes, which activates its hydrolysis reaction, making it easier for moisture to be absorbed from the soil and for microbes to operate [45]. Microalgae-based plastics are cost-effective, highly recyclable, biodegradable, biocompatible, flexible, energy-efficient, have a smaller carbon footprint, and generate no toxic by-products, promoting a more sustainable circular economy [28].

Figure 5 The gradual biodegradation of bioplastics synthesized using green (upper row (a)–(d)) and red (lower row (a)–(d)) algae in the drinking water.
Figure 5

The gradual biodegradation of bioplastics synthesized using green (upper row (a)–(d)) and red (lower row (a)–(d)) algae in the drinking water.

The degradation of bioplastics in a short time (about a month) on the soil surface or in water solves the problems of synthetic plastics, which are degraded in years with long-lasting environmental occurrences [53]. After bioplastics degrade in soil, algae act as biofertilizers, nourishing the soil for crop growth and productivity. Biofertilizers can improve soil fertility and nutrient transfers and increase beneficial microorganisms. Microalgae biomass is nitrogen-rich and serves as a fertilizer for crops. Algal biofertilizer, with microbes in the soil, improves soil nutrient levels and enhances plant growth [25]. This could be significant progress toward using biostimulants in sustainable agriculture [54]. Moreover, the need for eco-friendly food packaging is growing due to the environmental impact of single-use plastics. This requires faster responses from the scientific community, industry, and governmental bodies to adopt and implement new materials. Bioplastics, made from renewable and sustainable sources, are a promising alternative to traditional plastics [55].

4 Conclusions

In this study, bioplastic films were successfully made from Chlorella and Lithothamnion algae powder with glycerol and starch as plasticizers. This technique is simple, eco-friendly, low cost, and could help in decreasing plastic contamination worldwide. SEM/EDX and FTIR techniques confirm the successful formation of bioplastics. They can be easily biodegraded on the surface of soil and in drinking water after nearly a month. Once fully degraded, they can serve as excellent biofertilizers for crops. Microalgae-based plastics have the potential to become a leading environmentally friendly product despite being in the early stages of development.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to acknowledge the Deanship of Graduate Studies and Scientific Research, Taif University, for funding this work.

  1. Funding information: The authors would like to acknowledge the Deanship of Graduate Studies and Scientific Research, Taif University, for funding this work.

  2. Author contributions: Fawz Algethami: methodology and writing – original draft; Maria Salah Al-Deen: methodology, writing – original draft, and writing – review and editing; Mathael Almutairi: methodology and writing – original draft; Muzun Al-zahrani: methodology and writing – original draft; Nahed Ahmed Hussien: formal analysis, funding acquisition, investigation, methodology, software, project administration, resources, supervision, writing – review, editing and validation; Rana Al-Sahli: methodology and writing – original draft; Samar Alharthi: methodology and writing – original draft; Shahad Al-Humayani: methodology and writing – original draft; Shahid Al-Wathinani: conceptualization, methodology, and writing – original draft; Shatha Albunyusi: methodology, writing–original draft, writing – review, editing; Shouq Alqurashi: data curation and writing – original draft.

  3. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

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Received: 2024-09-24
Accepted: 2025-01-30
Published Online: 2025-03-06

© 2025 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/gps-2024-0208
Keywords for this article
bioplastics; microalgae; Chlorella; Lithothamnion; FTIR; biodegradation
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Optimized green synthesis of silver nanoparticles from guarana seed skin extract with antibacterial potential
  3. Green adsorbents for water remediation: Removal of Cr(vi) and Ni(ii) using Prosopis glandulosa sawdust and biochar
  4. Green approach for the synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles from methanolic stem extract of Andrographis paniculata and evaluation of antidiabetic activity: In silico GSK-3β analysis
  5. Development of a green and rapid ethanol-based HPLC assay for aspirin tablets and feasibility evaluation of domestically produced bioethanol in Thailand as a sustainable mobile phase
  6. A facile biodegradation of polystyrene microplastic by Bacillus subtilis
  7. Enhanced synthesis of fly ash-derived hydrated sodium silicate adsorbents via low-temperature alkaline hydrothermal treatment for advanced environmental applications
  8. Impact of metal nanoparticles biosynthesized using camel milk on bacterial growth and copper removal from wastewater
  9. Preparation of Co/Cr-MOFs for efficient removal of fleroxacin and Rhodamine B
  10. Applying nanocarbon prepared from coal as an anode in lithium-ion batteries
  11. Improved electrochemical synthesis of Cu–Fe/brass foil alloy followed by combustion for high-efficiency photoelectrodes and hydrogen production in alkaline solutions
  12. Precipitation of terephthalic acid from post-consumer polyethylene terephthalate waste fractions
  13. Biosynthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles: Multifunctional potential applications in anticancer, antibacterial, and B. subtilis DNA gyrase docking
  14. Anticancer and antimicrobial effects of green-synthesized silver nanoparticles using Teucrium polium leaves extract
  15. Green synthesis of eco-friendly bioplastics from Chlorella and Lithothamnion algae for safe and sustainable solutions for food packaging
  16. Optimizing coal water slurry concentration via synergistic coal blending and particle size distribution
  17. Green synthesis of Ag@Cu and silver nanowire using Pterospermum heterophyllum extracts for surface-enhanced Raman scattering
  18. Green synthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles from Algerian propolis: Exploring biochemical, structural, antimicrobial, and anti-diabetic properties
  19. Simultaneous quantification of mefenamic acid and paracetamol in fixed-dose combination tablet dosage forms using the green HPTLC method
  20. Green synthesis of titanium dioxide nanoparticles using green tea (Camellia sinensis) extract: Characteristics and applications
  21. Pharmaceutical properties for green fabricated ZnO and Ag nanoparticle-mediated Borago officinalis: In silico predications study
  22. Synthesis and optimization of gemcitabine-loaded nanoparticles by using Box–Behnken design for treating prostate cancer: In vitro characterization and in vivo pharmacokinetic study
  23. A comparative analysis of single-step and multi-step methods for producing magnetic activated carbon from palm kernel shells: Adsorption of methyl orange dye
  24. Sustainable green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using walnut septum waste: Characterization and antibacterial properties
  25. Efficient electrocatalytic reduction of CO2 to CO over Ni/Y diatomic catalysts
  26. Greener and magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles as a recyclable catalyst for Knoevenagel condensation and degradation of industrial Congo red dye
  27. Recycling of HDPE-giant reed composites: Processability and performance
  28. Fabrication of antibacterial chitosan/PVA nanofibers co-loaded with curcumin and cefadroxil for wound healing
  29. Cost-effective one-pot fabrication of iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide nanomaterials for supercapacitor charge storage
  30. Novel trimetallic (TiO2–MgO–Au) nanoparticles: Biosynthesis, characterization, antimicrobial, and anticancer activities
  31. Green-synthesized chromium oxide nanoparticles using pomegranate husk extract: Multifunctional bioactivity in antioxidant potential, lipase and amylase inhibition, and cytotoxicity
  32. Therapeutic potential of sustainable zinc oxide nanoparticles biosynthesized using Tradescantia spathacea aqueous leaf extract
  33. Chitosan-coated superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles synthesized using Carica papaya bark extract: Evaluation of antioxidant, antibacterial, and anticancer activity of HeLa cervical cancer cells
  34. Antioxidant potential of peptide fractions from tuna dark muscle protein isolate: A green enzymatic approach
  35. Clerodendron phlomoides leaf extract-mediated synthesis of selenium nanoparticles for multi-applications
  36. Optimization of cellulose yield from oil palm trunks with deep eutectic solvents using response surface methodology
  37. Nitrogen-doped carbon dots from Brahmi (Bacopa monnieri): Metal-free probe for efficient detection of metal pollutants and methylene blue dye degradation
  38. High energy density pseudocapacitor based on a nanoporous tungsten(VI) oxide iodide/poly(2-amino-1-mercaptobenzene) composite
  39. Green synthesized Ag–Cu nanocomposites as an improved strategy to fight multidrug-resistant bacteria by inhibition of biofilm formation: In vitro and in silico assessment study
  40. In vitro evaluation of antibacterial activity and associated cytotoxicity of biogenic silver nanoparticles using various extracts of Tabernaemontana ventricosa
  41. Fabrication of novel composite materials by impregnating ZnO particles into bacterial cellulose nanofibers for antimicrobial applications
  42. Solidification floating organic drop for dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction estimation of copper in different water samples
  43. Kinetics and synthesis of formation of phosphate composites from low-grade phosphorites in the presence of phosphate–siliceous shales and oil sludge
  44. Removal of minocycline and terramycin by graphene oxide and Cr/Mn base metal–organic framework composites
  45. Microfluidic preparation of ceramide E liposomes and properties
  46. Therapeutic potential of Anamirta cocculus (L.) Wight & Arn. leaf aqueous extract-mediated biogenic gold nanoparticles
  47. Review Article
  48. Sustainable innovations in garlic extraction: A comprehensive review and bibliometric analysis of green extraction methods
  49. Rapid Communication
  50. In situ supported rhodium catalyst on mesoporous silica for chemoselective hydrogenation of nitriles to primary amines
  51. Special Issue: Valorisation of Biowaste to Nanomaterials for Environmental Applications
  52. Valorization of coconut husk into biochar for lead (Pb2+) adsorption
  53. Corrigendum
  54. Corrigendum to “An updated review on carbon nanomaterials: Types, synthesis, functionalization and applications, degradation and toxicity”
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