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International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching

Editors-in-Chief: Mairin Hennebry-Leung and Yuen Yi Lo

Language: English

First published: January 1, 1963

Publication Frequency: 4 issues per year

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About this journal

International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching (IRAL) is devoted to problems of general and applied linguistics in their various forms. IRAL's long-term interest lies in areas of research which concern first- and second-language acquisition (including sign language and gestural systems). Contributions are welcome on naturalistic and instructed language learning, language loss, bilingualism, language contact, pidgins and creoles, language for specific purposes, language technology, mother-tongue education, terminology and translation. The journal also features occasional thematic issues.

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Effects of textual enhancement on L2 development: a meta-analysis

September 29, 2025

Ehsan Rassaei, Shadab Jabbarpoor

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This meta-analysis examines the effects of textual enhancement (TE) on second language (L2) development by synthesizing findings from 29 primary studies involving 1749 participants. These studies were selected based on carefully defined inclusion criteria and an evaluation of the homogeneity of the primary studies’ effect sizes. The results reveal an overall small to medium combined aggregate effect size ( g = 0.54) for between-subject comparisons, suggesting that TE has a modest impact on L2 learning. Moderator analyses indicate that TE has equal effects on the development of grammatical and lexical knowledge. Additionally, the findings show that employing multiple TE techniques does not significantly enhance its effectiveness compared to using a single technique, suggesting a ceiling effect in how much TE can contribute to the noticing of target features. The results indicated a smaller effect size for learners with lower proficiency compared to those with intermediate and advanced proficiency levels, although the difference was not statistically significant. Finally, the findings indicated that the effect of TE on L2 development is not moderated by the mode of delivery (i.e., paper-based vs. digital materials). Overall, these findings contribute to the ongoing debate on the role of noticing in L2 acquisition, suggesting that while TE facilitates language learning, its impact may be limited and should be interpreted with care.
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Understanding the moderating role of school achievement level between growth mindsets, engagement and achievement in students’ English learning

September 26, 2025

Honggang Liu, Xu Wang

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This study aims to understand the underlying mechanisms for the mixed effects of growth mindsets on language learning achievement and engagement by examining the moderating role of school achievement level. We investigated 423 high school English learners in China. The multiple regression results showed that growth mindsets positively predicted English achievement and engagement in English learning. However, moderation analysis indicated that the positive relationship between growth mindsets and English achievement was significant only among medium-achieving school students, but not their peers in high-achieving schools, suggesting a ceiling effect of growth mindsets on improving English achievement. Such ceiling effects did not exist in the mindset-engagement relationship. Conversely, moderation analysis suggested that the predictive powers of growth mindsets on engagement were stronger among high-achieving school students than among medium-achieving school students. Possible explanations and related implications are discussed.
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From Yi Language to Mandarin: translanguaging practices and identity construction between actual and ought-to L1 selves

September 23, 2025

Hengzhi Hu, Aixiang Mi, Jingwen Ou, Harwati Hashim

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In multilingual classrooms where heritage and dominant languages coexist unequally, translanguaging is often encouraged pedagogically, yet its identity-shaping potential remains underexplored. This case study, situated in a Mandarin-medium secondary classroom in China, investigates how translanguaging involving Yi Language, a heritage language and actual first language (L1) for students, mediates their identity construction in relation to Mandarin, the state-sanctioned ought-to L1. Drawing on classroom observations and student interviews, we identified teacher- and student-initiated translanguaging practices that fulfilled pedagogical, relational, epistemic, and identity-affirming functions. Despite shared instruction, students demonstrated three distinct identity profiles: resistant, emergent, and reflexive. These profiles reflected differing perceptions of heritage language legitimacy and varied responses to the linguistic hierarchy embedded in the classroom. The findings suggest that translanguaging should be understood not merely as a pragmatic teaching strategy but as an ideological and epistemic act that shapes learners’ identity trajectories within broader sociolinguistic structures.
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Second language fluency across contexts: introduction to the special issue

September 23, 2025

Clare Wright, Pauliina Peltonen

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Are L2 listener verbal reports reactive? Insights from the learners

September 16, 2025

Michael Yeldham, Rainbow Tsai-Hung Chen

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This study examined L2 listener verbal reports (VRs) for reactivity, in terms of the VR possibly impacting participants’ listening comprehension. The research built on two prior studies. The first was a qualitative investigation, where the study’s three participants had each undertaken VRs using three different VR styles: two mediated (employing researcher question prompts), and one unmediated. In that study the participants perceived there was reactivity in various aspects of the VR. However, the second study, an experimental investigation, utilizing these same three VR styles, found no evidence of reactivity. The current study sought, in part, to address these conflicting findings, while finding out more about potential reactivity in L2 listener VRs. To accomplish this, we gathered data through immediate post-VR interviews with all 14 learners in the experimental group from the aforementioned experimental study, to explore their views on reactivity: (1) for the VRs, in general; (2) on the researcher regularly stopping the text for their report; (3) for mediated VRs, and (4) for the three VR styles. The study found the VRs largely did not appear to be reactive, although participants did perceive reactivity in each area investigated. Based on the results, we provide advice for L2 listener VRs.
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The impact of lexical clustering on beginner Chinese learners: a comparative study of semantic and thematic approaches

August 22, 2025

Rongyan Liu

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The impact of semantic and thematic clustering in beginner-level Chinese vocabulary instruction remains underexplored. This study conducted a nearly four-month classroom-based intervention with 44 Russian-speaking beginner-level Chinese learners. Quantitative data from standardized exams, contrastive translation tests, and vocabulary assessments were analyzed alongside qualitative data from text analysis, questionnaires, and interviews. Results indicated that both clustering methods enhanced vocabulary retention, contextual application, and lexical processing compared to traditional instruction. Thematic clustering, in particular, yielded superior outcomes in productive tasks, including sentence construction and dialogue completion. While semantic clustering facilitated systematic vocabulary organization, its efficacy was constrained by participants’ limited word capacity and underdeveloped morphological awareness. Both methods alleviated cognitive load and contributed to enhanced retention during the experimental period, with thematic clustering proving especially beneficial by embedding vocabulary in meaningful contexts. These findings offer theoretical and pedagogical insights for optimizing vocabulary instruction in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language (TCSL).
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AI versus teachers and peers: a comparative study on speaking performance, willingness to communicate, self-perceived communicative competence and foreign language anxiety

August 13, 2025

Chenghao Wang, Bin Zou

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While online language education is widely accepted for its convenience, it often leads to a relatively isolated learning experience. In response to positive psychology’s emphasis on learner engagement and well-being, this study investigated how an instructional AI chatbot and an AI-based speaking assessment system, introduced midway through the course, could enhance instruction and support speaking practice. Utilizing three-round speaking tests and questionnaires, supplemented by semi-structured interviews, this study examined how AI-supported language learning influenced learners’ speaking performance, along with key affective variables closely related to the speaking experience: Willingness to Communicate (WTC), Self-Perceived Communicative Competence (SCC), and Foreign Language Anxiety (FLA). A total of 103 Chinese EFL learners participated in the experiment. The quantitative results indicated that AI, compared to human teachers and peers, was more effective in enhancing learners’ speaking performance, WTC, and SCC. The qualitative data suggest that this may be attributed to learners feeling more comfortable and secure when producing English in AI-mediated online environments, which reduced social pressure and fostered greater self-expression. In addition to identifying the limitations of AI-supported speaking instruction, the study offers practical guidance for teachers seeking to incorporate diverse AI tools into online classroom activities to foster both linguistic development and positive emotional experiences.
Open Access
Cognitive fatigue induced by spaced and massed practice: effects on idiom accuracy across L2 proficiency levels

August 11, 2025

Kamal Heidari

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This study investigated the effects of spaced and massed practice on cognitive fatigue across L2 proficiency levels. 92 L2 learners completed idiom comprehension tasks under spaced and massed practice conditions and then the five dimensions of their cognitive fatigue (cognitive, emotional, physical, behavioral, and motivational) were measured in two ways: perceived cognitive fatigue through a self-report scale and performance-based cognitive fatigue via a free recall idiom accuracy test. Results revealed that spaced practice significantly reduced overall cognitive fatigue, with the effect being most pronounced among low-proficiency learners. Results also indicated significant interactions between practice type and proficiency level across all fatigue dimensions. Multiple regression further demonstrated that while cognitive engagement positively predicted idiom comprehension accuracy, physical fatigue emerged as the strongest negative predictor. These results have important implications for L2 pedagogy, highlighting the need for differentiated instruction that considers practice distribution and learners’ susceptibility to various dimensions of cognitive fatigue.
Open Access
Young learners’ receptive L2 English vocabulary knowledge in relation to extramural English exposure at the onset of formal instruction in Norway

August 1, 2025

Henrik Gyllstad, Pia Sundqvist, Elke Peters, Ulrikke Rindal, Gustaf B. Skar, Nasrin Ulfat

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Some young foreign/second language (L2) learners of English hardly know a single English word when starting school instruction. Others know many thanks to extensive English use outside of school, extramural English (EE). By investigating young L2 learners’ vocabulary knowledge at the onset of formal instruction, we can explore what roles EE may have for incidental learning prior to instruction. To date, research has shown that music, digital games, and TV are important EE sources and also indicated gender-related differences in EE use, but few studies have targeted very young learners. In this study, we collected data from 61 1st-grade learners (aged 5–6) in Norway. We used a shortened version of the Picture Vocabulary Size Test, a learner questionnaire, a parental questionnaire, a week-long language diary, and learner interviews ( n = 8). The participants had an average receptive meaning recognition vocabulary of approximately 850 word families, but individual variation was considerable. Gender significantly predicted vocabulary size (boys > girls). Time spent watching TV and total EE time correlated most strongly with vocabulary scores. Whereas EE activities reported in the learner questionnaire were not correlated with vocabulary scores, EE activities in the Parental questionnaire were. Interview data revealed that learners viewed English as a lingua franca, but many showed limited grasp of English as a language and concept.
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First-language use in English interlanguage: a multi-CEFR-level spoken learner corpus analysis of Taiwanese learners

July 25, 2025

Lan-fen Huang

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This study explores the phenomenon of Chinese-English code-switching in interviews with 116 Taiwanese learners across proficiency levels within the Common European Framework of Reference ( CEFR ; Council of Europe. 2020. Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment companion volume . Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing). The learner corpus data were extracted from the Taiwanese sub-corpus (Huang, Lan-fen. 2014. Constructing the Taiwanese component of the Louvain International Database of Spoken English Interlanguage (LINDSEI) . Taiwan Journal of TESOL 11(1). 31–74) of the Louvain International Database of Spoken English Interlanguage ( LINDSEI ; Gilquin, Gaëtanelle, de Cock Sylvie & Sylviane Granger (eds.). 2010. LINDSEI Louvain International Database of Spoken English Interlanguage . Handbook and CD-ROM . Louvain-la-Neuve: Presses universitaires de Louvain) and its expanded data (Huang, Lan-fen & Tomáš Gráf. 2021. Expanding LINDSEI to spoken learner English from several L1s across CEFR levels. Corpora 16(2). 271–285). The analysis of relative code-switching frequencies revealed a consistent decline from A1 to C1, indicating that as proficiency increased, L1 use declined. Kruskal-Wallis tests presented clear evidence of a difference between higher (B2 and above) and lower (B1 and below) levels. The functions of Chinese use were explored and interpreted on the basis of empirical evidence within their immediate context, following the taxonomy of linguistic functions proposed by Kaneko, Tomoko. 2009. Use of mother tongue in English-as-a-foreign-language speech by Japanese university students. Gakuen 822. 25–41. By analysing a CEFR -rated Taiwanese learner corpus, this study provides practical insights showing how L1 use evolves with proficiency. It also proposes alternatives: English expressions and appropriate communication strategies to address referential code-switching, which probably stems from learners’ limited proficiency. These findings yield practical suggestions and linguistic examples to support English language teachers working with Chinese-speaking learnerss.
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The development and initial validation of LexCombi 2: a research-oriented elicitation instrument for L2 learners’ productive collocation knowledge

July 17, 2025

Dale Brown

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Collocations are ubiquitous in language and important in successful second language (L2) use. Yet L2 learners’ knowledge of collocations, particularly their productive knowledge, is often considered inadequate. To further understanding of how learners’ productive collocation knowledge develops, effective methods of accessing and assessing this knowledge are necessary. To date, validated instruments for measuring productive collocation knowledge are lacking and ad hoc tools that appear to have undergone limited development prevalent. This paper therefore reports on the development of an instrument for measuring L2 learners’ productive collocation knowledge. Starting with an existing instrument that was considered promising, the paper sets out how a series of iterative trialling and development studies were undertaken to assess the instrument and enhance its validity. With revisions to its format, scoring and cues, a summative evaluation of the new form of the instrument, LexCombi 2, is described, and an initial evaluation of LexCombi 2’s validity given.
Open Access
L2 fluency across tasks: disentangling demands on conceptualisation and formulation in speech production

June 20, 2025

Shungo Suzuki, Judit Kormos

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Second language (L2) speaking research has highlighted intra-speaker variability of fluency performance across tasks. To better understand such task effects on fluency, the framework of speech processing demands has been proposed as a systematic approach to relating task characteristics to L2 speech production mechanisms and the limited capacity of attentional resources (Skehan 2009. Modelling second language performance: Integrating complexity, accuracy, fluency, and lexis. Applied Linguistics 30(4). 510–532, 2014. Limited attentional capacity, second language performance, and task-based pedagogy. In Peter Skehan (ed.), Processing perspectives on task performance, 211–260. Amsterdam: John Benjamins). However, the framework has been tested on a limited range of task types, using carefully designed experimental tasks. For the sake of the ecological validity of findings, the current study thus further explores how L2 learners’ fluency varies across four spontaneous speaking tasks differing in their processing demands. A total of 128 Japanese learners of English completed four speaking tasks: Argumentative task, Picture narrative task, Reading-to-Speaking task, and Reading-while-listening-to-speaking task. Their speech was analysed in terms of speed, breakdown, and repair fluency and was compared across tasks. The results of Generalised Linear Mixed-effects Modelling showed that conceptualising demands were reflected in the frequency of filled pauses, while formulation demands were associated with the articulation rate, mid-clause pause ratio, and mid-clause pause duration. These findings unveil the interrelationship between task characteristics, fluency measures, and how learners approach tasks.
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Translation research and the space for translanguaging: a systematic review of translation literature in secondary and higher education EFL contexts

June 13, 2025

Gede Eka Putrawan, Marianne Turner, Minh Hue Nguyen

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This paper is a systematic review of the literature on translation in English as a foreign language (EFL) teaching in secondary and higher education settings. The review was conducted in order to explore translation-in-education research in relation to a translanguaging lens. The review follows the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. We used both inclusion and exclusion criteria to identify the literature collection in the Scopus database from 2014 to 2024, and a total of 44 publications out of 471 identified were included for review. All the studies under review, whether for experimental, teaching, or learning purposes, showed that translation played various roles in EFL teaching and learning, and machine technology (MT) was a particular focus. Translation was found to provide a number of advantages for language learners of varying proficiency levels, especially those with lower English proficiency, and attitudes towards translation were mostly positive. The main focus of the majority of the studies, however, was on understanding aspects of language, such as specific vocabulary and grammar, rather than on the act – or process – of translating. Suggestions for creating space for empirical research on translanguaging in translation scholarship are discussed.
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What watching subtitled movies does to the learner: the impact of subtitles and modality on cognitive load and vocabulary learning

June 9, 2025

Karolina Baranowska

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Given that many foreign language learners these days systematically watch foreign language movies outside the classroom via streaming services, the effects of exposure to foreign language audiovisual materials on various aspects of language learning are frequently addressed in recent research. The present study aimed to investigate the impact of exposure to subtitled videos and the impact of modality on vocabulary learning and cognitive load. 196 Polish upper-intermediate learners of English were divided into nine experimental groups based on different modality (video, audio, audiovisual) and subtitling (interlingual, intralingual, no subtitles) conditions. Each group watched a video clip in the assigned condition and their gains in vocabulary learning were measured by a pre test and two post-tests. Additionally, cognitive load was measured by means of dual task methodology, and a subjective measurement in the form of a self-reported questionnaire. Results reveal that watching subtitled videos facilitates vocabulary learning without causing cognitive overload.
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Effects of repeated practice on fluency and accuracy in picture description activity: implicit learning by frequency

June 9, 2025

Koichi Yamaoka, Osamu Takeuchi

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Implicit knowledge is one of the major goals of second language learning. Implicit knowledge is useful because of its automatic nature. There is a possibility that task repetition provides an opportunity to obtain implicit knowledge of chunks through frequent encounters to the same patterns during the repetition. If this frequency is enhanced by practice, learning of implicit knowledge of chunks is expected to be facilitated. The present study adopted oral repetition of chunk combinations as chunk practice to realize high-frequency encounters with patterns of chunks. This chunk practice, combined with picture description activities, was administered to the treatment group of beginner-level learners of English, while the control group engaged in the activities without the chunk practice. The treatment group outperformed the control group in the outcome of accuracy of article. However, statistically significant differences were not confirmed between the groups in fluency and accuracy of verbs and prepositions. The effect on accuracy of article endured for at least one week in the delayed performance. Transfer was not confirmed because both groups reached similar levels of unrehearsed performance.
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Perceptual errors in English connected speech: the case of Japanese learners of English

May 29, 2025

Yo Hamada, Kazuya Kito

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There has been a recent increase in research on aural decoding and listening comprehension. It shows that English learners exhibit difficulty in aural decoding, especially in recognizing connected speech. This study examined English learners’ aural decoding in connected speech based on the framework of Wong et al. (2021. Chinese ESL learners’ perceptual errors of English connected speech: Insights into listening comprehension. System 98. 102480) with 81 intermediate-level Japanese L2 learners who listened to and transcribed 33 sentences. Errors were analyzed from two perspectives: phonetic and lexical/syntactic. Both phonetic and lexical/syntactic sets were further classified into five categories. The result showed that Japanese English learners struggle with connected speech features at the perceptual level of their bottom-up listening skills, which corroborates with Wong et al. (2021). The results also show errors distinct to Japanese English learners, such as boundary errors. Additionally, the study shows a clear procedure for analyzing perceptual errors.
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Scale validation and latent profile identification of GenAI competence for pre-service second language teachers

May 22, 2025

Hanwei Wu, Yongliang Wang, Gurpinder Singh Lalli

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Pre-service second language (L2) teachers can benefit from Generative Artificial Intelligence (GenAI), yet there is a lack of reliable instrument to evaluate their GenAI competence. To fill this void, two studies were conducted. Study 1 aimed to create a GenAI Competence Scale for Chinese Pre-service L2 Teachers. Based on exploratory factor analysis of 350 samples, a 21-item scale was developed with a three-factor structure: Awareness and Willingness, Knowledge and Application, and Social Responsibility. Confirmatory factor analysis of 358 samples verified the scale’s ideal model fit, along with its high validity (convergent, discriminant, and criterion-related), reliability, and cross-gender invariance. Study 2 utilized Latent Profile Analysis to identify three distinct profiles among 708 Chinese pre-service L2 teachers’ GenAI competence: (i) moderate levels of Awareness and Willingness, relatively low Knowledge and Application, and moderate Social Responsibility (C1: 22.74 %), (ii) moderately high levels of Awareness and Willingness, relatively low Knowledge and Application, and moderately high Social Responsibility (C2: 65.82 %), and (iii) high levels of Awareness and Willingness, moderate Knowledge and Application, and high Social Responsibility (C3: 11.44 %). We anticipate that future scholars will adopt this scale across diverse L2 education settings, conducting some in-depth explorations to enhance the generalizability of findings, deepen the understanding of GenAI competence among pre-service educators, and contribute to the advancement of relevant theoretical frameworks and practical applications.
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Exploring the dynamic metaphor patterns in describing English public speaking anxiety among Chinese learners

May 22, 2025

Fei Gao

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This study aims to explore the dynamic metaphor patterns in describing English public speaking (EPS) anxiety among Chinese learners. Metaphor is frequently used to describe complex emotional states, mental processes, and difficult experiences (Kövecses, Zoltán. 2003. Metaphor and emotion: Language, culture, and body in human feeling . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). This investigation is based on the discourse dynamics approach (Cameron, Lynne & Robert Maslen (eds.). 2010. Metaphor analysis: Research practice in applied linguistics, social sciences and the humanities . Toronto: University of Toronto Press). Fifteen Chinese learners were interviewed to present their EPS anxiety experiences in three speech types. A blended approach (combining naturalistic and elicited metaphors) was employed in the interviews. A total of 2006 metaphor vehicle terms were identified from the transcripts of interviews. The fitted log-linear model did not retain the highest level of the three-way interaction between VEHICLE GROUPING, TOPIC TERM and SPEECH TYPE. However, two possible bivariate associations (i.e., VEHICLE GROUPING * TOPIC TERM, and SPEECH TYPE * TOPIC TERM) were retained and discussed as metaphor patterns. In terms of the topics, metaphors of ANXIETY and OTHER (classroom environment, task demands, teacher feedback, peer pressure, emotional states of other people) were used more to describe EPS anxiety in the first informative speech but less in the third persuasive speech.
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The effects of pre-task explicit instruction, input modality of task types, and working memory on L2 oral production

May 22, 2025

Michael Sadeghi, Reza Yadollahpour, Mostafa Pourhaji

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The present study investigated the effects of pre-task explicit instruction, input modality of task types, and working memory (WM) on the oral production of second language (L2) learners. It employed a 2 × 2 factorial design, randomly assigning 83 high school students to four groups based on instructional treatment (with or without pre-task explicit instruction) and task type (picture story-retelling vs. dictogloss task). Analysing the complexity, accuracy, and fluency of oral productions revealed that explicit instruction positively influenced the rate and accuracy of producing the target structure, but led to less complex and fluent output. The effects of task types were evident, with picture story-retelling being superior to dictogloss in various areas, suggesting the significance of the input modality of tasks in oral performance. Finally, WM positively affected accuracy and fluency, highlighting its role in input processing and L2 oral production. The findings help reconcile mixed results in the literature by unravelling a more nuanced relationship among pre-task explicit instruction, input configurations of task types, and WM in L2 oral performance. Therefore, they offer valuable insights for educators, researchers, and curriculum designers seeking to enhance language learning outcomes using tasks.
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Exploring the mediating role of boredom in the relationship between ideal L2 self and engagement in Chinese as a foreign language learning

May 22, 2025

Xiao Xie, Lawrence Jun Zhang, Yunyun Xuan, Zhaoyu Chen

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Boredom, as an inhibitory negative emotion, is prevalent in foreign language learning but its effects on learning are often underestimated. Within the context of Chinese as a foreign language (CFL), few studies have examined the dynamic relationship of boredom with motivational sources and learning engagement. To address this research gap, we probed the relationship between the ideal L2 self and affective, behavioural, and cognitive engagement, specifically focusing on the mediating role of boredom. Data via an online questionnaire from 791 CFL learners at a Thai senior high school were collected to gauge their ideal L2 self, boredom, and engagement. Results of PLS-SEM analysis indicated that the ideal L2 self positively impacted affective engagement and behavioural engagement, with boredom acting as a mediator in these relationships, highlighting the distinctiveness of cognitive engagement. These findings offer pedagogical implications for reducing boredom in foreign language learning and optimising affective, behavioural, and cognitive engagement.
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Investigating the effect of task modality on the written and oral production of young EFL learners

May 1, 2025

M. Juncal Gutierrez-Mangado, María Basterrechea

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Research on task-based interaction examines learner-initiated attention to formal aspects of language (i.e., language-related episodes or LREs) and how task modality (oral or written) impacts on their incidence, nature (meaning- or form- focused), and resolution. In the light of studies attesting a relationship between LREs and L2 development (LaPierre 1994. Language output in a cooperative learning setting: Determining its effects on second language learning (Unpublished master’s thesis). University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Swain and Lapkin 1998. Interaction and second language learning: Two adolescent French immersion students working together. Modern Language Journal 82(3). 320–337; Williams 2001. The effectiveness of spontaneous attention to form. System 29. 325–340), it has been claimed that LREs represent second language learning in progress (Gass and Mackey 2007. Input, interaction and output in second language acquisition. In Bill VanPatten & Jessica Williams (eds.), Theories in second language acquisition: An introduction , 175–199. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum). This study compared the incidence, nature, resolution and reflection of LREs produced by 59 child learners of L3 English aged 10–12, where students in the written and oral tasks were instructed to focus on accuracy and were given the chance to edit their final production. The study also examined the correspondence between the resolution of each LRE and its occurrence on the written and oral tasks. The main results showed that while the incidence of form- and meaning-focused LREs was indeed higher in the written task, it was also the case that in the written task more non-target-like resolved LREs were reflected in the written final output than in the oral final output. This finding leads us to caution researchers and teachers in promoting the use of written collaborative tasks over oral tasks until we are in a better position to understand the effect that the reflection of non-target-like LREs in the final output may have for second-language (L2) development.
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Non-finite clause use in disciplinary research writing: a formulaic sequence-based functional comparison between expert and student writers

April 29, 2025

Xixin Qiu, J. Elliott Casal

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Non-finite clauses (NFCs), despite their increasingly recognized role in second language (L2) acquisition and academic writing as part of a multidimensional conceptualization of syntactic complexity, have not been analyzed in functional and discipline-specific perspectives. This study addresses this gap by providing a linguistic-descriptive account of NFC use in expert and advanced student English research writing. Using a 2.26-million-word corpus of published research articles and student manuscripts in Agricultural Science, this study profiles the distribution of NFC subtypes and identifies frequent discoursal functions realized by non-finite verb-centered formulaic sequences. The findings reveal significant differences in NFC use across writer groups, with student writers utilizing NFCs less overall and in the majority of structural subtypes. Functional analyses further demonstrate that advanced student writers employed a narrower range of formulaic frames for a narrower range of discoursal functions, highlighting both a reduced lexical repertoire and a rhetorically less sophisticated style, in regard to NFCs. Findings underscore the importance of considering a full range of lexical/phraseological and discourse-functional patterns of clause-level linguistic features, such as NFCs, in order to gain a more pedagogically interpretable understanding of syntactic complexity in L2 and academic writing.
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Perceived L2 oral fluency, working memory, foreign language enjoyment and foreign language anxiety: identifying distinct patterns of relationship

April 8, 2025

Daphnée Simard, Michael Zuniga, Florian Hameau

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L2 oral fluency is a core aspect of general oral proficiency. However, it represents a distinct challenge for L2 speakers as it requires a real-time efficient allocation of cognitive resources. Specifically, working memory (WM) plays a crucial role in speech production. These cognitive resources are limited and vary from one speaker to another. Additionally, they have long been shown to interact with foreign language anxiety and foreign language enjoyment, which interact with various aspects of L2 oral production. To our knowledge, no previous studies have investigated the relationship that might exist between perceived L2 oral fluency ; i.e. listeners’ judgments about L2 speakers’ fluency, WM, foreign language anxiety and foreign language enjoyment. To fill this gap, 78 ESL French-speaking adults were subjected to a picture-based narration task. A flowchart scheme was used to measure perceived L2 oral fluency. WM was measured using a numerical span test, and foreign language anxiety and foreign language enjoyment were measured through a questionnaire. Results show a distinct pattern of interaction between the variables. More specifically, foreign language anxiety significantly predicted perceived L2 oral fluency among participants with a weaker WM, whereas foreign language enjoyment significantly predicted L2 oral fluency among participants with a stronger WM capacity.
Open Access
Relationships between formal and informal input, listening motivation, and listening proficiency among young EFL learners in Hong Kong

April 2, 2025

Art Tsang

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Increasing attention has recently been given to extramural exposure in foreign language (FL) learning. The study examined the relationships between input (extramural informal; instructional formal), listening motivation, and listening proficiency (test scores; self-rated scores) among 94 Grade-5 English-as-a-foreign-language learners in Hong Kong. Formal input was not found to be related to any of the variables investigated while informal input positively correlated with proficiency, but not motivation. Motivation was only found to be positively related to proficiency. Using hierarchical regression, informal exposure was found to significantly predict both test and self-rated listening scores. However, abundant informal (and also formal) target language input over a one-year period did not show a significant association with higher intrinsic motivation to listen to the language. Overall, these findings underscore the importance of capitalizing on extramural informal input for developing listening competence. Empirically and theoretically, the antecedents and effects of listening motivation warrant further investigation.
Open Access
English language teachers’ social media branding: mapping the construction and perception of brand identities on Instagram

March 27, 2025

Hassan Nejadghanbar, Mahsa Fotouhi

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Despite the popularity of social media branding, research on how English teachers utilize these platforms to build their personal brands is limited. This study aims to explore how teachers establish their brand identities on Instagram and how their followers perceive them. The research used narrative frames (NFs) and in-depth semi-structured interviews with six English teachers and three of their followers each. The NFs explored brand identity construction and motivations, while the interviews delved into teachers’ experiences and aspirations regarding their brand identities. The same procedure was used to gather data from followers, examining their perceptions of the teachers’ identities. Thematic analysis revealed three main brand identities that teachers aim to establish on Instagram: role model self, professional self, and influencer self. These themes also emerged from the followers’ data. The findings have important implications for language teacher education and research, highlighting the intersection of social media and teacher identity.
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Phrasal complexity in EFL learners’ oral performance: The role of task type and proficiency

March 18, 2025

Gui Bao

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Phrasal complexity in L2 production has highlighted overall noun phrase use, with its categorization rarely considered. To this end, this study explores how task type (story retelling and topic-based monologue) and EFL proficiency (low, middle, high) affect 101 intermediate EFL learners’ phrasal complexity in oral performance. Phrases were categorized into five types (noun, verb, adjective, prepositional, and adverb phrases), measured by frequency, length, and embedding. Results indicate independent but non-interactive effects of task type and EFL proficiency on each measure of phrasal complexity. Regarding frequency- and embedding-based measures, task type impacted all categories of phrase use except for noun phrase use. For length-based measures, however, task type influenced noun, verb and adverb phrase uses. EFL proficiency affected frequency- and embedding-based measures for verb and prepositional phrase uses, as well as length-based measures for adverb phrase use. Both frequency- and length-based measures are recommended to fully understand phrasal complexity in L2 production and their implications for L2 learning and development.
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A meta-analysis examining AI-assisted L2 learning

March 18, 2025

Guanyao Xu, Aiqing Yu, Lin Liu

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Numerous quantitative studies have investigated how artificial intelligence (AI) impacts the development of second language (L2). While individual studies delve into the effects of AI interventions on L2 learning, a meta-analysis provides a comprehensive evaluation of AI’s effectiveness in second language acquisition (SLA). Despite the growing body of meta-analytical research in AI-assisted language learning, several potential moderators have not been thoroughly investigated in previous meta-analyses. This meta-analysis examines the effectiveness of AI-assisted L2 learning and analyzes factors that can influence the effectiveness. The analysis included 15 studies that involved a total of 2,156 participants and generated 53 effect sizes. After correcting for measurement and sampling error, AI-assisted L2 learning demonstrated a positive large effect with d = 1.167. The Q statistic suggested that the true effect sizes varied significantly across studies, which warranted conducting a theory-based moderator analysis. The results of the moderator analysis revealed that type of AI-assisted interactions was not a significant moderator affecting the effectiveness of AI-assisted L2 learning; AI-assisted L2 learning was more beneficial in developing receptive skills than productive skills; AI technologies excelled at building learners’ vocabulary skills compared to other language skills; the effectiveness of AI-assisted L2 learning was higher in an in-class context than in an out-of-class context; IMALL was more impactful for L2 learning than ICALL; and there was no significant difference in the effectiveness of AI technology intervention for L2 learning between K-12 and college learners.
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Impact of methodological differences in task sequencing on second language learning: a multi-level meta-analysis

March 13, 2025

Mahmoud Abdi Tabari, Hansol Lee, Mahsa Farahanynia

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Drawing on the SSARC model, TBLT research has investigated the role of task sequencing in L2 production, yielding mixed results. This study conducts a multi-level meta-analysis of methodological practices in task sequencing to provide more transparency. Sixteen studies published up to May 2024 were selected based on inclusion criteria, and each study was coded for analyzed features and contextual variables. Methodological aspects, including study designs, sampling procedures, analyses, and reporting practices, were also coded. Significant methodological variations were identified across studies, including differences in L2 proficiency, learning contexts, task modalities, types, complexities, delivery methods, and constructs. Task complexity emerged as a significant factor influencing L2 performance, with more complex tasks yielding larger effect sizes. Additionally, simple and complex sequencing tasks exhibited a medium effect size in enhancing accuracy, particularly in between-group studies. These findings highlight the importance of balanced learner representation and standardized research practices to improve L2 learning outcomes.
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Effects of guided concept mapping on L2 learners’ listening ability and cognitive load

March 12, 2025

Xin Yuan, Xuan Tang

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Concept mapping is a frequently-employed learning strategy, yet its effectiveness in the context of L2 learning, with L2 listening in particular, is limited. To fill this gap, the present study examined the effects of guided concept mapping for second language (L2) listening comprehension. The cognitive load induced by guided concept mapping was also explored. A total of 84 intermediate Chinese college learners of English were equally assigned to either an experimental or a control group. Both groups of learners went through six treatment sessions. In each session, the experimental group listened to a text twice and then finished a partially-filled guided concept map; the control group listened to the same text twice and answered attached comprehension questions focusing on the text’s main idea without drawing any concept maps. Listening comprehension pre- and post-test and a cognitive load questionnaire were used to collect data. The mixed analysis of variance (ANOVA) suggested that learners in the guided concept mapping condition significantly outperformed those in the control condition in terms of listening development. An independent sample t -test revealed that the guided concept mapping group experienced statistically significant lower cognitive load than the control group. Possible reasons behind the results and implications of the study were also discussed.
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Individual differences in multilingual speakers’ fluency: a qualitative analysis of speech and eye-movement data

March 6, 2025

Elina Lehtilä, Pekka Lintunen

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The present study aims to examine individual differences in the connections between first (L1), second (L2), and third language (L3) utterance fluency and to investigate the potential of eye-tracking for multilingual cognitive fluency research, extending previous, mainly quantitative, research on the connections between L1 and L2/L3 fluency. Six Finnish multilingual speakers with differing L1 profiles and proficiency levels in the L2/L3 were selected from a larger dataset, and their speech and eye-movement data from picture description tasks in Finnish (L1), English (L2), and Swedish (L1/L3) were analyzed qualitatively, focusing on fluency measures and the relationship between eye movements and fluency features in the three languages. While the results indicated that some fluency measures were connected across all three languages, the results also demonstrated individual variation in the connections between L1, L2, and L3, particularly in the use of stalling mechanisms. The eye-movement data analysis showed that speakers’ eye movements can provide valuable insights into the cognitive processes underlying fluency features during complex, multi-utterance descriptions in different languages. The findings have methodological implications for fluency research, indicating the need for further fluency studies involving multilingual speakers and eye-tracking, and wider implications for fluency teaching and assessment.
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Speech fluency among L1 Arabic elementary and intermediate learners of English as a foreign language

March 3, 2025

Ghadah Albarqi

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This study examines the fluency of L1 Arabic learners of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) across two proficiency levels – elementary and intermediate, corresponding to A2 and B1 of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) – and explores the relationships between fluency aspects within each group. Sixty EFL learners participated by narrating two picture stories, and their oral performances were coded for measures of breakdown, speed, and repair fluency using PRAAT software. Results from MANOVA revealed significant proficiency-related effects on breakdown fluency, particularly on the frequency of filled pauses and between-clause pauses, as well as on articulation rate. Follow-up one-way ANOVA indicated that the intermediate learners made significantly fewer filled pauses, a greater number of between-clause pauses, and had a faster articulation rate than the elementary learners. Correlation analyses revealed that fluency aspects interact differently in the speech of elementary and intermediate learners, suggesting that the transition from elementary (A2) to intermediate (B1) proficiency may involve certain changes in the underlying speech processes. These findings help to better understand fluency in the speech of L1 Arabic learners of EFL at elementary and intermediate proficiency levels.
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Exploring the hierarchical antecedents of willingness to communicate and its relationship with utterance fluency in learning Chinese as a foreign language

February 25, 2025

Peijian Paul Sun

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Informed by the willingness to communicate (WTC) model, this study investigated the hierarchical antecedents of WTC and its relationship with utterance fluency in the context of learning Chinese as a foreign language (L2 Chinese). Data were collected from 236 L2 Chinese learners who completed a questionnaire and an L2 Chinese speech competence test. Of these participants, 94 also completed an L2 Chinese speech performance test. The results revealed that L2 Chinese WTC could be hierarchically subject to linguistic (i.e., speech competence), psychological (i.e., speaking anxiety, speaking motivation, and speaking self-efficacy), and sociocultural (i.e., attitudes toward the target language’s society, culture, and classroom instruction) factors as its high-evidence antecedents. The study also found that L2 Chinese WTC did not significantly contribute to any of the four fine-grained measures of utterance fluency (i.e., speech rate, pruned speech rate, articulation rate, and pruned articulation rate). The study concludes with pedagogical insights for teachers.
Open Access
Exploring the interplay of trait-like L2 willingness to communicate, international posture, language anxiety and fluency in monologue L2 speech

February 20, 2025

Magdalena Szyszka, Pekka Lintunen

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Willingness to communicate in a second language (L2 WTC) refers to the readiness to initiate speech and is influenced by psychological, linguistic, and contextual factors contributing to both stable and dynamic states in L2 WTC. The present study investigates the relationship between L2 utterance fluency and trait-like L2 WTC with its selected antecedents: international posture (IP) and language anxiety (LA). L2 speech samples ( n = 102) were examined for speech rate (SR), articulation rate (AR), frequency of silent and filled pauses and repetitions. Trait-like L2 WTC and IP were determined using the Willingness to Communicate Inventory (Mystkowska-Wiertelak, Anna & Mirosław Pawlak. 2017. Willingness to communicate in instructed second language acquisition: Combining a macro- and micro-perspective . Bristol: Multilingual Matters), whereas LA was measured with the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (Horwitz, Elaine K., Michael B. Horwitz & Joann Cope. 1986. Foreign language classroom anxiety. The Modern Language Journal 70(2). 125–132). Correlational analyses were conducted between the fluency measures, unplanned in-class L2 WTC, planned in-class L2 WTC, L2 WTC outside the classroom and practice-seeking L2 WTC, as well as IP-openness to experience, IP-interest in international affairs and LA. The study revealed positive correlations between SR, AR and practice-seeking L2 WTC, as well as AR and L2 WTC outside the classroom. Negative relationships were found between SR, AR and LA. Higher levels of LA were linked to an increased use of filled pauses.
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Emotion profiles of Chinese secondary EFL learners: link with subjective well-being, English achievement, and demographics

February 4, 2025

Lihong Ma, Kit-Tai Hau, Lixueqing Liu, Jian Liu

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This study employed latent profile analysis (LPA) to identify emotion profiles among foreign language (FL) learners and explored their relationship with FL achievement and subjective well-being, drawing on control-value theory. The participants included 4,109 Chinese secondary students who completed an English achievement test and online questionnaires focusing on subjective well-being and FL enjoyment, anxiety, and burnout. The LPA results indicated a four-profile model, categorized as “low enjoyment, anxiety, and burnout”, “low enjoyment with moderate anxiety and burnout”, “moderate enjoyment with low anxiety and burnout”, and “high enjoyment, anxiety, and burnout”. Four profiles showed significant differences in subjective well-being and English achievement. Notably, the group characterized by “moderate enjoyment with low anxiety and burnout” demonstrated the highest levels of subjective well-being and English achievement. In contrast, the group with “low enjoyment, anxiety, and burnout” exhibited the lowest outcomes in these areas. Additionally, the group characterized by “low enjoyment with moderate anxiety and burnout” outperformed the “high enjoyment, anxiety, and burnout” group in English achievement, despite experiencing lower subjective well-being. Significant differences in FL emotion profiles were also observed across gender, socioeconomic status, and boarding status. These findings provide valuable insights into FL instruction.
Open Access
More human than human? Differences in lexis and collocation within academic essays produced by ChatGPT-3.5 and human L2 writers

January 23, 2025

Mengxuan Zhang, Peter Crosthwaite

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ChatGPT and similar generative AI models are increasingly being integrated into educational practice, including second language (L2) writing. However, AI-generated writing may significantly differ from that of developing L2 writers, raising potential issues over academic integrity. With AI detectors still underused in many contexts due to accuracy concerns, it is essential to determine if and how AI-generated texts are similar or different to those of L2 writers. This study compares lexical and collocation choices between essays on the same topic generated by ChatGPT (version 3.5) and human L2 writers using corpus analytic techniques. R statistical software was used for analysis and comparison. Results suggest that when tasked with producing academic essays under the same topic, ChatGPT-3.5 excels in generating texts with formal and complex vocabulary suited for academic and technical themes, while human L2 writers tend to focus on personal and social issues, using more varied and context-rich vocabulary. Accordingly, educators seeking to detect AI use should recognise the distinct linguistic and cultural experiences L2 writers bring to their writing, while students using AI need to understand the nature of the machine-like clarity and directness of expression as produced by ChatGPT as compared with their own typical production.
Open Access
Learner beliefs about vocabulary teaching in secondary ESL classrooms: a proficiency and grade-level analysis

January 23, 2025

Edsoulla Chung, Daniel Fung, Aaron Wan

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Learner beliefs are widely acknowledged as key to the success of second language learning and teaching. Despite extensive research on English as a second language (ESL) learners’ beliefs, few studies have focused on vocabulary teaching. Our study addresses this gap by surveying 556 secondary school students in Hong Kong to explore their beliefs about various instructional practices and activities in vocabulary teaching, and how these beliefs vary with English proficiency and grade levels. The findings reveal that students valued diverse instructional methods, including specific strategies and engaging activities like games. However, they generally lacked autonomy in learning vocabulary, showing a tendency to rely on teacher instruction. The analysis also suggests that the students’ beliefs varied according to their English proficiency and grade levels. More proficient learners preferred strategy-focused instruction, while senior secondary students favoured more explicit instruction from teachers. Open-ended responses underscored the multifaceted and nuanced nature of students’ beliefs about vocabulary teaching. The study highlights the importance of promoting autonomous vocabulary learning, balancing engaging and conventional activities, and tailoring instruction to accommodate diverse needs across different proficiency and grade levels. We also provide insights for future studies on learner beliefs about vocabulary teaching.
Open Access
An accident was happened? Conceptual and input biases in the overpassivization of English unaccusative verbs

January 21, 2025

Jieun Kim, Shinshil Han, Sang-Ki Lee

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The overpassivization of unaccusative verbs (e.g., An accident was happened ) has been widely observed among second language (L2) learners, regardless of their first languages. In an attempt to determine the effects of cognitive factors on overpassivization, the present study investigated how input frequency, types of alternation (i.e., unaccusatives with and without transitive counterparts), types of causation (i.e., externally and internally caused events), and the interactions among these factors affect L2 learners’ judgments of English unaccusativity. A forced-choice acceptability judgment task (AJT) was administered to 97 Korean EFL learners, utilizing 52 items based on the three factors. According to a multilevel regression model, all those factors and the three-way interaction among them significantly predicted learners’ AJT scores. Specifically, in externally caused event construals, learners demonstrated greater accuracy when exposed to high frequency and non-alternating verbs. Additionally, accurate judgments on alternating unaccusatives were associated with discourse contexts interpreted as internally caused rather than externally caused. These findings highlight the importance of considering the statistical nature of language learning, learners’ learning histories, and potential conceptual biases in explaining L2 English unaccusativity. Overall, the study sheds light on the complex interplay between linguistic input and cognitive factors in L2 acquisition processes.
Open Access
Grit and foreign language achievement among Chinese university EFL students: a mixed-methods approach

January 10, 2025

Feng Ding, Yanting Wu, Ming Chen

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Studies examining the relationship between grit and foreign language (FL) achievement have yielded inconsistent results. Furthermore, research on factors influencing grit is limited and primarily employs quantitative methodologies. To address these gaps, this study aims to reevaluate the link between grit and FL achievement among Chinese university students and identify factors influencing their grit by using a mixed-methods approach. In this study, 260 third- and fourth-year English major students participated in a questionnaire survey, and 35 of them also underwent semi-structured interviews. Through multiple regression analysis of the questionnaires, it was found that grit and FL achievement significantly and positively correlated with each other and grit significantly predicted FL achievement. The interview results showed that four major factors, namely individual-related factors, significant others, achievement-related experiences, and important external factors, affected grit. These results corroborate the positive role of grit in second language acquisition (SLA) and offer valuable pedagogical insights for L2 educators.
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Students’ L2 grit, foreign language anxiety and language learning achievement: a latent profile and mediation analysis

January 7, 2025

Honggang Liu, Xiaoxue Li, Gongwei Guo

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L2 (second language) grit, an essential personal resource involving perseverance of effort and consistency of interest, has been well documented via a variable-centred method. The current study employed latent profile analysis (LPA), a person-centred approach, to identify the potential profiles of L2 grit, moving beyond previous studies by recognizing student heterogeneity. Drawing on the conservation of resources (COR) theory, this study also examined the relationship between L2 grit, foreign language anxiety, and achievement within the identified profiles of L2 grit. Three profiles of L2 grit were disclosed, namely, “medium effort and interest”, “great effort but weak interest”, and “great effort and interest”. The facilitative function of foreign language anxiety on achievement was realised only for those within the “great effort and interest” profile, which was interpreted as the optimal configuration of personal resources from the lens of COR theory. This study generated insights for future studies on this topic.
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Fluency across modes: an exploratory study of L1 and L2 spoken and written fluency

January 1, 2025

Maarit Mutta, Pauliina Peltonen, Päivi Laine, Pekka Lintunen

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The article presents an exploratory cross-modal analysis of fluency profiles in spoken and written first (L1, Finnish) and second (L2, English) language production of the same language users. Our data come from two research projects, from which we identified 11 university students participating in both. The spoken tasks consisted of monologue picture description (analysed with Praat), and the written tasks were short argumentative essays (collected and analysed with keystroke logging software GGXLog). Based on commonly used measures to capture different aspects of spoken and written fluency, we used a set of 14 measures (seven for speech fluency, seven for writing fluency) to examine fluency across modes comprehensively. Four profiles were identified from the data: (1) fast and productive, (2) fast, (3) slow and productive, and (4) slow and reflective. Six speakers had the same profile in the L1 and L2, and seven writers had the same profile in the L1 and L2. Only one participant had the same profile in the L1 and L2 speaking and writing. The results suggest that the cross-modal differences are greater than the differences between languages. The modalities are inherently different, which is also reflected in individual variation between the modalities.
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Task modality and working memory: oral production improvement through a text-reconstruction task across various proficiency levels in L2

December 23, 2024

Natalia Sletova

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This study investigates the potential of written tasks to enhance L2 oral production across various levels of proficiency and examines relationships between individual Working Memory (WM) capacity, measured in both native and target languages, and learners’ performance in written and spoken tasks. Sixty-four university L2 learners of Russian (Beginning, Intermediate, and Advanced) participated in the study. They were tasked with reconstructing a text and completing a ‘notice the gap’ activity in writing and orally. Novice and Intermediate learners exhibited enhanced speaking accuracy only when engaging with texts through writing. Russian (L2) WM showed correlations with lexical diversity in both written and spoken tasks. However, syntactic complexity displayed a significant correlation with L2 WM solely in spoken tasks, while semantic accuracy suggested a relationship with L2 WM only in the written form of recall. Based on these findings, explanations and suggestions for future research are offered.
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Measuring learners’ writing development in a Chinese as a foreign language (CFL) context

December 5, 2024

Li Yang, Jia Lin

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This study measured the development of multiple dimensions of textual features in L2 Chinese writing by recruiting 120 writers in a Chinese as a foreign language (CFL) program at four instructional levels. Their handwritten writing samples were manually coded for 14 indices at character, word, sentence, and organization dimensions and compared across instructional levels. The results of statistical tests showed a general trend in the development of multiple textual features from lower to higher levels; specifically, higher-proficiency CFL writers were observed to commit fewer errors in character handwriting, utilize a greater variety of words and produce longer sentences in texts, incorporate more subordinating conjunctions and a higher frequency of complex sentences, in addition to achieving better textual organization. Based on the findings, recommendations on how to enhance writing and promote learners’ writing development in CFL classrooms were proposed.
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Diagnosing EFL writers’ development of discourse competence in disciplinary writing: an ecological approach

December 4, 2024

Yumin Wang, Qin Xie

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This study employed a multiple-case study design to investigate nine English-as-a-foreign-language undergraduates’ disciplinary writing experiences in a bilingual teaching and learning context. Drawing on writing samples, writer’s logs, and semi-structured interviews, the study identified weaknesses in their discourse features and explored their relationships to the composing processes, immediate personal traits, and larger environmental factors. Overall, the students demonstrated a basic level of discourse competence (i.e., they could write an essay on the topic and use complex connectives accurately). However, they tended to ignore other discourse features (e.g., composing a statement to control ideas in the introduction, closing the essay with an effective conclusion, and maintaining appropriate reader-writer interactions). The data revealed a positive association between English proficiency and discourse features. Typically, those with low novice and intermediate novice proficiency levels relied on text-recognition technology to translate English materials into their L1s, thus enabling source processing. They also depended on automatic translation applications to translate their essays into English, which were written in their L1s first. Based on these findings, this study suggests the integration of adequate genre knowledge, academic reading skills, and discipline-relevant task design into L2 writing instruction and assessment practice in undergraduate study.
Open Access
Influence of topic-prominent L1s on the use of L2 English copula be: a corpus-based study

November 19, 2024

Min-Chang Sung, Kitaek Kim, Bora Nam

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This study explores the influence of first language (L1) on the acquisition of second language (L2) English, specifically examining the use of copula be as a topic marker. Although prior research suggests that L1 transfer may impact L2 acquisition of copula be , the evidence remains inconclusive. To address this issue, the study analyzes the use of be in L2 English spoken by learners with topic-prominent L1s (viz., Mandarin Chinese, Japanese, Korean) and those with non-topic-prominent L1s (viz., Filipino). Using the ICNALE corpus, the study investigates whether L1 topic-prominence affects the use of be in L2 English. The findings reveal that L2-English learners with topic-prominent L1s use copula be more often with definite NPs than those with non-topic-prominent L1s, indicating the influence of L1 topic-prominence properties on the use of copula be . Additionally, learners from topic-prominent L1s more frequently produce nontargetlike topic-comment structures using be verb (e.g., restaurant is many people eat their foods ). Based on these findings, the study discusses the implication of L1 transfer effects in L2 acquisition and emphasizes the importance of a more global and refined understanding of language variation in L2 teaching and learning.
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Text mining of syntactic complexity in L2 writing: an LDA topic modeling approach

November 19, 2024

Zhiyun Huang, Zhanhao Jiang

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The present study provides an overview of syntactic complexity (SC) in second language (L2) writing research, employing the Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) topic modeling approach. Analyzing 470 abstracts sourced from the WoS Core Collection (2005–2023) and Scopus (1978–2023), this investigation explores the broad spectrum of research themes in SC in L2 writing. By employing perplexity and coherence tests, the study identifies the optimal number of topics in the model as five: writing quality, proficiency, genres, SC development, and task-based conditions. The finding reveals that: (1) In cross-sectional studies, the interplay among writing quality, proficiency levels, and genres often involves studying one variable as reliant on the others. Additionally, there is a growing inclination toward regarding phrasal structures as more dependable complexity indicators. (2) Longitudinal investigations predominantly emphasize the evolution of SC, yet there’s a scarcity of exploration in continuation writing tasks. (3) Regarding measurement metrics, a transition from broader SC evaluations to more intricate assessments is evident, though several studies lack thorough examinations, particularly in continuation tasks.
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Which factors predict teachers’ evaluation of the difficulty and usefulness of phrasal verbs in L2 contexts?

November 14, 2024

Suhad Sonbul, Dina Abdel Salam El-Dakhs

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Research examining teachers’ cognition of lexical items has flourished in the past few years. However, most of these studies focused on individual words rather than formulaic sequences. The present study aims to fill this gap through eliciting teachers’ evaluation of one type of formulaic sequences: phrasal verbs (PVs). The aim is to examine factors (frequency, opacity, and learners’ receptive and productive knowledge) that might predict teachers’ evaluation of the difficulty and usefulness of 100 PV senses. For that purpose, a survey was administered to 174 teachers. Results of generalized mixed-effects modelling showed that teachers’ assessment of both the usefulness and difficulty of PVs was predicted by sense-specific corpus frequency and receptive knowledge of these PV senses. Moreover, difficulty ratings were additionally affected by opacity and productive knowledge of PVs. We discuss these findings in relation to previous research on L2 PV knowledge and implications for L2 teaching practice.
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Teaching English with Chinese characteristics: a corpus analysis of changes in university curricula

November 14, 2024

Feng (Kevin) Jiang, Ken Hyland

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English language teaching has had a chequered history in China, reflecting an increasing desire to modernise and participate on the world stage combined with a watchful caution against importing unwanted cultural elements. Change, however, has proceeded rapidly in the last 35 years, and China now provides around 700,000 postgraduate students annually to Western universities. Given this importance to western universities and the concerns surrounding the nature and perceived purposes of English-medium instruction, we believe a better understanding of Chinese ELT is crucial. This article tracks the changing role and importance of English in China through its language policy for university non-English majors. We do this using a corpus approach to analyse the keywords in the 1986, 1999, 2007 and 2020 iterations of the national curriculum documents. Our results show a focus on language skills has been replaced by employer-friendly communicative requirements, followed by greater student awareness of learning strategies, and most recently, a more culturally sensitive and critical orientation. We offer a study of an EFL curriculum development outside a more familiar Western context, suggesting the value of discourse analyses to understanding key changes in curricula, and revealing that choices regarding language instruction are rarely ‘neutral’ pedagogical decisions.
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Examining negative transfer in Cantonese learners of English as a foreign language: an optimality theory approach to English syllable acquisition

November 5, 2024

Ruinan Zhao, Qi Gong, Yunqiao Chen

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The contrasting differences that exist in the English and Cantonese phonological systems result in divergent articulatory production between them. This article aims to investigate the negative transfer of Cantonese EFL learners in acquiring English consonant clusters and the constraint rankings of Cantonese and English syllable systems by comparing syllable structures and analyzing experimental statistics. The objective is to elucidate the reasons behind their negative transfer in English syllable acquisition. The research results demonstrated that Cantonese EFL learners found it easier to acquire consonant clusters in the onset position compared to the coda position. Additionally, an increase in consonants in the coda position posed greater difficulties for Cantonese EFL learners. The results also indicated that participants encountered the most problems with deletion, followed by substitution and epenthesis. The OT analysis reveals that the different rankings of faithfulness and markedness constraints in Cantonese and English led to transfer errors.
Open Access
Autonomous single language interest predicts vocabulary achievement: the latent growth curve model approach

October 25, 2024

Abdullah Alamer, Shrouq Almaghlouth

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Recently, a new construct referred to as autonomous single language interest (ASLI) has been introduced in the educational psychology field. ASLI postulates that second language (L2) students who have one autonomously oriented goal for studying the L2 during their learning setting (e.g., during university study) are likely to make greater L2 achievements than those with low ASLI. However, it remains unclear how ASLI predicts later L2 vocabulary achievement and whether its stability or fluctuation that predicts the achievement. A total of 161 Saudi undergraduate students of English as an L2 enrolled in the Department of English were followed up three times over 17 weeks. We used the latent growth curve model (LGCM) to assess the stability and fluctuation of ASLI, and to see which one stability and fluctuation predicts later L2 vocabulary knowledge. The results of the LGCM suggest that initial high levels of the ASLI (i.e. its stability), but not its fluctuation, predicted a significant increase in L2 vocabulary achievement. In other words, students who started their L2 course with an autonomous single language interest and who maintained this sole interest/goal over time appeared to have higher L2 vocabulary achievement over time. Methodological and pedagogical implications are discussed.
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Exploring the potential of brief peer review training in enhancing student feedback literacy

October 16, 2024

Deliang Man, Meng Huat Chau, Azlin Zaiti Zainal, Jessica Thevamalar Rummy

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Despite its popularity as a recommended practice in the literature of writing instruction, peer review training seems to be more of an idea promoted than a common practice in the classroom. The reason is obvious: review training often requires considerable time and effort from the instructor and students. This study seeks to examine whether and to what extent a review training intervention as brief as two hours promotes student feedback literacy, specifically in relation to feedback provision. A quasi-experiment was conducted with two groups of Chinese undergraduate students with a follow-up interview. Results showed a positive effect on the provision of global feedback comments and an increasing focus on elaborate, constructive feedback after the training. Findings from the interview revealed students’ positive perceptions of training activities. The present study makes an empirical contribution to the literature and advances conversation in the area of peer review training and student feedback literacy.
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Exploring relationships between L1 and L2 writing strategy use and integrated writing performance: A cross-linguistic perspective

October 15, 2024

Xinhua Zhu, Yuan Yao, Xian Liao, Wandong Xu, Pengfei Zhao, Yue Jiang

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The ability to produce a well-written text in English using multiple material resources, such as integrated writing (IW), is widely recognised as a crucial literacy skill for tertiary students. While previous researchers have extensively examined the factors contributing to second language (L2) English integrated writing, the impact of students’ first-language (L1) Chinese writing strategic knowledge and skills on L2 writing performance has received limited empirical attention. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the simultaneous relationship between L1 and L2 writing strategy use, L1 writing skills, and L2 IW performance among 239 Chinese university students. Results from structural equation modelling revealed that L1 IW strategy use could predict L2 IW strategy use. Furthermore, the use of L1 IW strategies indirectly predicted L2 IW performance through the use of L2 IW strategies. This study contributes to the existing literature by extending research on cross-language effects in the IW context. Additionally, based on the findings, pedagogical implications for teaching IW across two languages are proposed.
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Self-regulated learning and task engagement: a SEM analysis

October 10, 2024

Ali Derakhshan, Javad Zare

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A great wealth of investigation has inspected the psycho-emotional aspects of second/foreign language (L2) learning in the past decades. It has been contended that L2 students need capacities to self-regulate and direct their language-learning journey. To do so, they require different strategies to get involved in their own learning process. A group of such crucial strategies concerns self-regulated learning (SRL), which has been increasingly reported to influence classroom learning and engagement. However, the way SRL strategies correlate and predict task engagement in L2 contexts has remained under-explored. To fill this gap, this study administered two online questionnaires to a sample of 384 English learners to disclose the relationship and predictive power of different components of SRL and task engagement. The results of structural equation modeling (SEM) pointed to positive associations between behavioral engagement and meta-cognitive and meta-affective strategies; emotional engagement and meta-affective strategies; cognitive engagement and meta-cognitive and cognitive strategies; agentic engagement and meta-affective strategies; and social engagement and sociocultural-interactive and meta-sociocultural-interactive strategies. Practical implications for L2 teachers and suggestions for further research are also discussed.
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An exploratory study on second language learner engagement in different types of interactive tasks in video-chat and text-chat communication

October 7, 2024

Xuyan Qiu, Haoyan Ge, Jinting Cai

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This study investigated 48 Hong Kong English as a second language (ESL) learners’ engagement in three types of interactive tasks conducted via video chat or text chat. The learners, paired with their university friends, completed a descriptive task, a narrative task, and a decision-making task. They were randomly assigned to either the video-chat or text-chat group and were interviewed about their emotional engagement in each task immediately after task performance. The findings revealed that both groups of learners were behaviourally the least engaged but cognitively the most engaged in the decision-making task. They experienced positive emotions during the descriptive task, but fewer reported positive emotions in the other two tasks. The text-chat group was the most socially engaged in the decision-making task. Furthermore, the video-chat group was behaviourally and emotionally more engaged than the text-chat group. These findings have implications for task design and selection in computer-mediated communication.
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Exploring the interplay of growth mindset, mindfulness, and L2 self-efficacy in second language achievement: a mixed-methods study

October 2, 2024

Lawrence Jun Zhang, Jalil Fathi, Neda Rezaei

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This mixed-methods study explores the interconnected influence of growth mindset, mindfulness, and second language (L2) self-efficacy on language achievement in intermediate English as a foreign language (EFL) learners. Quantitative data ( n = 411) analyzed through Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) and qualitative insights from semi-structured interviews ( n = 19) reveal significant positive associations between all three factors and L2 achievement. SEM further clarifies the direct and indirect pathways through which these psychological elements impact learning outcomes. Qualitative findings enrich this understanding by showcasing learners’ lived experiences and the transformative power of these variables in fostering a supportive learning environment. Collectively, the results emphasize the importance of integrating growth-oriented beliefs, nurturing self-efficacy, and employing mindfulness practices in language education to optimize learning. This research offers notable insights for second language acquisition and educational psychology, informing educators, policymakers, and practitioners about effective strategies for promoting successful language learning journeys.
Open Access
Stance-taking through APPRAISAL in L1 and L2 English argumentative essays: insights from Vietnamese L2 English

October 2, 2024

Tieu Thuy Chung, Peter R. Crosthwaite

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Stance-taking in academic writing is now a well-established topic of interest in English language research, with explorations across a range of theoretical frameworks including metadiscourse and systemic functional linguistics (SFL). This includes studies investigating second language (L2) stance-taking, particularly those comparing stance features deployed by L1 and L2 English writers. However, studies investigating stance-taking using the APPRAISAL framework for evaluative discursive language across L1 and L2 production are relatively rare. Incorporating the APPRAISAL framework into research on stance-taking enhances our comprehension of evaluative language in academic writing, especially when it comes to cross-linguistic contexts. It also provides useful advantages for language assessment and instruction. In this learner corpus-assisted discourse study, APPRAISAL was used to determine how L1 English speakers and L2 English learners from L1 Vietnamese backgrounds expressed attitudes through their written texts. We also investigate the relationship between use of APPRAISAL resources and expert raters’ perceptions of written stance via a stance rubric. Findings show L2 English students are more explicit in argumentative writing than L1 English writers, despite fewer APPRAISAL choices in L2 texts. Besides, while high-rated texts were associated with more judgemental evaluation and invocation, more personal feelings were expressed in low-rated texts. These findings have implications for the instruction of L2 writers in conveying attitudinal meanings in text, as well as for raters tasked with assessing L2 academic essays for stance.
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Assessing self-efficacy, working memory, and proficiency in a multimedia writing environment

September 23, 2024

Mark Feng Teng, Maggie Ma

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The present study examined self-efficacy, working memory, and English proficiency in a multimedia writing environment. The research design included a survey to assess self-efficacy and a writing assessment within a multimedia environment, while controlling for working memory capacity and levels of English proficiency. Data collection methods comprised a survey on self-efficacy beliefs in multimedia writing, a working memory task, and the standardized College English Test Band 4 in China. The participants were a total of 406 Chinese university students. The results support the reliability of the self-efficacy questionnaire, with five dimensions: linguistic knowledge, planning, monitoring, evaluation, and performance. These five factors were positively correlated with the students’ writing performance in a multimedia environment. The structural equation modeling findings suggest that working memory and English language proficiency moderate learners’ self-efficacy in EFL multimedia writing. Relevant implications based on the findings were discussed.
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What can multi-factors contribute to Chinese EFL learners’ implicit L2 knowledge?

August 27, 2024

Runhan Zhang, Yaping Chen

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The goal of second language (L2) learning is spontaneous, unreflective L2 use, relying primarily on implicit L2 knowledge. While most research has compared the methods and effects of explicit and implicit instruction, less attention has been given to individual differences (IDs) and their impact on implicit L2 knowledge. A sparse body of research has addressed the relationship between IDs and implicit L2 knowledge considering age effects and age-related language analytic ability, with conative and affective factors receiving scant attention. This paper, grounded in the control-value theory, advocates a holistic view to comprehensively investigate how language analytic ability, language learning motivation, learner beliefs, and foreign language anxiety can contribute to implicit L2 knowledge among Chinese postgraduate students. The findings indicate that cognitive, conative, and affective factors have direct or indirect effects on implicit L2 knowledge. Implications for L2 teaching and research are discussed in detail.
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Corrigendum to: Development and validation of Questionnaire for Self-regulated Learning Writing Strategies (QSRLWS) for EFL learners

August 23, 2024

Bin Shen, Lu Wang

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Open Access
Perception of English semivowels by Japanese-speaking learners of English

August 20, 2024

Wei William Zhou, Mineharu Nakayama, Atsushi Fujimori

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This study compared the perception of English semivowels /j/ and /w/ and their corresponding vowels /i/ and /u/ by two groups of Japanese-speaking learners of English: foreign language (FL) learners in Japan and second language learners who were initially FL learners (FL-L2). The phonological targets were /i/ and /u/ with and without preceding /j/ and /w/, respectively (/ji/-/i/ and /wu/-/u/). Discrimination and identification results showed that both groups performed comparably for /i/ with and without /j/, indicating their reliance on native phonological sensitivity to /i/ and /j/, which closely resemble Japanese /i/ and /j/. However, important differences emerged for /u/ with and without /w/, possibly due to articulatory differences in lip rounding for /u/ and /w/ between the two languages. Notably, while FL-L2 learners were equally competent in both the /u/-/wu/ and the /i/-/ji/ discriminations, FL learners were much less capable of the /u/-/wu/ discrimination than of the /i/-/ji/ discrimination. Moreover, FL-L2 learners were better at identifying /u/ than their FL peers, suggesting that L2 exposure may have facilitated their acquisition of the articulatory details associated with /u/. Overall, the study showed that engaging in L2 immersion following FL learning is beneficial for non-native phonological development among adult learners.
Open Access
The dynamics of changes in linguistic complexity and writing scores in timed argumentative writing among beginning-level EFL learners

August 19, 2024

Minkyung Kim, YouJin Kim, Sanghee Kang

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This study investigates longitudinal changes in linguistic complexity and holistic scores in EFL timed argumentative writing among beginning-level learners using Complex Dynamic Systems Theory. It also explores relationships among linguistic complexity over time and with writing scores. Over nine months, 42 Japanese EFL learners completed six timed essays. Linguistic complexity was assessed through lexical, phraseological, and syntactic features. Findings indicate linear growth in writing scores, lexical sophistication, and noun phrase (NP) complexity, alongside stable phrasal complexity and non-linear subordination. Interrelated growth patterns included connections between lexical sophistication and phrasal complexity, and phraseological complexity and subordination. Competitive dynamics were observed between lexical diversity and NP complexity, and phraseological complexity and phrasal sophistication. Linear associations emerged between writing scores and lexical sophistication or syntactic complexity, while a non-linear relationship occurred with phraseological sophistication. This study illuminates the intricate dynamics of linguistic complexity and L2 writing scores among beginning-level learners in argumentative writing.
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Examining the impact of foreign language anxiety and language contact on oral proficiency: a study of Chinese as a second language learners

July 29, 2024

Yang (Frank) Gong, Mo Chen, Ziyi An

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This study addresses gaps in the existing literature on foreign language anxiety (FLA) by examining its impact on the oral proficiency of Chinese as a second language (CSL) learners. Unlike previous research, this investigation includes less commonly taught languages and considers the role of language contact as a mediating variable. Using structural equation modelling (SEM), we reveal that (1) CSL learning anxiety negatively affects CSL oral complexity and fluency in a direct way, but does not influence oral accuracy; (2) language contact affects CSL oral proficiency, with verbal contact having a particular impact on oral fluency; and (3) language contact does not mediate the relationship between CSL learning anxiety and oral proficiency. This study contributes to current theories of FLA in L2 acquisition by highlighting the roles of anxiety in different oral proficiency measurements even though the mediating effect of language contact does not exist.
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The effect of form presentation mode and language learning aptitude on the learning burden and decay of L2 vocabulary knowledge

July 23, 2024

Samuel Barclay

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L2 words vary in how hard they are to learn and how quickly they are forgotten. This study explored two factors that may contribute to this variance: form presentation mode and language learning aptitude. English learners studied 32 words using electronic flashcard software in two conditions: unimodal (written form) and bimodal (spoken and written form). The frequency of exposure needed to learn each word was measured and used to determine learning burden. Learners, L2 users of English studying at a British university, completed immediate and two-week delayed tests, which were used to track any decay that occurred. Aptitude was measured using the LLAMA battery and incorporated into statistical modelling. The results showed that form presentation mode (bimodal > unimodal) and some aspects of aptitude impacted learning. No effects were found on decay. Pedagogical implications are discussed.
Open Access
Enhancing the processing advantage: two psycholinguistic investigations of formulaic expressions in Chinese as a second language

July 22, 2024

Xiaolong Lu

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The Holistic Hypothesis asserts that formulaic expressions (FEs) are processed more rapidly than non-formulaic expressions (non-FE items) by both native speakers (NSs) and L2 learners of English. This study utilized an acceptability judgment task and a self-paced reading task to investigate the online processing of FEs and non-FE items among bilingual speakers (L1 English, L2 Chinese) in both contextual and non-contextual conditions. Meanwhile, a familiarity rating task was employed to measure whether there is a familiarity effect in item processing. The results consistently provided support for the Holistic Hypothesis, indicating that learners of Chinese at each level exhibited faster processing of FEs compared to non-FE items, regardless of the presence or absence of context. However, the influence of item familiarity, rather than the proficiency effect, contributed to the improvement of L2 learners’ eventual processing abilities. Distinct patterns also emerged when comparing data from NSs and L2 learners of Chinese, highlighting L2 learners’ more pronounced processing advantage, characterized by faster response times (RTs) to FEs compared to non-FE items. Through an analysis of Chinese L2 data, this study sheds light on the interplay between the usage based approach and chunking within the cognitive approach to L2 learning.
Open Access
Listenership always matters: active listening ability in L2 business English paired speaking tasks

July 19, 2024

Wei Gao, Menghan Wang

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Active listening, foundational for meaningful social interaction, plays a pivotal role in enhancing interactional competence (IC) during dialogues. Despite its importance, current second language (L2) assessments, such as the TOEFL iBT and the Business English Certificate (BEC) Preliminary, notably does not include active listening in their evaluation metrics. The research presented here contributes significantly to this discourse by foregrounding the imperative of listener responses (LRs) in L2 communication and the diverse interactional functions they serve across different cultures. Notably, variations emerge, with Chinese speakers exhibiting more restrained verbal feedback compared to the more vocally expressive English counterparts. This study stands apart by underscoring the necessity of updating current L2 assessment rubrics, which currently prioritize grammatical proficiency, pronunciation, and vocabulary. By weaving in active listening, assessments can become more holistic, capturing more comprehensively a learner’s L2 interactional ability. Through rigorous quantitative and qualitative methodologies, this investigation probes the influence of active listening on BEC speaking test outcomes. Its findings are poised to revolutionize assessment strategies, urging a more encompassing approach that factors in both verbal and non-verbal cues, thereby reflecting genuine linguistic and interactional competence.
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Assessing effects of source text complexity on L2 learners’ interpreting performance: a dependency-based approach

July 15, 2024

Xinlei Jiang, Yue Jiang, Xiaopeng Zhang

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Based on data from the English-Chinese interpretation corpus, we examined the relationship of source text complexity, captured using newly-developed dependency-based and traditional indices, to L2 learners’ interpreting performance captured using complexity, accuracy, and fluency. Best subsets regression and Poisson regression models yielded that the effectiveness of dependency-based indices including mean dependency distance, maximum dependency distance, dependency direction, and root distance, has been demonstrated across various dimensions of L2 learners’ performance. In contrast to the mixed results obtained from traditional indices, the consistent effect of dependency-based indices in these dimensions sheds light on the workings of cognitive processing. These findings provide preliminary support for the impact of dependency-based indices of source text on L2 learners’ interpreting performance, aiding in operationalizing task difficulty in L2 interpreting pedagogy. Moreover, they constitute product-based evidence for understanding bilingual switching.
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Incidental learning of collocations through reading an academic text

July 15, 2024

Inés de la Viña, Christina S. Kim, Gloria Chamorro

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This study investigated the incidental learning of collocations in two reading modes (reading-only (RO), reading-while-listening (RWL)), taking into account additional learner- and collocation-related predictors of learning (e.g., congruency). An academic text was used, as this could be a useful source for vocabulary learning for university-level English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners. Sixty-eight advanced Spanish EFL learners read a text containing 14 target collocations, in the RO or the RWL condition. Learning gains were measured in terms of form recall and form recognition. Results showed that collocations can be learnt incidentally from reading. While reading mode did not influence learning, congruency and prior vocabulary knowledge improved form recall, emphasising the importance of features specific to individual learners and collocations for vocabulary learning.
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Effects of working memory and task type on syntactic complexity in EFL learners’ writing

June 25, 2024

Lei Jiang, Rebekha Abbuhl, Yv Fu

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This study investigated the predictive power of working memory and task type for syntactic complexity in EFL adult learners’ academic writing. One hundred forty-eight Chinese adult students were recruited as participants. Their working memory was assessed with an operation span task, a set of digit span tasks, and a symmetry span task. The syntactic complexity of their written products from two different TOEFL iBT writing tasks, an integrated writing task and an independent writing task, was measured using a natural language processing tool. Results showed a significant positive association between operation span and coordination in the students’ written products. In addition, a significant difference was found between the integrated task and the independent task with respect to phrasal complexity, with the integrated task eliciting more complex nominals per clause than the independent task. No significant effects were identified for other components of working memory or other measures of syntactic complexity.
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Impact of task type and task complexity on negotiation of meaning in young learners of Chinese as a second language

June 25, 2024

Jing Yan, Christine C. M. Goh

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Negotiation of meaning (NoM) has played a facilitative role in second language acquisition. However, the existing studies have primarily focused on adult English language learners. This study investigated the impact of task type and task complexity on NoM strategies among young learners of Chinese as a second language, an underexplored group. The participants were 110 students in Hong Kong aged 10–12, mainly from Pakistan, India, Philippines, and Nepal. They were asked to perform four tasks with different task types and levels of task complexity in Cantonese (the primary Chinese dialect spoken in Hong Kong). In terms of task type, the study found that required information exchange tasks (i.e., information gap tasks) produced significantly more clarification requests, confirmation checks, self-repetitions, and other repetitions in terms of total numbers and numbers per 100 Chinese characters than the optional exchange tasks (i.e., decision-making tasks). Complex tasks, on the other hand, elicited significantly more confirmation checks than simple tasks. These findings provide useful insights for designing tasks that can promote greater use of NoM strategies in classroom practice.
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The cognitive-emotional dialectics in second language development: speech and co-speech gestures of Chinese learners of English

June 21, 2024

Lixian Tian, Steven G. McCafferty, Man Zhu

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This study examines the cognitive-emotional dialectics of Chinese learners of English in terms of both speech and co-speech gestures in their second language development within the lens of Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory. This qualitative study focuses on Chinese learners of English in different learning contexts and analyzes data from interviews and emotional narrative tasks in the English learning experience. Overall findings showed that learners’ emotion and cognition interacted in different learning contexts, and speech and co-speech gestures worked to influence the cognition-emotion dialectics in participant’s perezhivanie . This study implies the inextricable unity of emotion and cognition in second language development, and emphasizes the role of speech and co-speech gestures in shaping second language learners’ perezhivaniya .
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Influencing factors of L2 writers’ engagement in an assessment as learning-focused context

May 28, 2024

Lu Wang, Bin Shen

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While prior research on engagement in L2 writing mainly focused on engagement with feedback, little is known about the relationship between engagement and the broader formative assessment context. To fill this gap, this study investigated what and how contextual and individual factors influenced three Chinese undergraduates’ engagement in an assessment as learning (AaL)-focused writing classroom. Drawing on data from interviews, stimulated recalls, classroom observation, and documents, findings indicated that student empowerment, instructional scaffolding, and a teacher-student rapport in an AaL context afforded and motivated students to enact engagement. Meanwhile, sociocultural factors such as beliefs regarding teachers as authorities may constrain students from utilizing learning opportunities. Moreover, when there was an alignment between students’ will and capacity at the individual level, as well as contextual factors at instructional, interpersonal, and sociocultural levels, students were more likely to engage in classroom writing assessment.
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Relationship between learner creativity, task planning, and speaking performance in L2 narrative tasks

May 24, 2024

Jie Qin

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This study examined the relationship between learners’ creativity viewed as a divergent thinking cognitive trait and the language/content dimensions of their L2 speaking performance under two task planning conditions, while controlling for the effects of L2 proficiency. Sixty-one Chinese learners of English took an Elicited Imitation Task, a verbal and a figural creativity test, and performed two picture-prompted narrative tasks. Results showed that when learners had time to plan, their L2 proficiency and creativity were predictors of their speaking performance in terms of fluency and idea productivity, while under the no planning condition, creativity predicted learners’ performance measured by idea productivity, discoursal structure, and lexical diversity. Moreover, different creativity measures contributed to L2 task performance in differential manners. This study contributes to the field by shedding light on the interaction between learner-related and task-related variables on L2 speaking production and the nature of the new individual difference variable of creativity.
Open Access
Promoting interaction and lowering speaking anxiety in an EMI course: a group dynamic assessment approach

May 3, 2024

Yu-Ting Kao

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This study first examined the effectiveness of applying the Group Dynamic Assessment (G-DA) approach to assessing the oral skills of non-native English-speaking university students who are provided with mediation by their teacher in a small group setting. Second, it aimed to understand whether employing innovative G-DA techniques could reduce the speaking anxiety felt by university students if they received support from either their teacher or their peers during assessment. Fifty freshmen’ speaking performance on TOEFL integrated speaking tasks, and their responses to the teacher’s mediation in groups were compared. Results showed that (1) the G-DA approach could be a beneficial tool for assessing English oral proficiency in the EMI context, and (2) the procedures involved in G-DA helped university students feel less anxiety when prompted to respond orally. It provides insights into an alternative approach to assessment which can be employed to group learning in the context of EMI courses.
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The impact of out-of-school L2 input and interaction on adolescent classroom immersion and community-L2 learners’ L2 vocabulary: opportunities for interaction are key

April 29, 2024

Brian V. Rusk, Johanne Paradis

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Comparing young second-language (L2) learners in different learning contexts is a valuable, but under-researched, design for determining how L2 experiences impact L2 development. This study addressed this gap by comparing the out-of-school L2 experiences of adolescents ( N = 64) learning L2-English as either a community majority language or as a foreign language in an immersion classroom, and examining how differences in L2 experience impacted English receptive vocabulary ability. Participant questionnaires yielded information on sources of L2 input and L2 interaction out-of-school. Results showed the groups were comparable for L2 input, but immersion learners experienced less interactional L2 use and also had significantly smaller L2 vocabularies. Out-of-school L2 experience explained more variance in receptive vocabulary for community-L2 participants, with more significant predictor variables than immersion-L2 participants. L2 interaction variables explained more variance than L2 input variables for both groups, indicating that, overall, interaction is a key source of L2 receptive vocabulary development.
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The stone left unturned: boredom among young EFL learners

April 26, 2024

Vahid Mahmoudi-Gahrouei, Mariusz Kruk, Fatemeh Moafian, Maryam Farahmand Boroujeni

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The present study explores the under-researched phenomenon of boredom, its antecedents, and solutions, as well as the boredom-generating parts of English classes among 227 young learners of English in an Iranian context. Data were collected through an open-ended questionnaire, and semi-structured interviews were thematically analyzed using MAXQDA (Version 2022) to extract themes concerning the issues under study. Findings revealed that teachers’ lack of control over students’ behavior, lack of classroom management, lack of fun in teaching, excessive repetitions, teacher-centered teaching, and classroom physical environment were the main causes of boredom. As for solutions to learners’ boredom, introducing better classroom management strategies, making the class more effervescent, making teaching more learner-centered, and enhancing classroom physical environment were suggested. The findings also revealed that the middle of the English class was the most boredom-generating part for the young learners of English.
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Contributions of significant others to second language teacher well-being: a self-determination theory perspective

April 22, 2024

Mostafa Nazari, Sedigheh Karimpour, Peter I. De Costa

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The present study explores the contributions of significant others to 10 Iranian English language teachers’ well-being by drawing on self-determination theory. We define significant others as individuals who play a key role in the emotional dynamics that teachers experience and serve as the impetus for those emotional experiences. Data were collected from questionnaires, narrative frames, and semi-structured interviews. Analyses of the data revealed that significant others contributed to the teachers’ competence (becoming more agentic), autonomy (alignment and emotion labor), and relatedness (interpersonal emotionality) in relation to their well-being. Our findings indicate that significant others define teachers’ relational well-being through shaping their identities, agencies, and emotions in interpersonal interactions and relationships. We also discuss implications for pre-service and in-service teachers as well as for teacher educators, and emphasize the need to develop a more nested understanding of well-being and the myriad of factors influencing it.
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Exploring learner-related variables in child collaborative writing: interaction mindset, willingness to communicate and proficiency

April 10, 2024

Asier Calzada, Agurtzane Azkarai

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Collaborative writing (CW) tasks have been shown to generate interactional moves conducive to L2 learning. However, recent studies have demonstrated that learner-related variables, including interaction mindset (IM), willingness to communicate (WTC), and proficiency may explain the extent to which L2 learners notice errors or interact in these tasks. This study explores the impact of these individual differences on the interactional behaviours of child EFL learners, a population where this topic has been barely investigated. Fifty-seven children (ages 11–12) took part in the study and completed a CW task. Their proficiency was measured through a standardized test, and IM and WTC were measured from a trait-like and situation-specific perspective using a questionnaire and focal interviews. The dependent variable, L1/L2 oral task-based production, was quantified in words and turns. The multiple regression analyses failed to show any significant contribution of IM and WTC to learners’ L1/L2 use, while proficiency significantly impacted their L1 use: more proficiency led to less L1 use. Participants’ responses from the post-task interview highlighted the situational nature of IM and WTC. These findings shed light on the effects of child individual variables on CW tasks and suggest that future studies can test whether amount of learner talk in L1/L2 as mediated by proficiency determines ultimate learning.
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Model text as corrective feedback in L2 writing: the role of working memory and vocabulary size

April 10, 2024

Syed Muhammad Mujtaba, Tiefu Zhang, Shiman Mao, Nisar Ahmed

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Recent research highlights model texts as a form of written corrective feedback (WCF) for enhancing L2 writing skills. This study, conducted at a South Asian university, assessed the impact of model texts on the argumentative writing skills of 71 undergraduate ESL students. Divided into treatment and control groups, assessments at various stages employed an analytic rubric and CALF metrics (complexity, accuracy, fluency, lexical richness). Additionally, regression analysis was used to gauge the effect of working memory capacity (WMC) and vocabulary size on the success of the method. The findings revealed that the treatment group exhibited significant improvements, particularly in vocabulary use and structural aspects of their writing. Both WMC and vocabulary size were found to influence the efficacy of model texts. This study underscores the potential of model texts in WCF and highlights the role of individual learner attributes in determining its effectiveness.
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Unpacking changing emotions in multiple contexts: idiodynamic study of college students’ academic emotions

April 2, 2024

Lubei Zhang, Wenxin Cao, Linda Tsung

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Under the guidance of complex dynamic systems theory, the present study explored four college students’ academic emotions when learning academic English in a blended language class, consisting of face-to-face classroom instruction, and asynchronous and synchronous online instructions. An idiodynamic approach was used to capture the participants’ emotional fluctuations on a per-second timescale. With reference to the bitmap exported, follow-up interviews were conducted to probe into the potential factors triggering their emotional fluctuations. The findings revealed that, although the four students’ academic emotions demonstrated distinctive fluctuations across three teaching modes, they all experienced more arousal emotions during the face-to-face class, while their emotional experiences during the online classes, especially during the synchronous online class, tended to be deactivating. And during asynchronous online class, their academic emotions oscillated between positive and negative most frequently. Three broad groups of factors related to learner agency, learning environment and teaching practice have been found to exert varied degrees of influence on their academic emotional fluctuations in different teaching modes.
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Exploring L2 learners’ processing of unknown words during subtitled viewing through self-reports

April 2, 2024

Andi Wang, Ana Pellicer-Sánchez

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Studies have shown the benefits of subtitled viewing for incidental vocabulary learning, but the effects of different subtitling types varied across studies. The effectiveness of different types of subtitled viewing could be related to how unknown vocabulary is processed during viewing. However, no studies have investigated L2 learners’ processing of unknown words in viewing beyond exploring learners’ attention allocation. The present research followed a qualitative approach to explore L2 learners’ processing of unknown words during subtitled viewing under three conditions (i.e., captions, L1 subtitles, and bilingual subtitles) by tapping into learners’ reported awareness of the unknown words and the vocabulary processing strategies used to engage with unknown words. According to stimulated recall data (elicited by eye-tracking data) from 45 intermediate-to-advanced-level Chinese learners of English, captions led to increased awareness of the unknown words. Moreover, the types of strategies learners used to cope with unknown vocabulary were determined by subtitling type.
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Acquisition of collocations under different glossing modalities and the mediating role of learners’ perceptual learning style

March 29, 2024

Xin Yuan, Xuan Tang

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The current study investigated how different glossing modalities (textual and auditory) and learners’ perceptual learning style (visual and auditory) influenced collocation learning. A total of 212 college students in China were first assigned to either a visual or auditory group based on their performance on a perceptual learning style questionnaire. Each style group was subsequently subdivided into three groups who were exposed to a series of reading texts containing 15 unknown collocations under one of the glossing conditions: textual glosses, auditory glosses or no glosses (control). Results of the study indicated that both textual, and that auditory glosses led to gains in productive and receptive collocation knowledge and auditory glosses were more effective than textual glosses. In addition, this study provided empirical evidence that perceptual learning style has a moderating effect on collocational learning. The auditory learners in the auditory glossing condition showed the highest rate of collocational learning among all treatment subgroups.
Open Access
Machine translation as a form of feedback on L2 writing

March 25, 2024

Miyuki Sasaki, Atsushi Mizumoto, Paul Kei Matsuda

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With advances in artificial intelligence (AI), many language teachers have started exploring the classroom implications of AI-powered technology, including machine translation (MT). To examine the usefulness of MT technology in writing instruction, we conducted a mixed-methods study comparing two types of written feedback: comprehensive direct Teacher Corrective Feedback (TCF), and MT feedback. Participants were 23 Japanese university students in an intact L2 writing classroom. Sample size adequacy was confirmed through a priori power analysis. Participants were instructed to describe a picture prompt in L2 English and then in L1 Japanese. Half the participants received first TCF then MT on their L2 English text, while the order was reversed for the other half. Participants in both conditions were then asked to study the feedback and describe the same picture prompt without the feedback. In the following phase, both groups completed the same tasks in reverse order. Participants also responded to a survey exploring their engagement with the feedback. Results reveal that: 1) TCF improved complexity; 2) MT improved accuracy and fluency; and 3) variation in outcomes may be explained by the different ways in which participants engaged with both TCF and MT. Implications for appropriate classroom use of MT are discussed.
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A Q methodological study into pre-service Chinese as a foreign language (CFL) teachers’ mindsets about teaching competencies

March 22, 2024

Chengwen Yuan, Yong Zhu, Yvette Slaughter

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A teacher’s mindset significantly affects their engagement, development, teaching quality, and well-being. This is crucial for pre-service teachers acquiring competencies for effective teaching. While research often focuses on English language teaching in Western contexts, little explores non-Western language teaching mindsets. Given the intersections of associated social, cultural, and linguistic variables with mindset, this study investigates Chinese as a foreign language (CFL) pre-service teachers’ mindsets on teaching competencies. The study utilized Q methodology, which is a philosophical and conceptual framework for examining subjectivity, and post-sort questionnaires with 39 pre-service teachers in China. The research findings provide important insights into the diverse and contradictory mindsets of pre-service CFL teachers, and the ideologies influencing beliefs as to what constitutes effective language teaching in the Chinese socio-cultural and socio-political context, providing insights into how teacher training programs need to be tailored to challenge and extend the complex mindsets held by pre-service language teachers.
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Learning academic vocabulary through reading online news

March 22, 2024

Thi Ngoc Yen Dang, Cailing Lu

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Although corpus-driven studies have suggested that non-academic texts such as online news can be a potential resource for learning specialized words and multiword sequences, no intervention studies have been conducted to examine whether learning actually happens from exposure to these texts. Adopting a quasi-experimental design, the present research investigated the potential of online news for incidentally learning academic words and multiword sequences. Fifty-three university students in China were divided into an experimental group ( n = 28) or a control group ( n = 25). Students in the experimental group read six pieces of online news containing 16 academic words and 26 academic multiword sequences. Students in the control group were not exposed to such online news. This study showed that reading online news resulted in learning gains of both academic single words and multiword sequences. Frequency of occurrence significantly contributed to the learning outcomes of academic words, but not multiword sequences. Learners’ previous vocabulary knowledge did not play a significant role in explaining the learning gains of academic single words nor multiword sequences.
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Assessing written production in L2 Mandarin Chinese: fluency and accuracy

March 22, 2024

Li Yang, Zenan Zhao

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This study utilized T-unit and character-unit indices to assess learners’ written production and evaluate their writing development in second language (L2) Chinese. Through a cross-sectional design, three L2 Chinese learner groups at different instructional levels completed a timed letter-writing task within 30 min. Guided by prior research, respective T-unit and character-unit measures were selected to assess fluency and accuracy of the collected writing data. The results showed that fluency was overall positively related to learners’ instructional level, regardless of the indices (T-unit vs. character-unit). Hence, T-units per minute and characters per minute are considered both valid tools to assess fluency in L2 Chinese writing. However, only errors per character, among the accuracy measures, was found to decline linearly with the increasing level, thus suggested to be valid for tapping accuracy development in L2 Chinese writing. Based on the findings, implications regarding the assessment of L2 Chinese texts were discussed.

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Special Issue: Young L2 Learners in Diverse Instructional Contexts; Guest Editors: María del Pilar García Mayo and Masatoshi Sato

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Special Issue: Broadening the Appliability of Systemic Functional Linguistics in Language Education; Issue Editors: Winfred Wenhui Xuan, Christian M.I.M. Matthiessen and Jorge Arús Hita

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Special Issue: Second Language Teacher Emotion Labor; Guest Editors: Peter I. De Costa and Mostafa Nazari

Issue 2

Issue 1

Special Issue: Textual Analysis to Inform Language Learning and Teaching; Issue Editors: Wenjuan Qin and Paola Uccelli

Special Issue: Motion Event Construal and Language Learning; Guest Editors: Fraibet Aveledo and Jeanine Treffers-Daller

Special Issue: Transdisciplinary Research Methods and Complex Systems in Applied Linguistics; Guest Editors: Phil Hiver and Ali H. Al-Hoorie

Special Issue: Applied Cognitive Linguistics to L2 acquisition and learning: research and convergence Guest Editors: Reyes Llopis-García and Alberto Hijazo-GascÓn

Special Issue: Interlanguage 45 years on: New Directions, Guest Editors: Leah Roberts and Norbert Vanek

Issue 3

Special Issue: Tense, Aspect, and Modality in L2 (TAML2), Guest Editors: Kevin McManus, Norbert Vanek, Pascale Leclercq and Leah Roberts

Issue 2

Issue 1

Special Issue: Contemporary issues in research on multilingualism, Guest Editors: Christina Lindqvist, Ylva Falk and Josefin Lindgren Dedicated to Håkan Ringbom

Issue 4

Issue 3

Issue 2

Special Issue: New Directions in L2 Speech Fluency, Editors: Clare Wright and Parvaneh Tavakoli

Special Issue: Processing instruction: New insights after twenty years of theory, research and application

Special Issue: English-medium education in the global society

to be implemented...

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International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching publishes special and thematic issues focussed on important and emerging topics in the field of study. The journal has established a rigorous process to ensure that any special issue manuscripts follow the same high-quality standards and peer review processes as regular manuscripts. For further information on the journal’s peer review policy please see the "Instructions for Authors".

Call for Papers

Submit Manuscript

Recent Special Issues

Journal Impact Factor	2.2	2024, Journal Citation Reports (Clarivate, 2025)
5-year Journal Impact Factor	2.1	2024, Journal Citation Reports (Clarivate, 2025)
Journal Citation Indicator	1.50	2024, Journal Citation Reports (Clarivate, 2025)
CiteScore	4.3	2024, Scopus (Elsevier B.V., 2025)
SCImago Journal Rank	0.991	2024, SJR (Scimago Lab, 2025; Data Source: Scopus)
Source Normalized Impact per Paper	1.413	2024, CWTS Journal Indicators (CWTS B.V., 2025; Data Source: Scopus)

More information about journal rankings

1. Submitting an article for publication
Please submit your manuscript online to: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/iral.

Please consult Instructions for Authors before submitting.

2. Peer review
The journal operates a double-blind peer review that usually takes four months. Submissions are sent to 2 or 3 reviewers.

3. Formatting and style
Once accepted for publication, the author(s) will be required to submit the final version conforming to journal style. Please see the De Gruyter Mouton journal style sheet for details regarding journal style. Any special characters used should be labeled and clearly identified at their first occurrence. The Editor reserves the right to reject any articles that do not conform to the requirements.

4. Permissions
Copies of any letters granting permission to reproduce illustrations or tables from other sources, or lengthy quoted passages, must be supplied with the manuscript.

5. Proofs
Authors are asked to check their manuscripts very carefully before submitting them in order to prevent delays and extra costs at proofing. Authors will receive PDF proofs for correction which must be returned by dates given in the publication schedule.

6. Offprints
Upon publication, authors will receive electronic offprints (in PDF format) of their contribution. Guest editors of special issues will receive complimentary print copies of the issue.

Please note

Before submitting your article please have a look at our Publication Ethics Statement and our copyright agreement
Once your article is accepted you have the option to publish it open access.
Our repository policy allows you to distribute 30 PDF copies of your published article to colleagues (the PDF has to include the information that it is an author's copy). Please also feel free to distribute the link to the online abstract
If you have any general questions please visit our FAQ page for journal authors

We look forward to receiving your manuscript!

Hybrid Open Access

Authors have the option to publish their article under an open access license. The standard article processing charge for a hybrid open access article is 2,400 Euro (plus VAT if applicable). Please note that corresponding authors from institutions with which we have a transformative agreement, can publish open access without paying the fee. More information on the eligible institutions and articles can be found here.

Editors
Mairin Hennebry-Leung, University of Melbourne, Australia
Yuenyi Lo, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR
iral@degruyter.com

Editor Emeritus
Xuesong (Andy) Gao, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
Peter Jordens, VU Amsterdam University, Netherlands

Editorial Assistant
Jiao Li, Tongji University, Shanghai, China

Board of Consulting Editors
Zsuzsanna Abrams, University of California Santa Cruz, United States
Ali H. Al-Hoorie, Royal Commission for Jubail and Yanbu, Saudi Arabia
Kathleen Bailey, Middlebury Institute of International Studies, United States
Inge Bartning, Stockholm University, Sweden
Yves Bestgen, UCLouvain, Belgium
Theo Bongaerts, Radboud University, Netherlands
Mirjam Broersma, Radboud University, Netherlands
Susanne Carroll, University of Calgary, Canada
Aoju Chen, Utrecht University, Netherlands
Graham Crookes, University of Hawai‘i, United States
Peter Crosthwaite, University of Queensland, Australia
Annick De Houwer, Erfurt University, Germany
Christine Dimroth, University of Münster, Germany
Tess Fitzpatrick, Swansea University, United Kingdom
Aline Godfroid, Michigan State University, United States
Nicholas Groom, University of Birmingham, United Kingdom
Marianne Gullberg, Lund University, Sweden
Ye Han, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), China
Pieter de Haan, Radboud University, Netherlands
Henriette Hendriks, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom
Alex Housen, Free University of Brussels, Belgium
Allan James, Alpen Adria University, Austria
Eric Kellerman, Radboud University, Netherlands
Sima Khezrlou, University of Vienna, Austria
Keiko Koda, Carnegie Mellon University, United States
Patsy Martin Lightbown, Concordia University, Canada
Sarah Ann Liszka, University of Greenwich, United Kingdom
Emma Marsden, University of York, United Kingdom
Joshua Matthews, University of New England, Australia
Paul Meara, Swansea University, United Kingdom
Alejandra Meneses, Pontifical Catholic University of Chile
Carmen Muñoz, University of Barcelona, Spain
Rebecca Oxford, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, United States
Wenjuan Qin, Fudan University, China
Leah Roberts, University of York, United Kingdom
Peter Robinson, Japan Women's University, Japan
John Rogers, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong SAR, China
Sarah Schimke, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Germany
Yasuhiro Shirai, Case Western Reserve University, United States
Suhad Sonbul, Umm Al-Qura University, Saudi Arabia
Danijela Trenkic, University of York, United Kingdom
Wen-ta Tseng, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, ROC
Johannes Wagner, University of Southern Denmark, Denmark
Danping Wang, University of Auckland, New Zealand
Keiko Yoshioka, Leiden University, Netherlands
Martha Young-Scholten, Newcastle University, United Kingdom
Boping Yuan, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom

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Journal information

Additional information

eISSN:

1613-4141

ISSN:

0019-042X

Language:

English

Publisher:

De Gruyter Mouton

Additional information

First published:

January 1, 1963

Publication Frequency:

4 issues per year

eISSN: 1613-4141

ISSN: 0019-042X

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Walter de Gruyter GmbH
Genthiner Straße 13
10785 Berlin
productsafety@degruyterbrill.com

International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching

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International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching

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