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A study of the void surface healing mechanism in 316LN steel

  • Min Qin EMAIL logo , Jiansheng Liu , Jingdan Li and Xuezhong Zhang
Published/Copyright: July 29, 2023
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High Temperature Materials and Processes
From the journal High Temperature Materials and Processes Volume 42 Issue 1

Abstract

The behavior of void surface healing in 316LN steel samples undergoing thermal plasticity deformation was investigated using the Gleeble 1500 thermomechanical simulator. The characterization of the void surface after plastic deformation was analyzed under different deformation temperatures, deformation amounts, and holding time durations. The morphology evolution and microstructure of the void surface healing zone during thermal plasticity deformation and holding time duration stage were analyzed using electron back scatter diffraction imaging. The mechanism of void surface healing under thermal plasticity deformation was investigated. It was found that the degree of void surface healing increases with the degree of deformation and the duration of the holding time. Dynamic recrystallization occurred continuously at the void surface, resulting in a plethora of crystal defects and a substantial amount of energy. These conditions were conducive to atomic diffusion and migration, thereby promoting the healing process of the void surface. Maintaining high temperature after deformation can continue to provide energy for the diffusion and migration of atoms, promotes the growth of recrystallized grains, and gradually heals the void surface.

Keywords: void surface healing; 316LN; deformation

1 Introduction

During the casting process of large steel ingots, a significant number of hollow defects such as air holes and voids will be produced due to the solidification and shrinkage of the steel. If this problem cannot be well solved in the forming process of forging, it will affect the final quality of the forged product [1,2]. The gradual elimination of voids in the forging process can be divided into two stages: void closure and void surface healing [3,4], the latter of which is the main focus of this paper. At this stage, the upper and lower surfaces of the void are in continuous contact until surface healing is complete.

At present, there have been many investigations into the healing of cracks in steel [5,6,7,8,9]. The research results of Guo et al. and He et al. [10,11] showed that both atomic diffusion and recrystallization dominate crack healing. The healing process of internal crack defects was studied under different deformation parameters [5] by Jiao et al. When the forging ratio (FR) was 1.5, the cracks at the corner of the void began to heal. When the FR was 2.0, the DRX was completed and the center crack was completely healed. Chu [12] studied the recovery of mechanical properties of low carbon steel by cyclic phase transformation heat treatment. The results showed that with the increase in the healing area, the microhardness of the area after crack healing also increased, and the tensile strength of the specimen also increased after the healing. Kumar and Paul [13] used pulsed electric current to investigate the fatigue crack healing in a steel specimen. The possible reasons behind fatigue crack healing could be Joule heating, thermal compressive stress, or micro-welding. The effects of deformation modes and quenching and the tempering process on the crack healing and percentage recovery of impact properties were studied [6,14,15,16,17,18] by Qiu et al. and Xin et al. The microstructure, Charpy impact properties, and fracture surface morphology of the crack zones at different healing stages were evaluated. Crack healing of low carbon steel with different heating temperatures, deformation amounts, strain rates, and holding times were also investigated [19]. Gao et al. [20] analyzed the mechanism of crack healing by using the evolution of diffusion, nucleation, and recrystallization in microstructure as the basis of experiments. Most of the material investigated in these studies was carbon steel. Generally, heating and insulation or heat treatment are used to promote the healing of cracks in the sample. These studies found that the microstructure of the internal crack healing region was mainly composed of ferrite, and the block substructure of ferrite makes the hardness at the crack higher than that of the substrate [21,22,23,24].

In this study, a series of experiments on void surface healing in 316LN steel under thermal plasticity deformation were carried out using the Gleeble 1500 thermomechanical simulator. The effects of deformation temperature, holding time, deformation amount, and on-the-void surface healing were analyzed. Then, the morphology evolution and microstructure of the void surface healing zone were analyzed. In addition, the mechanism of void surface healing under thermal plasticity deformation was discussed.

2 Experimental investigation

In this study, 316LN steel was used in the experiment, and its chemical composition is shown in Table 1. Using a wire cutting machine, 316LN steel was processed into some cylinders with a height of approximately 15.5 mm and a diameter of approximately 10.6 mm. Then, using a surface grinder and a centerless grinder, these cylinders were processed into thermal simulation test standard specimens with a height of 15 mm and a diameter of 10 mm. Finally, use a drill bit with a diameter of 2.5 mm to drill through holes along the radial axis of the samples, as shown in Figure 1. Debris from the center channel was removed with absolute ethanol and acetone. Then, a thermal compression test under different deformation conditions was carried out on the Gleeble 1500 experimental machine in a vacuum environment, and the compression was completed with water quenching. After hot working, the compressed sample was cut along its longitudinal axis and perpendicular to the original through hole. And the morphological evolution and microstructure of the void closed area were observed under an optical microscope.

Table 1

Chemical composition of 316LN steel (mass fraction, %)

C Mn Si Cr Ni P S Mo N Fe
≤0.03 ≤2.0 ≤0.75 16.0–18.0 10.0–14.0 ≤0.045 ≤0.3 2.0–3.0 0.10–0.16 Bal
Figure 1 Schematic diagram of void surface healing sample.
Figure 1

Schematic diagram of void surface healing sample.

Void surface healing test parameters are as follows: temperature 900–1,200℃; deformation rate: 0.1 s−1; deformation amount 30–70%; and holding time: 0 s, 10 s, 30 s, 60 s, and 2.5 h.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Effect of deformation temperature

Figure 2 shows the healing of the void surface at different deformation temperatures when deformation reached 40% and the strain rate was 0.1 s−1. It can be seen that when the deformation of the sample was 40%, the void closed to form a crack. When the deformation temperature was 900℃, the narrowest part of the crack was 3.2 μm (Figure 2a). Many fine grains were visible at the crack. Figure 2b shows that when the deformation temperature was 1,000℃, the narrowest part of the crack was 4.7 μm, and there were many fine grains at the surface contact. Some fine grains were appeared at the surface of contact. Figure 2c shows that when the deformation temperature was 1,100℃, the narrowest part of the crack was 1.9 μm. In the process of thermal compression, a large number of fine grains will be generated at the crack formed by the closure of the void. For 316LN steel, when the deformation temperature was 900–1,100℃, the effect of the deformation temperature on void surface healing was not obvious.

Figure 2 Deformation amount 40%, strain rate 0.1 s−1, void surface healing at different deformation temperatures. (a) 900℃, (b) 1,000℃, (c) 1,100℃.
Figure 2

Deformation amount 40%, strain rate 0.1 s−1, void surface healing at different deformation temperatures. (a) 900℃, (b) 1,000℃, (c) 1,100℃.

3.2 Effect of deformation amount

The healing of void surface under different deformation parameters when the deformation temperature was 1,200℃ and the strain rate was 0.1 s−1 is shown in Figure 3. When the deformation temperature was 1,200℃ and the amount of deformation was 30%, the convex portions of the upper and lower surfaces of the void surface began to contact and deform (Figure 3a). The average width of the crack at the void surface was 20.5 μm. Figure 3b shows that the average width of the crack was 14.6 μm when the amount of deformation was 50%. Fine grains can be seen around the crack. This is because there is a large amount of deformation and more defects such as grain boundaries at this location, which leads to higher local energy and promotes the occurrence of recrystalization. Figure 3c shows that when the amount of deformation was 60%, the void surface gradually healed, and the crack became intermittent, the unhealed part formed a small circular or elliptical void, and the grain boundaries were formed at the crack. Derby and Wallach [25] believed that the surface diffusion and bulk diffusion of atoms from the internal surface source of the void or the interface source already welded to the maximum curvature of the cavity would occur during the welding process of the void. Eventually, the discontinuous and irregular microvoids formed by the gap will be gradually transformed into ellipsoidal voids and spherical voids. When the deformation amount reached 70%, the void surface was further healed. The volume and quantity of circular or elliptical cavities were reduced. Some grain boundaries passed through the crack, and some unclosed small cavities entered the grain. As shown in Figure 3, amount of deformation is the main factor affecting void surface healing. The greater the deformation amount, the more significant the void surface healing.

Figure 3 Void surface healing under different amounts of deformation. (a) 30%, (b) 50%, (c) 60%, and (d) 70%. Conditions: deformation temperature, 1,200℃; strain rate, 0.1 s−1.
Figure 3

Void surface healing under different amounts of deformation. (a) 30%, (b) 50%, (c) 60%, and (d) 70%. Conditions: deformation temperature, 1,200℃; strain rate, 0.1 s−1.

3.3 Effect of holding time

The healing of the void surface under different holding times when the deformation temperature was 1,200℃, the strain rate was 0.10 s−1, and the deformation amount was 30% can be seen in Figure 4. The average width of the crack was 20.5 μm when there was no holding time after deformation (Figure 4a). The convex part of the upper and lower surface of the void makes contact and deforms. Figure 4b shows that when the holding time under the pressure was 30 s after the deformation, the crack narrowed, and the average width of the crack was 7.6 μm. When the holding time under the pressure was 60 s after the deformation, the crack continued to narrow, and the average width of the crack was 4.3 μm (Figure 4c). With the extension of the holding time, when the holding time (only at high temperatures) reached 2.5 h, the void surface gradually healed, the cracks became intermittent, and the unhealed part formed a small circular or oval void. It can be seen that the holding time was the main factor that promoted the healing of the void surface. The longer the holding time, the better the surface healing, a similar result was obtained by Jiao et al. and Xin et al. [5,18].

Figure 4 Void surface healing under different holding times: (a) 0 s, (b) 30 s, (c) 60 s, and (d) 2.5 h. Conditions: deformation temperature, 1,200℃; strain rate, 0.1 s−1; amount of deformation, 30%.
Figure 4

Void surface healing under different holding times: (a) 0 s, (b) 30 s, (c) 60 s, and (d) 2.5 h. Conditions: deformation temperature, 1,200℃; strain rate, 0.1 s−1; amount of deformation, 30%.

3.4 Healing mechanism of the void surface

Figure 5 shows the healing of void surface and local misorientation during the thermal compression test at 1,200℃ when the strain rate was 0.10 s−1. To observe the healing process of void surface during deformation, and particularly the change of the microstructure at the crack, samples with different sizes of cracks were selected as the observation object. Unfortunately, the surface of the sample was not smooth due to the existence of the crack, which affected data collection at the crack. At the same time, in the process of sample preparation, the electropolishing solution corroded the material at the crack, resulting in the disintegration and loss of some fine grains. The crack gradually decreased with the increase in the amount of deformation (Figure 5a1, b1, and c1). When the amount of deformation was 70%, the void surface gradually healed, and the unhealed portion formed a small circular or oval void. As shown in Figure 5a2, a3, b2, and b3, the amount of deformation increased from 30 to 50%, and the value of local misorientation increased. The local misorientation value at the edge of the crack was significantly greater than that of the basal body. Therefore, the plastic deformation at the edge of the crack was large, and the crystal defect density was high. Figure 5c2 and c3 shows that as the amount of deformation increased up to 70%, the value of local misorientation decreased. At this time, the crack had basically healed, and the difference between the local misorientation at the edge of the crack and the local misorientation of the basal body was not obvious. When the crack began to heal, the grains grew along the crack and gradually grew through the crack. Grain growth promoted the reduction of the crystal defect density. In addition, the degree of deformation of the crack edge was higher than that of the basal body with the increase in the deformation before the crack healing. A large number of crystal defects such as grain boundaries and dislocations gathered in the crack. These factors accelerated the diffusion and migration of atoms and promoted the healing of cracks. These crystal defects contributed to the diffusion and migration of atoms and accelerate the healing of the crack. It can be speculated that when the deformation continues to increase and exceeds 70%, the crack will gradually disappear, and the upper and lower parts of the basal body become whole. The degree of deformation at the crack was consistent with that of the basal body; the grains at the crack gradually grew, the crack disappeared, and the defect density at the crack decreased.

Figure 5 Void surface healing and local misorientation under different amounts of deformation. (a1–a3) 30%, (b1–b3) 50%, and (c1–c3) 70%. The deformation temperature was 1,200℃ and the strain rate was 0.1 s−1.
Figure 5

Void surface healing and local misorientation under different amounts of deformation. (a1–a3) 30%, (b1–b3) 50%, and (c1–c3) 70%. The deformation temperature was 1,200℃ and the strain rate was 0.1 s−1.

Figure 6 shows the healing of the void surface and local misorientation under different holding times (under pressure) when the deformation temperature was 1,100℃, the strain rate was 0.1 s−1, and the amount of deformation was 40%. It is shown in Figure 6a1, b1, and c1 that the crack gradually decreased with the increase in holding time. The value of local misorientation was very high and the maximum value reached 5 when there was no holding time after deformation (Figure 6a2 and a3). The local misorientation value at the edge of the crack was significantly greater than that of the nearby basal body. A large number of crystal defects gathered at the edge of the crack and inside the basal body. The grain size in the basal body was relatively small. Figure 6b2 and b3 show that when the holding time was 10 s after deformation, the local misorientation value of the sample decreased significantly, but the local misorientation value at the edge of the crack was still greater than that of the nearby basal body. At this time, the grains in the basal body grew gradually and the crystal defect density decreased. When the holding time was 30 s after the deformation, the local misorientation value in the sample continued to decline, and the local misorientation value at the edge of the crack was not significantly different from that of the nearby basal body (Figure 6c2 and c3). At this time, the grains in the basal body continued to grow and the crystal defect density continued to decrease.

Figure 6 Void surface healing and local misorientation under different amounts of deformation. (a1–a3) 0 s, (b1–b3) 10 s, and (c1–c3) 30 s. The deformation temperature was 1,100℃, the strain rate was 0.1 s−1, and the deformation amount was 40%.
Figure 6

Void surface healing and local misorientation under different amounts of deformation. (a1–a3) 0 s, (b1–b3) 10 s, and (c1–c3) 30 s. The deformation temperature was 1,100℃, the strain rate was 0.1 s−1, and the deformation amount was 40%.

A schematic diagram of the void surface healing process of thermal plasticity deformation is shown in Figure 7. During thermal plasticity deformation, the upper and lower surfaces of the void gradually approached, but the surface of the void was not completely smooth (Figure 7a). The convex part of the upper and lower surface of the void is contacted first.

Figure 7 During the deformation process, the void surface healing process, (a) the void is not closed, (b) the upper and lower surface of the void begins to contact, (c) the dynamic recrystallization occurs repeatedly in the crack, and (d) the surface gradually heals to form a micro void.
Figure 7

During the deformation process, the void surface healing process, (a) the void is not closed, (b) the upper and lower surface of the void begins to contact, (c) the dynamic recrystallization occurs repeatedly in the crack, and (d) the surface gradually heals to form a micro void.

With the continuation of compression, the portions in contact underwent significant deformation and dynamic recrystallization began in this region (Figure 7b). It is because after hot deformation, there is deformation storage energy inside the grain, which makes the system in an unstable high-energy state. Therefore, after deformation, the deformation storage energy is the driving force, and the new grain structure is regenerated through recrystaling, nucleation, and growth in the thermal activation process, which makes the system change from a high-energy state to a relatively stable low-energy state. Recrystalized grains will promote the healing of cracks as they grow.

With the deformation amount of the thermal plasticity deformation continued to increase, the regions in contact on the upper and lower surfaces of the void increased. The deformation of the contact region at the surface was much larger than that of the basal body part, and a large amount of dynamic recrystallization occurred at the surface. Dynamic recrystallized grains begin to nucleate and grow, and a large number of grain boundaries were formed in the process of grain nucleation and growth.

As shown in Figure 7c, due to continuous compression, the deformation at the void surface continued to increase, and new dynamic recrystallized grains were formed around the newly formed grain boundary. The deformation process of thermal plasticity deformation was short and the deformation was large. Many dynamic recrystallized grains at the void surface grew sufficiently, and new dynamic recrystallized nuclei were formed at the grain boundary. Therefore, dynamic recrystallization occurred continuously at the void surface, and the grain size was very small. At this time, the void surface was on the state of surface contact, which was conducive to the diffusion and migration of atoms, including grain boundary diffusion and surface diffusion. The diffusion and migration of atoms promoted the healing of the void surface (Figure 7c).

As shown in Figure 7d, with thermal plasticity deformation continued or maintained high temperature, which provided energy for recrystallization grain growth. The growth of recrystallized grains will lead to a decrease in the volume of microviods, and some grains will grow through the interface of the original void surface, gradually fuse into the basal body, and enveloping some microvoids within the grains. This leads to the healing of the void interface, achieving metallurgical bonding between the interfaces. The growth of grains relies on the mutual absorption of grains during the migration process of grain boundaries, which effectively reduces the surface area and surface energy of grain boundaries. The crack gradually became smaller and gradually formed small continuous or discontinuous circular and elliptical micro-cavities. At this time, the deformation at the void surface was consistent with the basal body, and the void surface disappeared gradually.

4 Conclusions

The behavior of void surface healing in 316LN steel samples undergoing thermal plasticity deformation was investigated. The characterization of the void surface after plastic deformation was analyzed under different deformation temperatures, deformation amounts, and holding time durations. The following main conclusions were obtained from this study.

The effect of deformation temperature on void surface healing is not obvious at 900–1,100℃ for 316LN steel. In the process of thermoplastic deformation, the deformation of the contact portion between the upper and lower surfaces of the void is much larger than the deformation of the matrix material. A large amount of dynamic recrystallization takes place at the void surface. Many dynamically recrystallized grains do not have time to grow, and new dynamically recrystallized nuclei are formed at the grain boundaries. A large number of crystal defects, such as grain boundaries, accumulate at the void surface, which favors the diffusion and migration of atoms and promotes the healing of the void surface. Maintaining high temperatures after deformation can continue to provide energy for the diffusion and migration of atoms, promote the growth of recrystallized grains, and gradually heal void surfaces. It can be seen that all the behaviors that favor the diffusion and migration of atoms in the thermoplastic deformation process favor the healing of void surfaces, such as the increased amount of deformation and the increased holding time at high temperatures.

  1. Funding information: This work was financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant 51775361) and TAIYUAN UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH INITIAL FUNDING (TYUST SRIF, Grant 20212022).

  2. Author contributions: Min Qin: writing; Jiansheng Liu: project administration; Jingdan Li: review and editing; Xuezhong Zhang: experiment research.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: The authors confirm that all data underlying the findings are fully available without restriction. All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files.

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Received: 2023-03-16
Revised: 2023-06-04
Accepted: 2023-06-26
Published Online: 2023-07-29

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/htmp-2022-0282
Keywords for this article
void surface healing; 316LN; deformation
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