Startseite First-language use in English interlanguage: a multi-CEFR-level spoken learner corpus analysis of Taiwanese learners
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First-language use in English interlanguage: a multi-CEFR-level spoken learner corpus analysis of Taiwanese learners

  • Lan-fen Huang ORCID logo EMAIL logo
Veröffentlicht/Copyright: 25. Juli 2025
International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching
Aus der Zeitschrift International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching

Abstract

This study explores the phenomenon of Chinese-English code-switching in interviews with 116 Taiwanese learners across proficiency levels within the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR; Council of Europe. 2020. Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment companion volume. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing). The learner corpus data were extracted from the Taiwanese sub-corpus (Huang, Lan-fen. 2014. Constructing the Taiwanese component of the Louvain International Database of Spoken English Interlanguage (LINDSEI). Taiwan Journal of TESOL 11(1). 31–74) of the Louvain International Database of Spoken English Interlanguage (LINDSEI; Gilquin, Gaëtanelle, de Cock Sylvie & Sylviane Granger (eds.). 2010. LINDSEI Louvain International Database of Spoken English Interlanguage. Handbook and CD-ROM. Louvain-la-Neuve: Presses universitaires de Louvain) and its expanded data (Huang, Lan-fen & Tomáš Gráf. 2021. Expanding LINDSEI to spoken learner English from several L1s across CEFR levels. Corpora 16(2). 271–285). The analysis of relative code-switching frequencies revealed a consistent decline from A1 to C1, indicating that as proficiency increased, L1 use declined. Kruskal-Wallis tests presented clear evidence of a difference between higher (B2 and above) and lower (B1 and below) levels. The functions of Chinese use were explored and interpreted on the basis of empirical evidence within their immediate context, following the taxonomy of linguistic functions proposed by Kaneko, Tomoko. 2009. Use of mother tongue in English-as-a-foreign-language speech by Japanese university students. Gakuen 822. 25–41. By analysing a CEFR-rated Taiwanese learner corpus, this study provides practical insights showing how L1 use evolves with proficiency. It also proposes alternatives: English expressions and appropriate communication strategies to address referential code-switching, which probably stems from learners’ limited proficiency. These findings yield practical suggestions and linguistic examples to support English language teachers working with Chinese-speaking learnerss.

Keywords: learner corpus; Chinese-English code-switching; CEFR ; L1 use in learner English; LINDSEI
Corresponding author: Lan-fen Huang, National Pingtung University, 51 Min-sheng E. Road, Pingtung, 900392, Taiwan, E-mail:

Acknowledgments

The author would like to express her gratitude to the two anonymous reviewers and the Journal’s editors for their thoughtful comments and constructive suggestions. She would also like to thank Dr Eve Richards for proofreading this manuscript. Any remaining errors or omissions are the author’s responsibility.

  1. Research ethics: Not applicable.

  2. Informed consent: Informed consent was obtained from all individuals included in this study.

  3. Author contributions: The author has accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  4. Use of Large Language Models, AI and Machine Learning Tools: This manuscript was proofread using ChatGPT (OpenAI) to enhance language clarity and coherence. All AI-assisted edits were reviewed and verified by the author to ensure accuracy and scholarly integrity. The final draft was subsequently proofread by Dr Eve Richards, a professional editor with a PhD in English Linguistics. Any remaining errors or omissions are the author’s responsibility.

  5. Conflict of interest: The author states no conflict of interest.

  6. Research funding: This study was supported by the National Science and Technology Council, Taiwan, under grant number NSTC 111-2410-H-153-035, for the project The use of first language in English interlanguage: A multi-level spoken learner corpus analysis.

  7. Data availability: The datasets analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Appendix

Excerpt 1 (Source: TW115)

  1. <A> you chose on that topic </A>

  2. <B> my. my English is very poor <overlap /> so </B>

  3. <A> <overlap /> (mhm) </A>

  4. <B> if you. (eh) (mm) no understand … and you can tell me </B>

  5. <A> okay </A>

  6. <B> yeah <overlap /> so </B>

  7. <A> <overlap /> okay thank you <overlap /> okay </A>

  8. <B> <overlap /> I I will … <foreign> EI (particleㄟ) </foreign> <foreign> NU LI ZEN ME JIANG (how to say trying hard 努力怎麼講) </foreign> … yeah yeah. sorry my English is very poor </B>

  9. <A> it’s very good don’t worry you’re doing fine </A>

  10. <B> <laughs> (erm) … so I </B>

  11. <A> so you will talk about one of these yeah </A>

  12. <B> okay </B>

  13. <A> (mhm) </A>

  14. <B> I. is </B>

  15. <A> (mhm) okay </A>

  16. <B> I like. rea= reading and listen to music </B>

  17. <A> <overlap /> (mhm) </A>

  18. <B> <overlap /> <foreign> RANHOU (then marker 然後) </foreign> … when I … <foreign> NAGE (that marker 那個) </foreign> … when I … junior high. senior high <foreign> EI (particleㄟ) </foreign> no when I one day summer. I … I learn … <foreign> LIU BING CHANG (skating rink) </foreign> … <laughs> wait </B>

  19. <A> no no no no no<overlap /> don’t worry </A>

  20. <B> <overlap /> no what </B>

  21. <A> no no no no no trying trying tell me </A>

  22. <B> I. I. <foreign> LIUBING (skating 溜冰) </foreign> <foreign> JIU SHI (it’s 就是) </foreign> </B>

  23. <A> you walked </A>

  24. <B> no walk <X> I to learn. <overlap /> how to </B>

  25. <A> <overlap /> (mhm) </A>

  26. <B> be ice … <foreign> SHENME SHENME (what what 什麼什麼) </foreign> <foreign> NAGE (that marker 那個) </foreign> … you know one … one thing is in ice and you can </B>

  27. <A> skate </A>

  28. <B> yeah skate </B>

  29. <A> oh I see okay </A>

  30. <B> so <foreign> DUI (yes 對) </foreign> and I to learn it <foreign> RANHOU (then marker 然後) </foreign> when I first time. to try it I … I it. I. <foreign> JIU SHI (it’s 就是) </foreign> when you walk and you not walk and you </B>

  31. <A> fall </A>

  32. <B> yeah yeah yeah you will fall I fall the. to:. to do do how <foreign> EI (particle ㄟ) </foreign> </B>

  33. <A> two times </A>

  34. <B> no two times … H O U R S … and in two … two hou= </B>

  35. <A> two hours </A>

  36. <B> yeah two <overlap /> hours </B>

  37. <A> <overlap /> (uhu) </A>

Excerpt 2 (Source: TW147)

  1. <A> so how often do you do this </A>

  2. <B> I cookies. when (erm) going my hometown in Chiayi </B>

  3. <A> (em) </A>

  4. <B> <foreign> EN (particle 嗯) </foreign> so when I go to. go home. I’m in and have. other free time I will cooking. (mm) like cooking in … cookies … and chocolate brownie </B>

  5. <A> (em) </A>

  6. <B> I like chocolate brownie </B>

  7. <A> (em) </A>

  8. <B> (em). and it was. chocolate brownie is … (erm) … most easy … <overlap /> I think I think it was </B>

  9. <A> <overlap /> so easy to cook </A>

  10. <B> most easy <foreign> EN (particle 嗯) </foreign> </B>

  11. <A> and what is not that easy to cook for you </A>

  12. <B> <foreign> EN (particle 嗯) </foreign> </B>

  13. <A> what is not that easy </A>

  14. <B> not easy </B>

  15. <A> chocolate brownie is easy </A>

  16. <B> <foreign> EI (particle ㄟ) </foreign> yeah you say </B>

  17. <A> to say. so what is not that easy to make </A>

  18. <B> (em) </B>

  19. <A> what is difficult to to make what kind of. cookie or cake. is </A>

  20. <B> macaron </B>

  21. <A> difficult. macaron </A>

  22. <B> yes. <foreign> EN (particle 嗯) </foreign> because </B>

  23. <A> do you have you ever tried. to make macarons </A>

  24. <B> <foreign> EN (particle 嗯) </foreign>. yes <foreign> EN (particle 嗯) </foreign>. because it. (er) material </B>

  25. <A> (uhu) ingredient </A>

  26. <B> (er) it was. really. <foreign> EI (particle ㄟ) </foreign> expensive. so. I can’t have … too much money to. try </B>

  27. <A> make it </A>

  28. <B> <foreign> EN (particle 嗯) </foreign> to make it … so I just do it for one time to two times </B>

  29. <A> I don’t know tell me (er) what ingredients do you need <overlap /> for making </A>

  30. <B> <overlap /> (mm) </B>

  31. <A> macarons. I have no idea. so please <overlap /> tell me </A>

  32. <B> <overlap /> (mm) </B>

  33. <A> what do you need to make macarons </A>

  34. <B> <foreign> EN (particle 嗯) </foreign> but. I I know what is Chinese name <overlap / > no I can’t </B>

  35. <A> Chinese name okay </A>

  36. <B> Chinese name. <foreign> XINGRENFEN (almond powder 杏仁粉) </foreign>. is really expensive </B>

  37. <A> <foreign> XINGREN (almond 杏仁) </foreign> <overlap /> <foreign> XINGREN (almond 杏仁) </foreign> </A>

  38. <B> <overlap /> <foreign> XINGRENFEN (almond powder 杏仁粉) </foreign> </B>

  39. <A> tapioca starch </A>

  40. <B> (er) (em) </B>

  41. <A> something like that. I think <foreign> XINGREN (almond 杏仁) </foreign> is tapioca </A>

  42. <B> tapi= </B>

  43. <A> <XX> tapioca okay okay </A>

  44. <B> (em) <laughs> … yes </B>

Excerpt 3 (Source: TW030)

  1. <A> (em) you’ll have to choose between either doing military service </A>

  2. <B> (mhm) </B>

  3. <A> or civil administration service. (em) which one do you think you will choose (er) military or civil </A>

  4. <B> I will certainly choose civil ad= (eh) no no no military service first </B>

  5. <A> (erm). do you get the choice between choosing the army navy air force or marines or did they choose for you </A>

  6. <B> yeah they choose for me </B>

  7. <A> (er) </A>

  8. <B> (mm) </B>

  9. <A> so (em) which one would you like to go into </A>

  10. <B> <foreign> EN (particle 嗯) </foreign> I’ve no: have not thought so far </B>

  11. <A> (mhm) </A>

  12. <B> (mm) and: because it is (eh) like drawing a lot </B>

  13. <A> (uhu) </A>

  14. <B> (eh) so: if I have the chance to go abroad </B>

  15. <A> (mhm) </A>

  16. <B> (er) I’ll I’ll I’ll really like to do </B>

  17. <A> (er) <overlap /> where </A>

  18. <B> <overlap /> (eh) </B>

  19. <A> would you like to go </A>

  20. <B> (eh) … (mm) I heard some military service soldiers will go to like Africa </B>

  21. <A> (mhm) </A>

  22. <B> <foreign> EN (particle 嗯) </foreign> or south south Afri= (er) south middle America. yeah (mm) </B>

  23. <A> what kind of (er) jobs the people do in the ar= the Taiwanese army these days </A>

  24. <B> (em) I only have the example: for my brother </B>

  25. <A> (mhm) </A>

  26. <B> (mm) he works in the: (mm) like the kitchen. yeah. and: he’s in charge of the: cooking the dishes </B>

  27. <A> (mhm) </A>

  28. <B> <foreign> EN (particle 嗯) </foreign> and then yeah </B>

  29. <A> <coughs> why do you think some people choose to stay in the[i:] army and make it their career </A>

  30. <B> <overlap /> oh: </B>

  31. <A> <overlap /> rather than do a couple of years and then leave </A>

  32. <B> I think it’s because they think the military’s welfare is good </B>

  33. <A> (mhm) </A>

  34. <B> <foreign> EN (particle 嗯) </foreign> and <overlap /> then they are afraid </B>

  35. <A> <overlap /> <clears throat> </A>

  36. <B> to change or face the unpre= unpredictable situation in the future </B>

  37. <A> what would you say (eh) the[i:] (em). disadvantages of life in the military </A>

  38. <B> disadvantage </B>

  39. <A> yeah </A>

  40. <B> oh you need to obey many things <overlap /> and

  41. <A> <overlap /> (mhm) </A>

  42. <B> some: some rules such as the:. (mm) ridiculous </B>

  43. <A> such as: </A>

  44. <B> (em) when: my father: serve in the military service </B>

  45. <A> (mhm) </A>

  46. <B> and they told (eh) he told me that there’s a one rule that you need to lie down on the: (er) on the on the road but the road is pathed with (er). (mm). the because it’s very hot </B>

  47. <A> yeah </A>

  48. <B> <foreign> EN (particle 嗯) </foreign> and road is really extremely hot </B>

  49. <A> (mhm) </A>

  50. <B> so if you just to do push-up </B>

Excerpt 4 (Source: TW161)

  1. <A> okay. (er) and. how long do you practice </A>

  2. <B> <foreign> WO (I 我) </foreign> </B>

  3. <A> I know many students. play basketball </A>

  4. <B> (em) </B>

  5. <A> (er) in the evening after their classes </A>

  6. <B> (eh) (eh) (eh) </B>

  7. <A> so how long do you normally practice everyday </A>

  8. <B> (er). three or four hours </B>

Excerpt 5 (Source: TW160)

  1. <A> (er) is it a Taiwanese band </A>

  2. <B> no no no </B>

  3. <A> no. where are they from </A>

  4. <B> (mm). America <foreign> BA (particle 吧) </foreign> </B>

  5. <A> from America </A>

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Received: 2024-08-07
Accepted: 2025-07-07
Published Online: 2025-07-25

© 2025 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

https://doi.org/10.1515/iral-2024-0235
Schlagwörter für diesen Artikel
learner corpus; Chinese-English code-switching; CEFR; L1 use in learner English; LINDSEI
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