Effect of edge preparation on hardness and corrosion behaviour of AA6061-T651 friction stir welds

Koona Bhavani; Vuppala Sesha Narasimha Venkata Ramana; Kodamasimham Sri Ram Vikas; Chebattina Kodanda Rama Rao; Tharra Sriman Kamal Pritham

doi:10.1515/jmbm-2025-0039

Article Open Access

Effect of edge preparation on hardness and corrosion behaviour of AA6061-T651 friction stir welds

Koona Bhavani , Vuppala Sesha Narasimha Venkata Ramana , Kodamasimham Sri Ram Vikas , Chebattina Kodanda Rama Rao and Tharra Sriman Kamal Pritham

Published/Copyright: March 12, 2025

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From the journal Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Materials Volume 34 Issue 1

Abstract

This study analysed the hardness and corrosion behaviour of friction stir-welded joints made of AA6061-T651 with square wave and plane edges. Superior mechanical properties are a result of increased material flow and weld integrity due to the square wave edge design on the base material plate before welding. Hardness and electrochemical corrosion tests were performed on the welded joints, and the findings were analysed using microstructures observed at various weld zones. This study concludes that friction stir welds on base material plates with square wave edge configurations enhanced hardness by 29% and pitting corrosion resistance by 49% across all weld zones when compared to those with plane edge configurations.

Graphical abstract

Novelty: In this study, friction stir welding of AA6061-T651 plates with square wave edge configuration on base material plates, as opposed to typical plain edges, can greatly improve the joint’s hardness and pitting corrosion behaviour. This makes edge preparation before welding a promising method for high-performance applications in the structural, automotive, and aerospace industries.

Keywords: friction stir welding; AA 6061-T651; micro-hardness; pitting corrosion; square wave edge; potentiodynamic polarization

Abbreviations

AS: Advanced side of the stir zone
FSW: Friction stir welding
HAZ: Heat-affected zone
RS: Retreating side of the stir zone
SZ: Stir zone
TMAZ: Thermomechanically affected zone
Weld 1: Friction stir welds welded with plain edges of base material plates
Weld 2: Friction stir welds welded with square wave edges of base material plates

1 Introduction

AA6061 is a lightweight and important alloy with excellent corrosion-resistant properties in the aluminium alloy series, typically this alloy is used in heat-treated and precipitation-hardened conditions in a variety of applications, including transportation (goods waggons, trams), aerospace (aircraft wings, fuselages, fuel tanks) and shipbuilding (helicopter platforms) [1]. Because of its low melting point, high thermal conductivity, and porosity, AA6061 presents unique challenges when plates are fusion welded, including hot cracking and the impairment of mechanical properties. When heat-treatable alloys like AA6061 are fusion-welded, additional problems like mechanical property decline owing to phase transitions and softening emerge [2]. When compared to the fusion welding processes, friction stir welding (FSW) sidesteps its pitfalls. While FSW can circumvent these issues, the effectiveness of the technique is dependent on tool rotation; as the speed of the tool’s rotation increases, the joint becomes softer [3,4]. FSW forges welds along the joint line using frictional heat from a revolving tool with a profiled pin. The Welding Institute, UK, developed FSW in 1991. It is popular in construction, automotive, and aerospace. It allows high-quality connecting of materials, including unweldable ones, with superior mechanical properties to fusion welding. Significant FSW studies were done on AA6061 by several researchers on improving tensile properties [5] reinforcing with micro powders [6], by changing pin profiles along with the addition of powders [7], dissimilar alloy welding with AA6061 [8], and post- and pre-weld heat treatments [9,10]. In a recent study, AA6061-T6 friction stir welds using a scrolling shoulder, a frustum pin profile with left-hand threads, and a double-sided square butt configuration produced defect-free joints with excellent material flow from the shoulder edge to the pin [11]. Although friction stir welding is widely utilized and successful in joining aluminium alloys, the majority of research has mostly concentrated on conventional edge configurations such as butt joints. The effects of various geometric configurations, such as square wave edge configurations, on the mechanical properties and weld quality have not received much attention. Although square wave edge geometries might be beneficial for heat distribution and material flow during welding, nothing is known about how they affect the microstructure and mechanical properties, including ductility, hardness, and tensile strength. Many researchers concentrated on the effect of tool pin profiles on various properties [12–14].

Furthermore, no work has hitherto been done on the mechanical and corrosion behaviour associated with square wave edge designs of plates. Furthermore, the relationship between microstructural changes in the weld zone and the subsequent improvement in mechanical properties remains unclear. This gap in the literature presents an opportunity to understand in a better way the role of square wave edge configurations in enhancing the overall performance of aluminium alloy joints for high-performance applications. By addressing these gaps, this study aims to contribute to developing more efficient FSW techniques and facilitate the use of aluminium alloys in industries such as aerospace and automotive, where superior joint performance is crucial.

2 Materials and methods

The FSW joint was fabricated using 6 mm AA-6061 T651 aluminium alloy plates obtained from M/S Shanti Metals, Mumbai. Table 1 presents the composition of the base material as determined by optical emission spectroscopy. A 5 HP motor-equipped HMT milling machine was used to perform the joining process. A traverse feed rate of 30 mm/min and a tool rotating speed of 900 rpm were the welding parameters that were meticulously chosen. A cylindrical probe measuring 5.7 mm in height, 6 mm in diameter, and 20 mm in shoulder diameter was employed by the welding tool (Figure 1(g)) in this study. The welding process was conducted with a tilt angle of 1° to improve the strength of the joints and to maximize the flow of material.

Table 1

Chemical composition of AA6061-T651

Element	Al	Si	Cu	Mg	Fe	Mn	Cr	Ti	Others
wt%	Balance	0.70	0.29	0.96	0.40	0.097	0.20	Max 0.015	0.05

Figure 1

Diagrams showing edge preparation of base material plates in friction stir welding and weld joints prepared: (a) dimensions of base material plates with plain edges, (b) dimensions of base material plates with square wave cut edges, (c) base material plates with plain edges before welding, (d) base material plates with square wave cut edges before welding, (e) weld 1, (f) weld 2, and (g) FSW tool with dimensions.

The AA6061-T651 plates were friction stir welded in two separate base material plate edge preparations. The plates were considered with straight edges (Figure 1(a) and (c)) in one condition and machined into a square-wave profile (Figure 1(b) and (d)) in another condition. The plates in two conditions after welding are presented in Figure 1(e) and (f).

The welded plates were sectioned transverse to the weld zone for microstructural characterization, hardness evaluation, and pitting corrosion behaviour analysis. Prior to these investigations, the specimens were meticulously polished to eliminate surface irregularities using a sequential series of emery papers with grit sizes of 120, 280, 400, 800, 1,200, and 2,000 until the desired surface finish was achieved. Subsequently, fine polishing was performed using alumina powder on a polishing cloth mounted on a rotating disc to ensure a mirror-like finish. For microstructural observation, the polished specimens were etched using Keller’s reagent. Post-etching, the microstructure and elemental distribution across various zones of the weld were analysed using a field emission scanning electron microscope (TESCAN MIRA model) and an optical microscope (Leica).

2.1 Hardness test

Microhardness measurements were conducted using a Shimadzu Vickers hardness tester under a load of 200 g with a dwell time of 10 s. Hardness values were recorded along the weld face at 1 mm intervals from the weld centre, on both the advancing and retreating sides (RS), to evaluate the hardness profile comprehensively. At each point, three values were noted and the average value was reported.

2.2 Corrosion test

The pitting corrosion behaviour of the base material, SZ, thermomechanically affected zone (TMAZ), and heat-affected zone (HAZ) of the friction stir welds was assessed via potentiodynamic polarization tests using a software-controlled electrochemical workstation. A platinum electrode and a saturated calomel electrode were employed as the auxiliary and reference electrodes, respectively. All experiments were performed in a 3.5% NaCl solution, with an exposed area of 0.126 cm² for each zone. The critical pitting potential (E _pit) – defined as the potential at which a sharp increase in current is observed – was determined for each specimen. Higher E _pit values (more positive potentials or less negative potentials) were indicative of superior resistance to pitting corrosion.

3 Results and discussion

The results from various tests and analyses conducted on the welds are presented and discussed in this section.

3.1 Base material

Base material AA 6061-T651’s optical and scanning electron microstructures are displayed in Figure 2. In the solid solution matrix, Mg₂Si particles are decorated around grain boundaries.

Figure 2

(a) Optical and (b) SEM images of base material AA6061-T651.

It is clear from Figure 2(a) and (b) that the α-aluminium matrix with distinct grain boundaries and Mg₂Si precipitates dispersed throughout the structure. The existence of Mg₂Si precipitates in the structure is further confirmed by the base metal’s EDX investigation (Figure 3). It is well known that microstructure significantly influences the properties of material [15]. Table 2 gives the base material’s corrosion and mechanical properties.

Figure 3

EDX mapping of the base metal AA6061-T651.

Table 2

Mechanical properties and corrosion values of AA6061-T651

Property	UTS (MPa)	YS (MPa)	Modulus (GPa)	E _pit (V)	Hardness (VHN)
Value	316.2	221.45183	13.12	0.16	115

3.2 Weld studies

Here, the outcomes of several tests and analyses on the friction stir welds using weld 1 and (weld 2) were compared.

3.2.1 Microstructural studies

Figure 4 compares optical micrographs of friction stir welds with two different plate edge conditions. It is evident from these optical micrographs that weld 1 and weld 2 differ significantly in the microstructure of the various zones. It can be observed that the microstructures in the stir zone (SZ) (Figure 4(c) and (h)) are very different from those in the base material and the HAZ [16]. The stirred zone has developed recrystallized grain structure in weld 2 compared to weld 1. This is attributed to the higher level of forces involved in weld 2 due to the square wave pattern existing on the edge of the base material plate. In contrast to weld 1, the Mg₂Si precipitates were evenly dispersed inside the grains of weld 2. The same is confirmed by the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) pictures of the weld 1 and weld 2 SZs (Figure 5). The uniform distribution of the precipitates in the SZ and the refinement of the grains in the SZ were the results of the frequent obstruction to tool movement caused by the square edge in weld 2, whereas the smooth flow of the FSW tool in weld 1 had little effect on the dispersion and distribution of these precipitates (Figure 5).

Figure 4

Comparison of optical micrographs of friction stir welds: weld 1: (a) HAZ-RS, (b) TMAZ RS, (c) SZ, (d) TMAZ AS, and (e) HAZ-AS; weld 2: (f) HAZ-RS, (g) TMAZ RS, (h) SZ, (i) TMAZ AS, and (j) HAZ-AS.

Figure 5

Comparison of SEM images of SZ of friction stir welds: (a) weld 1 and (b) weld 2.

3.2.2 Hardness studies

Figure 6 shows the hardness profiles of welds 1 and 2 across the SZ on the surface of the welded specimen, covering both the RS and advancing side (AS). The hardness profiles of the FSW joint display a distinct “W”-shaped pattern. The hardness profiles unequivocally show that weld 2 has harder zones overall than weld 1. Weld 2’s weld centre hardness is close to the base material hardness. SZ hardness in weld 2 is 104 HV and in weld 1 is 84 HV. The primary reason for the increased hardness in the SZ of weld 2 is the uniform distribution of broken Mg₂Si particles within the recrystallized grains (Figure 4h).

Figure 6

Comparison of hardness values measured across the weld zone on the surface of the welded specimens.

The hardness of the SZ in weld 1 (84 HV) is higher than that of the TMAZ and HAZ on both the RS and AS of its weld, but lower than the hardness of the BM. In weld 1, the hardness of the TMAZ region ranged from 68 to 74 HV on the RS and from 64 to 69 HV on the AS. The hardness of the HAZ ranged from 66 to 73 HV on the RS and from 61 to 98 HV on the AS. This variation in hardness is attributed to the significant role played by the formation of secondary phases during the FSW process, which influences the hardness distribution across different regions. The thermal cycle induced during the welding process is a key factor driving the evolution of these secondary phases [17,18].

The high hardness observed in the TMAZ of weld 2 during FSW of 6061-T651, with values ranging from 129 to 137 HV on RS and 143 to 153 HV on the AS, can be attributed to several factors. First, significant mechanical deformation occurs in the TMAZ due to the stirring action of the rotating tool, leading to work hardening. This deformation increases dislocation density, contributing to a harder microstructure. The TMAZ experiences grain refinement due to strong mechanical forces, which increases hardness via the Hall–Petch effect, wherein smaller grains obstruct dislocation movement. The even distribution of fractured Mg₂Si particles within the recrystallized grains enhances the hardness. The heat cycle in the TMAZ is less severe than in the SZ and HAZ, inhibiting complete recrystallization or dissolution of strengthening phases, hence preserving elevated hardness. Moreover, the interplay of thermal and mechanical inputs induces strain hardening, which, in conjunction with the retained precipitates, enhances the material’s resistance to deformation. The combined effects lead to the increased hardness noted in the TMAZ of weld 2, in contrast to the HAZ, which experiences minimal deformation, and the SZ, where recrystallization generally diminishes hardness. Grain narrowing brought on by increased friction in weld 2 as opposed to weld 1 is the cause of the abrupt increase in hardness values in TMAZ on both RS and AS in weld 2 (Figure 6).

The results show that the mechanical characteristics of the weld in every zone are impacted by the edge preparation of base material plates prior to welding. This is because, in contrast to plain plate edges, square edge preparation provides benefits in terms of material flow and heat dispersion during welding, and the changes in microstructure in the SZ along the weld centre are presented in Figure 7. The greater hardness values in all zones of weld 2 compared to weld 1 are also caused by the homogeneous distribution of Mg₂Si particles in all zones (Figure 4) and in SZ in weld 2 (Figure 5). The results reported by Guo et al. [19] are consistent with the greater hardness values found in TMAZ in weld 2.

Figure 7

Optical micrographs at different locations of the SZ along the weld direction. (a) Welded specimen and (b) microstructures at different locations of the weld in weld direction.

3.2.3 Corrosion studies

The pitting corrosion behaviour of AA6061-T651 FSW welds in a 3.5% NaCl solution exhibited significant variation across different weld zones. Table 3 displays the pitting potential values of the welds in all zones. The base material showed a pitting potential (E _pit of 0.16 V, consistent with previous studies on untreated AA6061-T651 alloys in chloride-rich environments [20]. The SZ displayed enhanced corrosion resistance, with E _pit values of 0.271 and 0.39 V for welds 1 and 2, respectively, which can be attributed to grain refinement and homogenization of alloying elements induced by the stirring process [21].

Table 3

The pitting corrosion values of the welds

	E _pit (V)
Base material	0.16

Zone	Weld 1	Weld 2
SZ	0.271	0.39
TMAZ (RS)	0.4	0.56
HAZ (RS)	0.15	0.3
TMAZ (AS)	0.214	0.3
HAZ (AS)	0.126	0.23

The TMAZ exhibited variable corrosion resistance; the RS showed the highest E _pit values (0.4 and 0.56 V for welds 1 and 2, respectively), while the AS exhibited lower values (0.214 and 0.3 V), possibly due to microstructural heterogeneity and differing plastic deformation levels [22]. In contrast, the HAZ demonstrated the lowest corrosion resistance, with E _pit values ranging from 0.126 to 0.3 V, attributed to precipitate coarsening and secondary phase formation during the welding process [23]. Overall, weld 2 consistently exhibited higher pitting potentials across all zones, suggesting that optimized welding parameters can significantly improve corrosion resistance. This is attributed to the fact that Mg₂Si particles are evenly distributed throughout all zones in weld 2 (Figure 4). Figure 8 shows the comparison of the potentiodynamic polarization curves for the SZs of weld 1 and weld 2. It is also clear from these curves that weld 2 has superior pitting corrosion resistance to weld 1. The SEM pictures of the corroded base metal sections and the SZs of welds 1 and 2 are shown in Figure 9. The degree of damage to the base metal and stirred parts of the welds suggests that the SZ of weld 2 has less corrosion damage than the SZ of weld 1 and base material.

Figure 8

Potentiodynamic polarization curves of base material and of weld 1 and weld 2.

Figure 9

SEM images of corroded specimens: (a) base material, (b) SZ of weld 1, and (c) SZ of weld 2.

4 Conclusions

The aforementioned findings led to the following deductions: (1) AA 6061-T651 plates with plain and square wave cut edges were effectively used to create friction stir welding joints. (2) The microstructures in the SZ, TMAZ, and heat-affected zone between weld 1 and weld 2 are different in the optical and scanning electron microscopy images. The Mg₂Si precipitate distribution is even in weld 2 than in weld 1. (3) The hardness distribution indicates that weld 2 has more hardness values (29%) than weld 1 and that TMAZ has higher hardness values than the other two zones. (4) All zones of weld 2 exhibit pitting corrosion resistance that is superior to that of weld 1 and even greater than that of base material. The corrosion resistance is improved in weld 2 by 49% compared to weld 1. (5) While welding AA 6061-T651 plates, it is recommended to prepare the edges rather than using the edges plain. This study demonstrates that, while welding keeping other welding parameters remain constant, the square wave pattern of plate edge preparation results in superior performance in friction stir welding.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the management of GITAM Deemed to be University, Visakhapatnam for their invaluable support in providing the metallography laboratory equipment to complete the experiments. We are also grateful to the team MURTI-SAIF who provided us with the field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) facility available in GITAM deemed to be a university, Visakhapatnam, in getting quality images.

Funding information: Authors state no funding involved.
Author contributions: Koona Bhavani: conceptualization, methodology, investigation, and writing – original draft, Vuppala Sesha Narasimha Venkata Ramana: supervision, project administration, and conceptualization, Kodamasimham Sri Ram Vikas: review and editing, Chebattina Kodanda Rama Rao: writing – review and editing, and Tharra Sriman Kamal Pritham: review and editing. All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.
Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.
Data availability statement: All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.

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Received: 2024-10-31

Revised: 2024-12-25

Accepted: 2025-01-08

Published Online: 2025-03-12

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Articles in the same Issue

https://doi.org/10.1515/jmbm-2025-0039

Keywords for this article

friction stir welding; AA 6061-T651; micro-hardness; pitting corrosion; square wave edge; potentiodynamic polarization

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