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Cost-effective one-pot fabrication of iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide nanomaterials for supercapacitor charge storage

  • Eman Aldosari , Asmaa M. Elsayed EMAIL logo , Ahmed Adel A. Abdelazeez and Mohamed Rabia EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: June 6, 2025
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Green Processing and Synthesis
From the journal Green Processing and Synthesis Volume 14 Issue 1

Abstract

In this study, the cost-effective one-pot fabrication of iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide nanomaterials for supercapacitor charge storage has been achieved. We incorporated iron(iii) oxychloride and iron(iii) oxide materials into an intercalated polypyrrole (PPy). The resulting composite has a promising crystalline size of 10 nm, indicative of favorable crystalline behavior. Upon complete analysis of the synthesized material, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction reinforce that iron(iii) oxychloride and iron(iii) oxide are chemically connected with the PPy network. The core–shell structure features a spherical core approximately 105 nm in diameter, with surface spots ranging from 20 to 30 nm. This morphology provides a high surface area, making it highly suitable for electrical applications and charge storage. The combination of iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide inorganic components with the small-sized PPy enhances its electrical properties for energy storage through the fabricated pseudosupercapacitor. The effectiveness of this composite is evaluated using a three-electrode cell, where the composite paste serves as the working electrode with 28.6 W·h·kg−1 energy density (E) and 350 F·g−1 specific capacitance (C S) at a current density of 1.0 A·g−1. This highlights the composite’s potential as a highly efficient, cost-effective supercapacitor material. Additionally, the stability of this supercapacitor is 98.1% after 1,000 cycles, suggesting its suitability for commercial applications.

Keywords: one-pot fabrication; polypyrrole; iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide; core–shell nanocomposite; supercapacitor

1 Introduction

Supercapacitors serve as a power source that effectively bridges the gap between dielectric capacitors and traditional electrochemical batteries. Compared to dielectric capacitors, supercapacitors offer enhanced cycle stability and energy density [1,2,3]. However, to fully realize the benefits of supercapacitors, it is crucial to move beyond conventional materials like metal oxides or hydroxides such as Ni(OH)2, NiO, or Zn(OH)2 [4,5], in which the estimated efficiencies are in the range of 17–100 F·g−1. The advancement of porous, electrically conductive, and ionically conductive materials, incorporating electrochemically active additives or chemical groups, is essential. These advancements enable rapid Faradaic redox processes (pseudocapacitance) and maximize the use of double-layer capacitance [6].

Recently, there has been significant interest in electrode materials for supercapacitors based on semiconductive polymers. Polymers such as polypyrrole (PPy), polythiophene, and their derivatives have garnered attention due to their inherent electrical conductivity, flexibility, redox activity, and the ability to control their morphology during synthesis. These characteristics make electrochemical pseudosupercapacitors (ECPs) attractive candidates for supercapacitor electrodes [7,8,9,10]. When ECPs are used as electrode materials, composite materials that combine the polymers with metal oxides distributed throughout the electrode’s volume can be particularly effective. These composites facilitate ion transport through the use of porous electroactive hydrogels, which increase the power density of the electrode. Additionally, by incorporating electrochemically active substances, the material’s pseudocapacitance is enhanced, leading to an increase in specific capacitance [11,12,13].

Research has extensively explored composites of ECPs with both organic and inorganic additives for their potential to improve supercapacitor performance. Among the inorganic additives, electroactive metal oxides like MnO2 and iron(iii) oxide are widely used. These materials improve the electrochemical performance of the supercapacitor electrodes. Metal oxides are studied in the context of composites with conjugated polymers that possess highly porous morphologies [1,14]. The electrical conductivity of these materials is improved by enhancing their morphological properties. Creating porous and nanoscale polymer composites increases the number of active sites, which, in turn, leads to an overall improvement in charge storage behavior. This morphological optimization shows great behavior for boosting the efficiency and performance of materials. Notable examples include MnO2–Mn2O3/poly-2-methylaniline [15] and iron(iii) oxide/poly-2-aminothiophenol composites [16]. These composites demonstrated capacitance (C S) values of 72 and 44.5 F·g−1, respectively, when using 1.0 M HCl as the electrolyte. Additionally, research has explored polymer composites such as PEDOT/LiTFSI-PVA with C S = 44 F·g−1 [17].

The pursuit of high-efficiency, cost-effective, and mass-producible polymer composites remains a significant challenge in the field. Many studies are dedicated to overcoming this challenge, aiming to develop materials that combine excellent electrochemical performance with practical manufacturing processes.

Herein, the cost-effective one-pot fabrication of a PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide core–shell nanocomposite for supercapacitor charge storage has been successfully achieved. The composite’s crystalline size, morphological characteristics, particle shape, elemental structure, oxidation states, and functional groups were thoroughly evaluated. This composite was applied to a graphite sheet as the working electrode in a three-electrode cell to assess its charge storage capabilities. The performance was analyzed using E, P, and Ragone plots, alongside the primary capacitance values. The stability studies with electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) further demonstrated the promising behavior of this pseudosupercapacitor for energy storage applications. The results indicate that this fabricated material exhibits significant potential for practical and commercial use in energy storage systems.

2 Experimental section

2.1 Materials

Pyrrole was procured from Across Co. in the USA. HCl and ethanol were obtained from Merck Co. in Germany. Graphite powder, ferric nitrate (Fe(NO3)3 H2O), and ammonium persulfate ((NH4)2S2O8) were obtained from Pio-Chem Co. in Egypt. Nafion (sulfonated tetrafluoroethylene-based fluoropolymer copolymer) at a concentration of 5% in methanol was acquired from Sigma Aldrich in the USA.

2.2 Synthesis of porous PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide core–shell nanocomposite

The porous PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide core–shell nanocomposite synthesis relies on a one-pot technique based on the oxidation of pyrrole in the presence of Fe(NO3)3.H2O and (NH4)2S2O8. These oxidants were added in a molar ratio of 1:2, respectively. Prior to the reaction with the oxidants, the pyrrole monomer (0.06 M) was dissolved in HCl (0.7 M). During the addition process, polymerization occurs, leading to the formation of iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide as the core and PPy as the shell. After the reaction was complete, the polymer powder was washed, dried, and prepared for characterization processes.

2.3 Fabrication of the pseudosupercapacitor and its electrochemical testing

The fabrication process of the pseudosupercapacitor revolves around the utilization of the porous PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide core–shell nanocomposite as its primary material. This composite, characterized by its semiconductor properties, forms the basis of the supercapacitor design, and its name reflects the inherent characteristics of all materials within it, which possess the ability to store charge through redox reactions.

To create the supercapacitor, 0.04 g of composite was manually stirred with 0.75 ml of ethanol and 0.1 ml of Nafion, followed by vigorous stirring for a brief period. Subsequently, 0.005 g of graphite powder was added for paste formation and stirred for 2 days at room temperature to achieve homogeneity. The resulting paste was then cast onto a graphite sheet with a thickness of 0.5 mm. This sheet served as the main electrode inside the constructed cell setup, with additional electrodes made of calomel and platinum. This assembly was then ready for testing to evaluate the electrochemical behavior of the pseudosupercapacitor (Figure 1).

Figure 1 Synthesis of the PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide core–shell nanocomposite and the fabrication of a pseudosupercapacitor based on this composite.
Figure 1

Synthesis of the PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide core–shell nanocomposite and the fabrication of a pseudosupercapacitor based on this composite.

The C S of the supercapacitor was determined using Eq. 1 [18], which includes the discharge time (Δt), voltage (ΔV), current (I), and mass loaded (m). The energy density (E) was subsequently calculated based on C S and the voltage difference between the maximum and minimum values, as outlined in Eq. 2 [18]. Finally, the power density (P) was evaluated using Eq. 3 [18].

(1) C s = I · Δ t / Δ V · m

(2) E = 0.5 C s ( V max 2 − V min 2 )

(3) P = E / Δ t

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Analyses

The FTIR spectra of the composite are displayed in Figure 2(a). The characteristic peaks for PPy are observed at 685, 800, 905, 1,175, 1,311, 1,460, and 1,543 cm⁻¹. The bands at 1,175 and 1,311 cm⁻¹ are related to the C–H and C–N stretching, respectively. Moreover, the C═C of the PPy ring is found at 1,460 and 1,543 cm⁻¹. Upon forming the PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide nanocomposite, the bands shift under the chemical interaction of iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide. These shifts, which can be either toward higher (blue shift) or lower (red shift) frequencies, are caused by the influence of the inorganic material on electronic vibrations [26,27,28]. The functional groups and their estimated positions are detailed in Table 1.

Figure 2 Chemical analyses of the synthesized PPy and PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide core–shell nanocomposite: (a) FTIR spectra and (b) XRD patterns.
Figure 2

Chemical analyses of the synthesized PPy and PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide core–shell nanocomposite: (a) FTIR spectra and (b) XRD patterns.

Table 1

Evaluated bands related to the groups of the synthesized PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide core–shell nanocomposite

Band position (cm−1) Functional group
PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide PPy
607, 797, 920, and 1,047 685, 800, 905, and 1,043 Ring vibration [19]
1,190 1,175 C–H [20]
1,315 1,311 C–N [19]
1,465 and 1,552 1,460 and 1,543 C═C and C–C [21]
3,402 3,411 N–H

The PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide nanocomposite was synthesized with a core–shell structure, where the combination of iron sulfide and iron oxide with PPy results in enhanced properties. The XRD analysis identified peaks corresponding to iron(iii) oxychloride at specific angles, corroborating the material’s presence and structure. Similarly, peaks related to iron(iii) oxide were identified, confirming its inclusion in the composite. The observed peaks for PPy, along with the enhanced crystallinity post-composition, highlight the material’s structural integrity and potential for improved performance. The XRD pattern analysis is presented in Figure 2(b). The presence of iron(iii) oxychloride was detected by the produced specific diffraction peaks observed at 27.5°, 34.0°, 35.9°, 45.8°, and 55.8°, corresponding to the directions (110), (021), (111), (200), and (002), respectively [22,23]. Similarly, the identification of iron(iii) oxide was confirmed through diffraction peaks at 29.0°, 31.5°, 37.9°, 42.2°, 49.6°, 53.5°, 57.4°, and 60.8°, corresponding to the growth directions (220), (104), (110), (113), (024), (116), (114), and (300), respectively, as per JCPDS No. 33-0664 [24,25]. The PPy component in the composite exhibits peaks at 26.6° and 27.4°, similar to pristine PPy but shows a prominent peak post-composition, indicating increased crystallinity. This enhanced crystallinity results from the incorporation of inorganic iron oxide and sulfide materials, which collectively enhance the composite’s overall properties. This enhancement is particularly noticeable in the composite’s optical properties, which resulted from improved crystallinity. The crystallinity facilitates charge storage within the composite, leading to the storage of generated electrons.

The crystalline size of the PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide core–shell nanocomposite was determined using the Scherrer equation, Eq. 4 [26,27]. With a calculated size of approximately 10 nm, this nanocomposite features small crystals capable of effectively trapping incident photons. The calculation uses the full width at half-maximum (FWHM) ( β ) and the 2θ value at 25.5°. This precise estimation underscores the nanocomposite’s potential in applications requiring efficient charge and electron generation. The integration of iron(iii) oxychloride and iron(iii) oxide within the PPy matrix significantly boosts the composite’s performance by leveraging the synergistic effects of these inorganic materials. The obtained material demonstrates promising electrical properties, making it a potential candidate for various advanced technological applications, especially those related to capacitors and high electronics [28,29]. The improved crystallinity of the nanocomposite significantly contributes to its efficient electron capture and utilization. The smaller crystalline size enhances the redox reactions, allowing for more efficient electron transfer through the active sites. This structural feature facilitates greater electrochemical activity by increasing the available surface area for redox processes, thereby improving the material’s overall performance. The fine crystalline structure enables better interaction with the electrolyte, promoting faster electron transitions, which are essential for achieving high energy storage and efficient charge/discharge cycles in electrochemical devices [28].

(4) D = 0.9 λ / β cos θ

The chemical composition of the synthesized PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide core–shell nanocomposite was confirmed through XPS, as illustrated in Figure 3. This analysis provides detailed information on the types, ratios, and oxidation states of the elements present in the composite. The comprehensive survey of all elements within the composite confirms the presence of iron (Fe), oxygen (O), and sulfur (S) peaks, as depicted in Figure 3(a). Additionally, peaks corresponding to carbon (C) at 285.5 eV and nitrogen (N) at 400.5 eV, which are associated with the PPy polymer, are also observed. The detection of chlorine (Cl) at 200.0 eV indicates the insertion of this element into the polymer network during the polymerization process. The presence of chloride ions (Cl⁻) is noteworthy as they are expected to enhance the nanocomposite’s electrical behavior. Further insights into the composition are provided by the high-resolution XPS spectra. Figure 3(b) presents the specific binding energy peaks for iron(iii) oxide, identifying the Fe 2p3/2 and Fe 2p1/2 peaks at 711.18 and 724.46 eV, respectively. Taking into consideration of the O element at 531.9 eV in Figure 3(c). For iron(iii) oxychloride, the Fe 2p3/2 and Fe 2p1/2 peaks are located at 714.4 and 727.9 eV, respectively [22,23]. These specific energy values help distinguish between different iron compounds present in the composite. The integration of XPS with XRD analyses provides a comprehensive understanding of the PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide nanocomposite. XRD confirms the crystalline structure and growth directions of iron(iii) oxychloride and iron(iii) oxide, while XPS complements this by verifying the chemical states and ratios of elements. The synergy between these analytical techniques ensures a precise estimation of the nanocomposite’s composition.

Figure 3 Chemical properties of the synthesized PPy and PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide core–shell nanocomposite: XPS (a) survey, (b) Fe 2p, (c) O 1s, and (d) S 2p spectra.
Figure 3

Chemical properties of the synthesized PPy and PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide core–shell nanocomposite: XPS (a) survey, (b) Fe 2p, (c) O 1s, and (d) S 2p spectra.

The morphological characteristics of the PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide core–shell nanocomposite were evaluated using SEM and TEM, complemented by theoretical simulations. The SEM image, depicted in Figure 4(a), reveals an outstanding porous morphology featuring both white and dark spot-like shapes. The larger particles, approximately 200 nm in size, are composed of finer particles averaging around 30 nm. These white and dark spots indicate the incorporation of iron(iii) oxychloride and iron(iii) oxide within the PPy polymer network, forming the composite. In contrast, the pristine PPy polymer displays distinctive spherical particles with ∼250 nm. These particles have additional small spots on their surfaces, creating a rough texture that is advantageous for composite formation with other materials [30,31,32]. This rough surface morphology enhances the composite’s overall properties by providing better integration and interaction between the different components.

Figure 4 Morphological estimation of the synthesized PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide core–shell nanocomposite: (a) SEM, (c) TEM, and (d) cross-section images and (b) SEM image of pristine PPy.
Figure 4

Morphological estimation of the synthesized PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide core–shell nanocomposite: (a) SEM, (c) TEM, and (d) cross-section images and (b) SEM image of pristine PPy.

Figure 4(c) illustrates the TEM image of the PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide nanocomposite. This analysis shows a dark spherical core surrounded by lighter, fainter particles, confirming the core–shell structure. The spherical core is approximately 105 nm in diameter, with additional surface spots ranging from 20 to 30 nm, and with interlamellar spaces of ∼1 nm. These smaller particles coat the core, contributing to the overall morphology of the nanocomposite.

The theoretical simulation, represented in Figure 4(d), provides further insight into the cross-sectional structure and upper roughness of the PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide core–shell nanocomposite. The simulation reveals a porous surface dotted with fine particles averaging 20–30 nm in size. These fine particles aggregate to form larger clusters, resulting in particles around 200 nm in size. This simulation aligns well with the observations from 3D and 2D morphologies, confirming the consistent morphology of the nanocomposite. The porous structure plays a crucial role in enhancing charge storage, as it facilitates the diffusion of electrolytes through the particles, thereby improving the overall charge storage performance. Previous studies on polymer composite supercapacitors, such as those based on polyaniline or polythiophene combined with metal oxides, have also emphasized this feature. These composites leverage the porous architecture to optimize electrolyte accessibility and interaction, ultimately boosting the charge storage capacity and efficiency [25,33].

3.2 Electrochemical behavior of PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide core–shell nanocomposite pseudosupercapacitor

The behavior of the fabricated PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide pseudosupercapacitor was evaluated through measurements in a three-electrode cell, in which the nanocomposite paste acts as the working electrode, tested for charge storage based on ion insertion and movement between the paste and the graphite electrode on which the nanocomposite paste was loaded. The material behavior within the nanocomposite was influenced by the inorganic iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide inserted within the PPy network. These inorganic materials exhibit significant redox properties, contributing to the charge and discharge behavior. Their semiconducting nature and excellent chemical stability ensure the fabricated supercapacitor’s stability and reproducibility.

The C S behavior of this pseudosupercapacitor was assessed using charge/discharge curves, as illustrated in Figure 5(a), across broad current densities ranging from 1.0 to 3.0 A·g−1. As the current density decreases, the discharge time increases and reaches up to 140 s at 1.0 A·g−1, this demonstrates the excellent charge storage capacity of the fabricated supercapacitor and highlights the effective ion diffusion through the composite paste.

Figure 5 (a) PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide pseudosupercapacitor (a) charge/discharge curves and (b) cyclic voltammetry curves using HCl electrolyte.
Figure 5

(a) PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide pseudosupercapacitor (a) charge/discharge curves and (b) cyclic voltammetry curves using HCl electrolyte.

The cyclic voltammetry behavior of the fabricated pseudosupercapacitor was examined within the 0.0–1.0 V potential window. The presence of oxidation peaks in the positive and reduction peaks in the negative directions indicates the robust redox behavior of the PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide core–shell nanocomposite. These peaks increase progressively with the scan rate, ranging from 50 to 300 mV·s−1, and the expanding area under the curves reflects significant ion diffusion. The electrolyte (1.0 M HCl) is particularly effective, as the acid activates (provides H+ effectively) and enhances the conductivity of PPy, which significantly increases in the acidic medium under the polarization of the composite.

The charge storage behavior of the fabricated PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide pseudosupercapacitor was evaluated using Eq. 1, as illustrated in Figure 6(a). The discharge voltage (ΔV) and time (Δt) are critical parameters in this estimation. The specific capacitance (C S) optimizes under various current densities, achieving an optimal value of 350 F·g−1 at 1.0 A·g−1. This high charge storage capacity is based on superior morphological characteristics of the PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide core–shell nanocomposite and its effective redox behavior, facilitated by the HCl electrolyte. At higher current densities, 1.5–3 A·g−1, the efficiency of the pseudosupercapacitor decreases, with C S values declining from 76 to 39 F·g−1, respectively.

Figure 6 (a) C S, (b) E, (c) P, and (d) Ragone plot for the fabricated PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide core–shell nanocomposite pseudosupercapacitor.
Figure 6

(a) C S, (b) E, (c) P, and (d) Ragone plot for the fabricated PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide core–shell nanocomposite pseudosupercapacitor.

Similarly, the energy density values (E) were determined using Eq. 2, as shown in Figure 6(b). The optimal energy storage value is 28.6 W·h·kg−1 at 1.0 A·g−1. This high energy storage capacity makes the supercapacitor suitable for connecting to other devices to provide energy, especially in remote locations. However, at higher current densities from 1.5 to 3 A·g−1, the E values decrease to 6.2 and 3.1 W·h·kg−1, respectively. Despite this reduction, these values remain significant and superior to those reported in previous studies, as illustrated in Table 2.

Table 2

Charge storage efficiency of the fabricated PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide pseudosupercapacitor compared to other studies

Supercapacitor electrode C S (F·g−1) Current density (A·g−1) Electrolyte
iron(iii) oxide/poly-2-amino thiophenol [16] 44.5 0.2 1 M NaOH
MnO2–Mn2O3/P2-methyl aniline [15] 72 0.2 1.0 M HCl
PPy–Ni(OH)2 [36] 70 0.005 poly(vinyl alcohol)/H3PO4
Polyaniline/silver oxide/silver [37] 4.0 0.2 1 M NaOH
G-C3N4/poly-2-aminobenzene thiol [6] 310 0.2 1.0 M HCl
Zn(OH)2 [5] 100 0.2 2 M KOH
β-Ni(ii) hydroxide/carbon nitride [4] 20.5 1.0 1 M NaOH
Zn(ii) oxide sulfide/carbon nitride [38] 15 0.2 1.0 M Na2SO4
CoO–CuO/G-C3N4 [39] 65 0.5 6 M KOH
Gd/G-C3N4 [40] 16 — Vinyl polymer/H3PO4
NiO/Ni(OH)2 [41] — — 1.0 M KOH
PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide (this work) 350 1.0 1.0 M HCl

Moreover, the power density values (P) increase from 200 to 600 W·kg−1, as depicted in Figure 6(c). This estimation is based on Eq. 3, which relates the E values to the discharge time. The Ragone plot [30,34], shown in Figure 6(d), demonstrates the relationship of P with E. In this plot, the stored energy is inversely related to output power, showcasing the supercapacitor’s capability to store and release power effectively when integrated into complementary devices.

The impressive electrochemical storage performance of iron(iii) oxychloride and iron(iii) oxide nanomaterials is attributed to their ability to transition between oxidation states during the charge–discharge cycle. Specifically, these materials undergo a reversible redox process, where iron transitions from Fe²⁺ to Fe³⁺ during discharge and returns to Fe²⁺ upon recharging. Simultaneously, PPy undergoes structural transformations, switching between a benzene-like structure and a quinoid structure during these reactions (schematic structure is presented in Figure 1). These structural and redox changes contribute to the release and acceptance of electrons, which are crucial for the functionality of pseudocapacitors. This dynamic behavior explains why these materials are classified as pseudocapacitors, as their charge storage mechanism involves Faradaic reactions in addition to conventional electrostatic storage. The synergistic interaction between iron(iii) oxychloride, iron(iii) oxide, and PPy enhances their collective ability to store and deliver charge. This compatibility ensures efficient electron transfer and promotes high values of C S, P, and E.

The cooperative action of these materials during charging and discharging cycles leads to superior electrochemical performance. Their ability to alternately donate and accept electrons not only supports robust charge storage but also ensures reliable discharge behavior. This combination of properties makes them highly promising candidates for advanced energy storage applications, where high performance and efficiency are critical.

By leveraging the unique redox characteristics of iron-based nanomaterials and the structural adaptability of PPy, these systems achieve enhanced charge storage and energy delivery. Their ability to seamlessly transition between states during electrochemical reactions highlights their potential for integration into next-generation supercapacitor technologies. Together, these materials demonstrate an exceptional capacity for energy storage and release, reinforcing their role as a promising and compatible combination for advanced electrochemical systems.

The EIS study of the fabricated PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide pseudosupercapacitor, as depicted in the Nyquist plot (Figure 7(a)), demonstrates a strong relationship between the real (Z′) and imaginary impedance (Z″) parts [35]. The semi-circular shape of the plot, characterized by a small diameter, indicates excellent charge transfer behavior through the PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide core–shell nanocomposite paste. The resistance values of R S and the R CT were estimated to be 3.2 and 27.6 Ω, respectively. This promising charge transfer was evaluated in a three-electrode cell setup using 1 M HCl as the electrolyte, showing efficient charge passage between the paste and the graphite electrode.

Figure 7 (a) EIS curves and (b) cycle retention of the fabricated PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide pseudosupercapacitor.
Figure 7

(a) EIS curves and (b) cycle retention of the fabricated PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide pseudosupercapacitor.

The stability of the fabricated PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide core–shell nanocomposite pseudosupercapacitor was assessed over 1,000 cycles, as shown in Figure 7(b). The cycle retention stability is impressive, maintaining 98.1% stability after 1,000 cycles. This high stability is attributed to the inorganic materials iron(iii) oxychloride and iron(iii) oxide which are effectively embedded within the polymer network. These materials are tightly connected through chemical interactions, forming a robust core–shell composite. The combination of these inorganic materials and the PPy network provides a durable and reproducible supercapacitor.

Given the promising features of the iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide core–shell nanocomposite pseudosupercapacitor, including its high charge transfer efficiency, excellent cycle stability, cost-effectiveness, and ease of fabrication, it holds significant potential for commercial and industrial applications as part of advanced technological devices.

4 Conclusions

The cost-effective one-pot fabrication of a PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide core–shell nanocomposite has been achieved using simple techniques suitable for mass production. Various analytical tools, such as XRD and XPS, were employed to analyze the chemical structure and crystalline behavior. The crystalline size was determined to be 10 nm, and XPS analysis confirmed the formation of doublet peaks corresponding to the Fe element, indicating the successful formation of iron(iii) oxychloride and iron(iii) oxide.

The performance of this composite supercapacitor was assessed using a three-electrode cell, where the composite served as the working electrode. It exhibited impressive E (28.6 W·h·kg−1) and C S (350 F·g−1) at 1.0 A·g−1. These results underscore the composite’s potential as a highly efficient and cost-effective supercapacitor material. Moreover, the pseudo-supercapacitor demonstrated remarkable stability, retaining 98.1% of its performance after 1,000 cycles, which suggests its strong suitability for commercial applications. So, this PPy/iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide pseudosupercapacitor with its excellent energy density, specific capacitance, and long-term stability makes a superior and commercially viable alternative to existing materials.

Acknowledgments

Ongoing Research Funding program, (ORF-2025-845), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

  1. Funding information: Ongoing Research Funding program, (ORF-2025-845), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

  2. Author contributions: Eman Aldosari: writing, funding, and supervision. Mohamed Rabia: experimental, writing, and investigation. Asmaa M. Elsayed and Ahmed Adel A. Abdelazeez: revision, supervision, and investigation.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Received: 2024-08-17
Accepted: 2025-02-11
Published Online: 2025-06-06

© 2025 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  5. Development of a green and rapid ethanol-based HPLC assay for aspirin tablets and feasibility evaluation of domestically produced bioethanol in Thailand as a sustainable mobile phase
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https://doi.org/10.1515/gps-2024-0183
Keywords for this article
one-pot fabrication; polypyrrole; iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide; core–shell nanocomposite; supercapacitor
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Optimized green synthesis of silver nanoparticles from guarana seed skin extract with antibacterial potential
  3. Green adsorbents for water remediation: Removal of Cr(vi) and Ni(ii) using Prosopis glandulosa sawdust and biochar
  4. Green approach for the synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles from methanolic stem extract of Andrographis paniculata and evaluation of antidiabetic activity: In silico GSK-3β analysis
  5. Development of a green and rapid ethanol-based HPLC assay for aspirin tablets and feasibility evaluation of domestically produced bioethanol in Thailand as a sustainable mobile phase
  6. A facile biodegradation of polystyrene microplastic by Bacillus subtilis
  7. Enhanced synthesis of fly ash-derived hydrated sodium silicate adsorbents via low-temperature alkaline hydrothermal treatment for advanced environmental applications
  8. Impact of metal nanoparticles biosynthesized using camel milk on bacterial growth and copper removal from wastewater
  9. Preparation of Co/Cr-MOFs for efficient removal of fleroxacin and Rhodamine B
  10. Applying nanocarbon prepared from coal as an anode in lithium-ion batteries
  11. Improved electrochemical synthesis of Cu–Fe/brass foil alloy followed by combustion for high-efficiency photoelectrodes and hydrogen production in alkaline solutions
  12. Precipitation of terephthalic acid from post-consumer polyethylene terephthalate waste fractions
  13. Biosynthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles: Multifunctional potential applications in anticancer, antibacterial, and B. subtilis DNA gyrase docking
  14. Anticancer and antimicrobial effects of green-synthesized silver nanoparticles using Teucrium polium leaves extract
  15. Green synthesis of eco-friendly bioplastics from Chlorella and Lithothamnion algae for safe and sustainable solutions for food packaging
  16. Optimizing coal water slurry concentration via synergistic coal blending and particle size distribution
  17. Green synthesis of Ag@Cu and silver nanowire using Pterospermum heterophyllum extracts for surface-enhanced Raman scattering
  18. Green synthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles from Algerian propolis: Exploring biochemical, structural, antimicrobial, and anti-diabetic properties
  19. Simultaneous quantification of mefenamic acid and paracetamol in fixed-dose combination tablet dosage forms using the green HPTLC method
  20. Green synthesis of titanium dioxide nanoparticles using green tea (Camellia sinensis) extract: Characteristics and applications
  21. Pharmaceutical properties for green fabricated ZnO and Ag nanoparticle-mediated Borago officinalis: In silico predications study
  22. Synthesis and optimization of gemcitabine-loaded nanoparticles by using Box–Behnken design for treating prostate cancer: In vitro characterization and in vivo pharmacokinetic study
  23. A comparative analysis of single-step and multi-step methods for producing magnetic activated carbon from palm kernel shells: Adsorption of methyl orange dye
  24. Sustainable green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using walnut septum waste: Characterization and antibacterial properties
  25. Efficient electrocatalytic reduction of CO2 to CO over Ni/Y diatomic catalysts
  26. Greener and magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles as a recyclable catalyst for Knoevenagel condensation and degradation of industrial Congo red dye
  27. Recycling of HDPE-giant reed composites: Processability and performance
  28. Fabrication of antibacterial chitosan/PVA nanofibers co-loaded with curcumin and cefadroxil for wound healing
  29. Cost-effective one-pot fabrication of iron(iii) oxychloride–iron(iii) oxide nanomaterials for supercapacitor charge storage
  30. Novel trimetallic (TiO2–MgO–Au) nanoparticles: Biosynthesis, characterization, antimicrobial, and anticancer activities
  31. Green-synthesized chromium oxide nanoparticles using pomegranate husk extract: Multifunctional bioactivity in antioxidant potential, lipase and amylase inhibition, and cytotoxicity
  32. Therapeutic potential of sustainable zinc oxide nanoparticles biosynthesized using Tradescantia spathacea aqueous leaf extract
  33. Chitosan-coated superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles synthesized using Carica papaya bark extract: Evaluation of antioxidant, antibacterial, and anticancer activity of HeLa cervical cancer cells
  34. Antioxidant potential of peptide fractions from tuna dark muscle protein isolate: A green enzymatic approach
  35. Clerodendron phlomoides leaf extract-mediated synthesis of selenium nanoparticles for multi-applications
  36. Optimization of cellulose yield from oil palm trunks with deep eutectic solvents using response surface methodology
  37. Nitrogen-doped carbon dots from Brahmi (Bacopa monnieri): Metal-free probe for efficient detection of metal pollutants and methylene blue dye degradation
  38. High energy density pseudocapacitor based on a nanoporous tungsten(VI) oxide iodide/poly(2-amino-1-mercaptobenzene) composite
  39. Green synthesized Ag–Cu nanocomposites as an improved strategy to fight multidrug-resistant bacteria by inhibition of biofilm formation: In vitro and in silico assessment study
  40. In vitro evaluation of antibacterial activity and associated cytotoxicity of biogenic silver nanoparticles using various extracts of Tabernaemontana ventricosa
  41. Fabrication of novel composite materials by impregnating ZnO particles into bacterial cellulose nanofibers for antimicrobial applications
  42. Solidification floating organic drop for dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction estimation of copper in different water samples
  43. Kinetics and synthesis of formation of phosphate composites from low-grade phosphorites in the presence of phosphate–siliceous shales and oil sludge
  44. Removal of minocycline and terramycin by graphene oxide and Cr/Mn base metal–organic framework composites
  45. Microfluidic preparation of ceramide E liposomes and properties
  46. Therapeutic potential of Anamirta cocculus (L.) Wight & Arn. leaf aqueous extract-mediated biogenic gold nanoparticles
  47. Antioxidant-rich Micromeria imbricata leaf extract as a medium for the eco-friendly preparation of silver-doped zinc oxide nanoparticles with antibacterial properties
  48. Influence of different colors with light regime on Chlorella sp., biomass, pigments, and lipids quantity and quality
  49. Experimental vibrational analysis of natural fiber composite reinforced with waste materials for energy absorbing applications
  50. Green synthesis of sea buckthorn-mediated ZnO nanoparticles: Biological applications and acute nanotoxicity studies
  51. Production of liquid smoke by consecutive electroporation and microwave-assisted pyrolysis of empty fruit bunches
  52. Synthesis of MPAA based on polyacrylamide and gossypol resin and applications in the encapsulation of ammophos
  53. Application of iron-based catalysts in the microwave treatment of environmental pollutants
  54. Enhanced adsorption of Cu(ii) from wastewater using potassium humate-modified coconut husk biochar
  55. Adsorption of heavy metal ions from water by Fe3O4 nano-particles
  56. Green synthesis of parsley-derived silver nanoparticles and their enhanced antimicrobial and antioxidant effects against foodborne resistant bacteria
  57. Unwrapping the phytofabrication of bimetallic silver–selenium nanoparticles: Antibacterial, Anti-virulence (Targeting magA and toxA genes), anti-diabetic, antioxidant, anti-ovarian, and anti-prostate cancer activities
  58. Optimizing ultrasound-assisted extraction process of anti-inflammatory ingredients from Launaea sarmentosa: A novel approach
  59. Eggshell membranes as green carriers for Burkholderia cepacia lipase: A biocatalytic strategy for sustainable wastewater bioremediation
  60. Research progress of deep eutectic solvents in fuel desulfurization
  61. Enhanced electrochemical synthesis of Ni–Fe/brass foil alloy with subsequent combustion for high-performance photoelectrode and hydrogen production applications
  62. Valorization of baobab fruit shell as a filler fiber for enhanced polyethylene degradation and soil fertility
  63. Valorization of Agave durangensis bagasse for cardboard-type paper production circular economy approach
  64. Review Article
  65. Sustainable innovations in garlic extraction: A comprehensive review and bibliometric analysis of green extraction methods
  66. Natural sustainable coatings for marine applications: advances, challenges, and future perspectives
  67. Integration of traditional medicinal plants with polymeric nanofibers for wound healing
  68. Rapid Communication
  69. In situ supported rhodium catalyst on mesoporous silica for chemoselective hydrogenation of nitriles to primary amines
  70. Special Issue: Valorisation of Biowaste to Nanomaterials for Environmental Applications
  71. Valorization of coconut husk into biochar for lead (Pb2+) adsorption
  72. Corrigendum
  73. Corrigendum to “An updated review on carbon nanomaterials: Types, synthesis, functionalization and applications, degradation and toxicity”
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