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Experimental analysis on creep mechanics of unsaturated soil based on empirical model

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Published/Copyright: August 10, 2022
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Open Geosciences
From the journal Open Geosciences Volume 14 Issue 1

Abstract

In order to reflect the creep characteristics of unsaturated silty clay, a triaxial compression consolidation drainage creep test was conducted under the condition of controlling the matric suction. According to the results of the creep test, combined with the empirical models, Mesri model and Log-modified model, the relationship between the initial tangent modulus and the matric suction was established, and two empirical models of unsaturated soil creep considering the effect of matric suction were constructed. The study confirmed the stress–strain through the ε/D–ε relationship curve, and determined the parameters F and n through power function. The methods for determining the strain–time relationship parameters of the two improved models are different. The improved Mesri model was obtained by fitting the ln ε–ln t relationship, while the improved Log-modified model was solved by the BFGS algorithm and the general global optimization method. By comparing the two improved models of unsaturated soil creep tests, it was found that the improved Mesri model can more accurately describe the creep characteristics of unsaturated soils, which confirms the rationality and feasibility of this model and method.

Keywords: unsaturated soil; creep; empirical model; matric suction; initial tangent modulus

1 Introduction

Creep property is one of the most important parts of soil mechanics and it is closely related to the long-term stability of slope [1,2,3,4,5]. Unsaturated soil is a kind of three-phase soil, which contains solid, liquid, and gas. Compared with saturated soil, the creep characteristics of unsaturated soil are more complex. In the reservoir bank slope, due to rainfall infiltration and the change in reservoir water level, the soil transforms between saturated and unsaturated states. The soil has unsaturated characteristics and its creep deformation gradually accumulates, posing a potential threat to the long-term stability of the reservoir bank slope [6,7,8,9]. Currently, some research has been made to study the creep characteristics of unsaturated soil. Di et al. [10] carried out soil–water characteristic curve tests in the compressive creep state for unsaturated accumulation soil, so as to establish a three-phase (solid–liquid–gas) coupling model for unsaturated soil. Fan et al. [11] studied the creep characteristics of unsaturated soil and found that the increase in water content would cause rebound deformation and compression creep deformation, and the former deformation was larger than the latter. Wang et al. [12] carried out creep tests of unsaturated loess under the effect of matric suction, and results showed that the time required for the creep curve to reach stability with the smaller matric suction was longer, and when the stress level was low, the deformation of loess was small and had a certain degree of recoverability. Moradi et al. [13] studied the influence of strain rate on the deformation and strength of unsaturated soil. In the study, the yield stress was expressed as a function of strain rate, so as to derive the incremental equation of unsaturated soil under one-dimensional conditions to describe the long-term deformation behavior of unsaturated soil over time. Regarding the use of constitutive model, Sun and Shen [14] and Sun and Sumelka [15] used fractional plastic flow rules to analyze granular soils, research the combined fractional plastic flow rules to demonstrate non-correlated boundary surface models, and successfully discovered important features. Additionally, to capture the rate-dependent stress–strain behavior of compressed soils, a stress fractional viscoplastic model was developed based on Perzyna. Liang et al. [16] established a fractional critical state constitutive model of soil, predicted the test results under typical stress path conditions, and found that the model built could reasonably describe the deformation and strength characteristics of the soil.

Currently, some achievements have been made in the study of soil creep models. The existing creep models can be divided into empirical models and component models, among which the empirical model has been widely used because of the advantages of flexibility. Typical empirical models include Singh–Mitchell model and Mesri model [17,18,19]. The Singh–Mitchell model adopted exponential function to describe the stress–strain relationship, while the Mesri model adopted hyperbolic function to express, and the strain–time relationship of two models is described by power function [20]. Some research also used Morgan Mercer Florin function to describe the string–time relationship, and some research improved the Mesri model based on the Log-modified function and proposed the Log-modified empirical model. However, most of the empirical creep models are based on the creep deformation characteristics of saturated soil and cannot reflect the influence of matric suction on creep characteristics of unsaturated soil.

Based on previous research, this research took the unsaturated silty clay as the object, and it considered the matric suction under the condition of consolidation creep test. Based on the Mesri model and the Log-modified model, the relationship between the initial tangent modulus and the suction was established to construct a creep empirical model that can reflect the change in the matric suction. A comparative analysis of the two models was also conducted to verify the feasibility of this model and method.

2 Methods

2.1 Test materials and sample preparation

The silty clay samples were taken from reservoir bank slope, and the basic physical and mechanical parameters are listed in Table 1. Soil samples in the experiment was taken after natural air-drying condition, and used 2 mm of screening. In order to facilitate the sample shape in the experiment, distilled water was used to prepare a soil sample with a water content of 20%, wrapped the soil sample with plastic wrap, and left it for 1 day to spread the water evenly. Finally, the test used a soil cutter to make a reshaped cylindrical sample Φ60 mm × 120 mm.

Table 1

Basic physical and mechanical parameters of soil samples

Gs Water content (%) Density ρ (g cm−3) Void ratio (e) Liquid limit ω L (%) Plastic limit ω P (%) Cohesion c (kPa) Internal friction angle (°)
2.64 14.6 1.97 0.54 30.2 13.9 8.87 16.82

2.2 Test procedure and scheme

This research carried out unsaturated triaxial compression creep test under the control of matric suction. Before the creep test, the triaxial drainage shear test was carried out to determine the drainage shear strength τ f. The confining pressure σ 3 was set as 100 kPa, and the matric suction s was set as 100, 200, 300, and 400 kPa, respectively. The test adopted the hierarchical loading method, and the loading duration of each step was more than 200 h. The stress D started from 0.55, and the corresponding deviatoric stress difference was 0.55τ f. The deviatoric stress increases by 0.05 at each stage until it reaches the failure state, and the failure deviatoric stress is (σ 1–σ 3)f. The triaxial drainage shear test results and the creep test loading scheme are shown in Table 2.

Table 2

Creep test loading scheme

No. s (kPa) τ f (kPa) (σ 1–σ 3)f (kPa) σ 1–σ 3 (kPa)
R-1 100 590.11 472 325 354 384 413 443
R-2 200 658.39 523 362 395 428 461 494
R-3 300 812.28 609 447 487 528 569
R-4 400 1086.40 815 598 652 706 760

Figure 1 shows the creep curve under graded loading (setting s to 400 kPa as an example), and the creep curves of different loadings treated by Boltzmann linear superposition principle [21,22] are shown in Figure 2. The deviatoric stress and strain at 9 time nodes of 1, 26, 51, 76, 101, 126, 151, 176, and 201 h, as shown in Figure 2, were selected to draw isochronous stress–strain curve, as shown in Figure 3. Figure 4 shows the isochronous stress–strain curves under different matric suction. Since the curves are relatively dense, only the curves with time nodes of 1 and 201 h are retained for the convenience of comparison.

Figure 1 Graded loading creep curves.
Figure 1

Graded loading creep curves.

Figure 2 Separate loading creep curves.
Figure 2

Separate loading creep curves.

Figure 3 Isochronous stress–strain curves.
Figure 3

Isochronous stress–strain curves.

Figure 4 Isochronous stress–strain curves of different matric suction.
Figure 4

Isochronous stress–strain curves of different matric suction.

According to Figures 1 and 2, the following analysis can be drawn: the soil sample shows a certain amount of elastic instantaneous strain at the moment of axial loading, and the creep deformation increases continuously with the accumulation of loading time. The higher the stress level, the greater the creep deformation. As can be seen from Figures 3 and 4, when the loading time exceeds 51 h, the isochronous stress–strain curve has certain nonlinear characteristics, and the curve cluster shows a trend of gradually deviating to the strain axis (horizontal axis). In fact, the creep curves of unsaturated silty clay have strong similarity under different stress levels and matric suction, so the same stress–strain–time relationship function can be used to describe the creep mechanical properties of unsaturated silty clay.

2.3 Empirical creep model

The creep model widely used now are mainly Singh–Mitchell model and Mesri model. Research proposed a model based on Mesri-Log-modified empirical model, and Singh–Mitchell model has proved unable to predict creep deformation under low stress level. Because Mesri model and Log-modified model do not consider the influence of matric suction on the creep characteristic, this research respectively improved Mesri model and Log-modified model. The identification ability of the two improved models for the creep characteristics of unsaturated soil was analyzed.

2.4 Improved MESRI model

2.4.1 Stress–strain–time relationship

The total strain is composed of instantaneous strain and drainage creep strain. If research does not consider the effects of thixotropy effect, consolidation ratio, aging, and other factors, the stress, strain, and time relationship of soil creep can be obtained using the following equation:

(1) ε = f 1 ( k ) f 2 ( t ) ,

where ε is the strain, f 1(k) and f 2(k) are the stress–strain relationship function and strain–time relationship function, respectively.

2.4.2 Stress–strain relationship

As can be seen from Figures 3 and 4, the shape of the curve is similar to that of a hyperbola, so the hyperbolic stress–strain equation proposed by Kondner [23] is introduced. The equiaxial hyperbola can be written as:

(2) σ 1 − σ 3 = ε a + b ε ,

where σ 1 and σ 3 are the maximum and minimum principal stresses, respectively, and a and b are the hyperbolic equation parameters.

By differentiating equation (2), the initial tangent modulus E u can be obtained as

(3) E u = d ( σ 1 − σ 3 ) d ε ε = 0 = 1 a .

When ε → ∞, the limit value of equation (2), which is the final deviatoric stress difference (σ 1–σ 3)ult, is:

(4) ( σ 1 − σ 3 ) ult = lim ε → ∞ ε a + b ε = 1 b .

In fact, the strain cannot reach infinity, and it breaks when the drainage shear strength τ f is reached. (σ 1–σ 3)f is the actual failure shear stress of soil. In order to make the hyperbola pass through (ε f, [σ 1–σ 3]f), the failure ratio R f is introduced:

(5) R f = ( σ 1 − σ 3 ) f ( σ 1 − σ 3 ) ult = ( σ 1 − σ 3 ) f 1 / b .

Substitute equations (3) and (5) in equation (2) at the same time to obtain:

(6) ε = ( σ 1 − σ 3 ) f E u ⋅ D 1 − R f D .

In the formula, D is the stress level, D = (σ 1–σ 3)/(σ 1–σ 3)f.

In order to facilitate the calculation of parameters, equation (6) is transformed as follows:

(7) ε ( 1 − R f D ) = ( σ 1 − σ 3 ) f E u ⋅ D ,

(8) ε = ( σ 1 − σ 3 ) f E u ⋅ D + ε R f D ,

(9) ε D = ( σ 1 − σ 3 ) f E u + ε R f .

2.4.3 Strain–time relationship

Strain–time function can take many forms, including hyperbolic function, power function, logarithmic function, etc. The MESRI model uses a power function:

(10) ε = ε 1 t t 1 m .

In the formula, t 1 is the reference time of initial creep. Since the creep of soil sample is not obvious at 1 h, in order to facilitate calculation, t 1 is set as 1 h, ε 1 is the initial creep strain at t = t 1, and m is the slope of curve: ln ε−ln t.

2.4.4 Improved MESRI model establishment

In order to make the empirical model of unsaturated soil reflect the quantitative action of water content and incorporate matric suction into the model as an independent variable, a stress–matric suction strain–time relationship model should be established. Janbu [24] found that the initial tangent model and the confining pressure σ 3 were linearly correlated in log–log coordinate, the initial tangent modulus E u was a power function of σ 3. In the previous analysis [25], the power function of σ 3 was obtained by fixing the matric suction s. However, this study mainly analyzes the effect of matric suction, which fixed σ 3 = 100 kPa. Therefore, the same function can be used between E u and s.

(11) E u = F p a s p a n ,

where p a is the atmospheric pressure (101.33 kPa), F and n are the material constants, and s is the matric suction. Set t = t 1 in equation (6) to get ɛ 1. Substitute ɛ 1 from equation (6) in equation (10) to obtain:

(12) ε = ( σ 1 − σ 3 ) f E u ⋅ D 1 1 − R f D 1 t t 1 m .

where D 1 is the value of D when t = t 1. The values of failure deviatoric stress (σ 1–σ 3)f, initial tangent modulus E u, and failure ratio R f are independent of t.

By substituting equation (11) in equation (12), we can obtain

(13) ε = ( σ 1 − σ 3 ) f F p a ( s / p a ) n ⋅ D 1 1 − R f D 1 t t 1 m .

It is the improved MESRI model considering matric suction in this article.

2.5 Improved Log-modified model

The stress–strain relationship function of the Log-modified model is consistent with that of the Mesri model. The difference is that the strain–time relationship has been described by a new three-parameter power function, which is expressed as

(14) ε = ε 1 p + q t t 1 r ,

where p, q, and r are the model parameters. Set t = t 1 in equation (6) to get ɛ 1. Substitute ɛ 1 from equation (6) in equation (14) to obtain:

(15) ε = ( σ 1 − σ 3 ) f E u ⋅ D 1 ( p + q t / t 1 ) r 1 − R f D 1 .

By substituting equation (11) into equation (15), we can obtain

(16) ε = ( σ 1 − σ 3 ) f F p a ( s / p a ) n ⋅ D 1 ( p + q t / t 1 ) r 1 − R f D 1 .

Equation (16) is the improved Log-modified model considering matric suction in this article.

3 Result

3.1 Parameters of stress–strain relationship

Since the stress–strain functions of the Mesri model and the Log-modified model show similar properties, the stress–strain relationship parameters of the two models are also the same. It can be seen from equation (9) that ε/D is linearly correlated with ε, R f is the slope, and (σ 1–σ 3)f/E u is the intercept. The creep data of 9 time nodes from 1 to 201 h were selected. Taking s equal to 400 kPa as an example, the relation curves of ε/d−ε at different times were plotted (as shown in Figure 5). In order to facilitate observation, some nodes were omitted. It can be seen from Figure 5 that ε/D has obvious linear correlation with ε, and (σ 1–σ 3)f/E u and R f have no relation to stress and time. Due to the limitation of space, only the values of parameters under s of 400 kPa are given, as shown in Table 3.

Figure 5 Curves of ε/D–ε at different times.
Figure 5

Curves of ε/D–ε at different times.

Table 3

Stress–strain relation parameters

s (kPa) t (h) (σ 1–σ 3)f (E u) R f R 2
400 1 0.5258 1.3686 0.9953
26 1.1332 1.3003 0.9972
51 1.2975 1.2886 0.9969
76 1.3563 1.2844 0.9972
101 1.3922 1.2833 0.9969
126 1.4317 1.2801 0.9978
151 1.4703 1.2764 0.9984
176 1.4943 1.2745 0.9967
201 1.5104 1.2734 0.9965

It can be seen from Table 3 that R f decreases with time, while (σ 1–σ 3)f/E u increases with time. Since the Mesri model and the Log-modified model assume that the model parameters are independent of stress and time, the (σ 1–σ 3)f/E u and R f at different matric suction are averaged at 9 time nodes, as shown in Table 4.

Table 4

Average parameters of stress–strain relationship

s (kPa) (σ 1–σ 3)f (E u) R f E u (kPa)
100 1.5953 2.3894 483.95
200 1.5087 1.8975 527.66
300 1.3425 1.5843 580.14
400 1.2902 1.2922 631.69

It can be seen from Table 4 that the mean value of (σ 1–σ 3)f/E u and E u increases with the increase in the matric suction s, while the mean value of R f decreases with the increase in the matric suction s. With the decrease in s, the initial tangent modulus of unsaturated soil in the reservoir bank slope decreases continuously and the soil becomes soft, indicating that the creep deformation of soil is more significant with the increase in water content in the reservoir bank slope.

3.2 Determination of parameters F and n

Both the modified Mesri model and the Log-modified model are based on equation (11) to establish the relationship between the suction force, where equation (11) is the power relationship between E u and parameters F and n. Therefore, the parameters F and n of the two improved models are also consistent. s/p a was fitted through E u in Table 4, as shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6 Relationship between matric suction s and initial tangent modulus E u.
Figure 6

Relationship between matric suction s and initial tangent modulus E u.

It can be seen from Figure 6 that the fitting effect of the power of the curve is good, R 2 reaches 0.9602, F is 477.47, and n is 0.1882.

4 Discussion

4.1 Parameter solution of strain–time relationship

4.1.1 Improved MESRI model

In equation (10), ln ε is linearly related to ln t and m is its inclination. The curve of ln ε−ln t (setting s as 400 kPa) is shown in Figure 7. The strain–time relationship parameters of MESRI model are listed in Table 5.

Figure 7 Relationship between ln ε and ln t.
Figure 7

Relationship between ln ε and ln t.

Table 5

Slope of ln ε−ln t curves at different stress levels

s (kPa) D m R 2
400 0.55 0.1545 0.9627
0.6 0.1064 0.9904
0.65 0.0821 0.9736
0.7 0.0696 0.9700

It can be seen from Figure 7 that the linear correlation of ln ε−ln t matches well, with an average R 2 of 0.9742. As can be seen from equation (10), parameter m has nothing to do with stress and time, but is completely determined by the slope of ln ε−ln t curve. Therefore, the average value of m at different stress levels is taken as the parameter of the MESRI model under the matric suction condition, as shown in Table 6.

Table 6

Average values of parameter m

s (kPa) m R 2
100 0.0712 0.9635
200 0.0794 0.9812
300 0.0935 0.9607
400 0.1032 0.9741

The failure deviatoric stress (σ 1–σ 3)f in Table 2, the average value of R f in Table 4, the average value of parameter m in Table 6, and the parameters F and n are substituted into equation (13) to obtain

(17) ε = 0.0131 D 1 1 − 1.2922 D 1 ( t ) 0.1032 .

Equation (17) is an improved empirical Mesri creep model of unsaturated silty clay under σ 3 = 100 kPa and s = 400 kPa. Due to the limitation of space, only the model under s = 400 kPa is taken into account.

4.1.2 Improved Log-modified model

Substitute the failure deviatoric stress (σ 1–σ 3)f in Table 2, the average value of R f, F, and n in Table 4 to equation (16), and use mathematical optimization software 1stOpt, which is based on BFGS algorithm and general global optimization method, to calculate the parameters for each stress level of p, q, and r, take the average value. The Log-modified model parameters p, q, and r are listed in Table 7.

Table 7

Parameters p, q and r under different suctions

s (kPa) P Q r R 2
100 0.7209 0.0203 4.1462 0.9698
200 0.6184 0.0244 3.9894 0.9672
300 0.4685 0.0352 3.9326 0.9853
400 0.3330 0.0385 3.9107 0.9660

By substituting the model parameters in Tables 4 and 7 as well as parameters F and n in equation (16), the following empirical creep equation can be obtained:

(18) ε = 0.9384 ⋅ D 1 ( 0.3330 + 0.0385 ⋅ t ) 3.9107 1 − 0.9537 D 1 .

Equation (18) is the improved log-modified creep empirical model of unsaturated silty clay under σ 3 = 100 kPa and s = 400 kPa. Due to the limitation of space, only the model under s = 400 kPa is given.

4.2 Model validation

Taking the test data of s = 300 and 400 kPa as examples, the two improved models were compared and verified, respectively, as shown in Figure 8. For the convenience of observation, the improved Mesri model and the Log-modified model were, respectively, abbreviated as M model and L–M model.

Figure 8 Comparison curve between experimental and theoretical values. (a) s = 300 kPa and (b) s = 400 kPa.
Figure 8

Comparison curve between experimental and theoretical values. (a) s = 300 kPa and (b) s = 400 kPa.

The average R 2 of the modified MESRI model identification test data in Figure 8 is 0.9912, indicating that the modified MESRI model has a good fitting effect and can better reflect the creep characteristics of unsaturated silty clay. However, the average R 2 of the identification test data of the improved Log-modified model is 0.9634, and the identification ability of the attenuated creep stage is poor. The theoretical curve of this section is always lower than the test curve, and the theoretical curve of the part near the end of the stable creep stage is higher than the test curve.

In the improved Mesri model, the strain–time relationship has only one unknown parameter m, which can be obtained by linear fitting. The strain–time relationship in the improved Log-modified model contains three unknown parameters, which are obtained by mathematical software 1stOpt based on a certain algorithm. Compared with the former model, the strain–time relationship in the improved Log-modified model has certain uncertainty.

Based on the comprehensive analysis, the modified MESRI model has a good fitting effect and can describe the creep characteristics of unsaturated silty clay more accurately.

5 Conclusion

This research took the unsaturated silty clay as the object, and it considered the matric suction under the condition of consolidation creep test. Based on the Mesri model and the Log-modified model, the relationship between the initial tangent modulus and the suction was established to construct a creep empirical model that can reflect the change in the matric suction. The main contribution is:

(1) A consolidated drainage triaxial compression creep test of unsaturated silty clay was carried out. Result found that the creep characteristics of the soil sample were significant, and the creep curves were relatively similar under different matric suction and stress levels. Therefore, two empirical models considering the matric suction were established to describe the creep characteristics under different stress environments.

(2) Matric suction is inversely proportional to moisture content. The decrease in matric suction results from an increase in water content, an increase in water content results in a decrease in shear strength, and a decrease in shear strength will induce a bigger creep. At the same stress level, the creep deformation of unsaturated soil increased with the decrease in matric suction. The change in water content had a significant effect on the aging deformation of unsaturated soil, and the increase in water content aggravated the creep deformation.

(3) Based on the relationship between the initial tangent modulus and matric suction, the improved Mesri model and the Log-modified model were established. Based on the experimental data, the modified MESRI model can better describe the creep characteristics of unsaturated soil.

Since the research results are based on the creep characteristics of unsaturated silty clay, the applicability of the empirical creep model established in this research to other soils remains to be further studied. In addition, due to the limit of the equipment, this study is carried out based on the empirical creep model, which is mainly aimed to multiply stress–strain relationship functions by strain–time relationship functions, and it cannot be verified within the scope of the 3D model. But in the future, research suggests that strain gages can be attached to the sides of triaxial instruments to capture lateral creep to sort out the 3D situation.

  1. Conflict of interest: The author declares that they have no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2022-01-25
Revised: 2022-05-07
Accepted: 2022-05-28
Published Online: 2022-08-10

© 2022 Zhang Qiao, published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  9. Spatial distribution analysis of seismic activity based on GMI, LMI, and LISA in China
  10. Rock mass structural surface trace extraction based on transfer learning
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  12. Insights into origins of the natural gas in the Lower Paleozoic of Ordos basin, China
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  14. Embedded deformation of the rubble-mound foundation of gravity-type quay walls and influence factors
  15. Activation of Ad Damm shear zone, western Saudi Arabian margin, and its relation to the Red Sea rift system
  16. A mathematical conjecture associates Martian TARs with sand ripples
  17. Study on spatio-temporal characteristics of earthquakes in southwest China based on z-value
  18. Sedimentary facies characterization of forced regression in the Pearl River Mouth basin
  19. High-precision remote sensing mapping of aeolian sand landforms based on deep learning algorithms
  20. Experimental study on reservoir characteristics and oil-bearing properties of Chang 7 lacustrine oil shale in Yan’an area, China
  21. Estimating the volume of the 1978 Rissa quick clay landslide in Central Norway using historical aerial imagery
  22. Spatial accessibility between commercial and ecological spaces: A case study in Beijing, China
  23. Curve number estimation using rainfall and runoff data from five catchments in Sudan
  24. Urban green service equity in Xiamen based on network analysis and concentration degree of resources
  25. Spatio-temporal analysis of East Asian seismic zones based on multifractal theory
  26. Delineation of structural lineaments of Southeast Nigeria using high resolution aeromagnetic data
  27. 3D marine controlled-source electromagnetic modeling using an edge-based finite element method with a block Krylov iterative solver
  28. A comprehensive evaluation method for topographic correction model of remote sensing image based on entropy weight method
  29. Quantitative discrimination of the influences of climate change and human activity on rocky desertification based on a novel feature space model
  30. Assessment of climatic conditions for tourism in Xinjiang, China
  31. Attractiveness index of national marine parks: A study on national marine parks in coastal areas of East China Sea
  32. Effect of brackish water irrigation on the movement of water and salt in salinized soil
  33. Mapping paddy rice and rice phenology with Sentinel-1 SAR time series using a unified dynamic programming framework
  34. Analyzing the characteristics of land use distribution in typical village transects at Chinese Loess Plateau based on topographical factors
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  36. Influence of Three Gorges Dam on earthquakes based on GRACE gravity field
  37. Comparative study of estimating the Curie point depth and heat flow using potential magnetic data
  38. The spatial prediction and optimization of production-living-ecological space based on Markov–PLUS model: A case study of Yunnan Province
  39. Major, trace and platinum-group element geochemistry of harzburgites and chromitites from Fuchuan, China, and its geological significance
  40. Vertical distribution of STN and STP in watershed of loess hilly region
  41. Hyperspectral denoising based on the principal component low-rank tensor decomposition
  42. Evaluation of fractures using conventional and FMI logs, and 3D seismic interpretation in continental tight sandstone reservoir
  43. U–Pb zircon dating of the Paleoproterozoic khondalite series in the northeastern Helanshan region and its geological significance
  44. Quantitatively determine the dominant driving factors of the spatial-temporal changes of vegetation-impacts of global change and human activity
  45. Can cultural tourism resources become a development feature helping rural areas to revitalize the local economy under the epidemic? An exploration of the perspective of attractiveness, satisfaction, and willingness by the revisit of Hakka cultural tourism
  46. A 3D empirical model of standard compaction curve for Thailand shales: Porosity in function of burial depth and geological time
  47. Attribution identification of terrestrial ecosystem evolution in the Yellow River Basin
  48. An intelligent approach for reservoir quality evaluation in tight sandstone reservoir using gradient boosting decision tree algorithm
  49. Detection of sub-surface fractures based on filtering, modeling, and interpreting aeromagnetic data in the Deng Deng – Garga Sarali area, Eastern Cameroon
  50. Influence of heterogeneity on fluid property variations in carbonate reservoirs with multistage hydrocarbon accumulation: A case study of the Khasib formation, Cretaceous, AB oilfield, southern Iraq
  51. Designing teaching materials with disaster maps and evaluating its effectiveness for primary students
  52. Assessment of the bender element sensors to measure seismic wave velocity of soils in the physical model
  53. Appropriated protection time and region for Qinghai–Tibet Plateau grassland
  54. Identification of high-temperature targets in remote sensing based on correspondence analysis
  55. Influence of differential diagenesis on pore evolution of the sandy conglomerate reservoir in different structural units: A case study of the Upper Permian Wutonggou Formation in eastern Junggar Basin, NW China
  56. Planting in ecologically solidified soil and its use
  57. National and regional-scale landslide indicators and indexes: Applications in Italy
  58. Occurrence of yttrium in the Zhijin phosphorus deposit in Guizhou Province, China
  59. The response of Chudao’s beach to typhoon “Lekima” (No. 1909)
  60. Soil wind erosion resistance analysis for soft rock and sand compound soil: A case study for the Mu Us Sandy Land, China
  61. Investigation into the pore structures and CH4 adsorption capacities of clay minerals in coal reservoirs in the Yangquan Mining District, North China
  62. Overview of eco-environmental impact of Xiaolangdi Water Conservancy Hub on the Yellow River
  63. Response of extreme precipitation to climatic warming in the Weihe river basin, China and its mechanism
  64. Analysis of land use change on urban landscape patterns in Northwest China: A case study of Xi’an city
  65. Optimization of interpolation parameters based on statistical experiment
  66. Late Cretaceous adakitic intrusive rocks in the Laimailang area, Gangdese batholith: Implications for the Neo-Tethyan Ocean subduction
  67. Tectonic evolution of the Eocene–Oligocene Lushi Basin in the eastern Qinling belt, Central China: Insights from paleomagnetic constraints
  68. Geographic and cartographic inconsistency factors among different cropland classification datasets: A field validation case in Cambodia
  69. Distribution of large- and medium-scale loess landslides induced by the Haiyuan Earthquake in 1920 based on field investigation and interpretation of satellite images
  70. Numerical simulation of impact and entrainment behaviors of debris flow by using SPH–DEM–FEM coupling method
  71. Study on the evaluation method and application of logging irreducible water saturation in tight sandstone reservoirs
  72. Geochemical characteristics and genesis of natural gas in the Upper Triassic Xujiahe Formation in the Sichuan Basin
  73. Wehrlite xenoliths and petrogenetic implications, Hosséré Do Guessa volcano, Adamawa plateau, Cameroon
  74. Changes in landscape pattern and ecological service value as land use evolves in the Manas River Basin
  75. Spatial structure-preserving and conflict-avoiding methods for point settlement selection
  76. Fission characteristics of heavy metal intrusion into rocks based on hydrolysis
  77. Sequence stratigraphic filling model of the Cretaceous in the western Tabei Uplift, Tarim Basin, NW China
  78. Fractal analysis of structural characteristics and prospecting of the Luanchuan polymetallic mining district, China
  79. Spatial and temporal variations of vegetation coverage and their driving factors following gully control and land consolidation in Loess Plateau, China
  80. Assessing the tourist potential of cultural–historical spatial units of Serbia using comparative application of AHP and mathematical method
  81. Urban black and odorous water body mapping from Gaofen-2 images
  82. Geochronology and geochemistry of Early Cretaceous granitic plutons in northern Great Xing’an Range, NE China, and implications for geodynamic setting
  83. Spatial planning concept for flood prevention in the Kedurus River watershed
  84. Geophysical exploration and geological appraisal of the Siah Diq porphyry Cu–Au prospect: A recent discovery in the Chagai volcano magmatic arc, SW Pakistan
  85. Possibility of using the DInSAR method in the development of vertical crustal movements with Sentinel-1 data
  86. Using modified inverse distance weight and principal component analysis for spatial interpolation of foundation settlement based on geodetic observations
  87. Geochemical properties and heavy metal contents of carbonaceous rocks in the Pliocene siliciclastic rock sequence from southeastern Denizli-Turkey
  88. Study on water regime assessment and prediction of stream flow based on an improved RVA
  89. A new method to explore the abnormal space of urban hidden dangers under epidemic outbreak and its prevention and control: A case study of Jinan City
  90. Milankovitch cycles and the astronomical time scale of the Zhujiang Formation in the Baiyun Sag, Pearl River Mouth Basin, China
  91. Shear strength and meso-pore characteristic of saturated compacted loess
  92. Key point extraction method for spatial objects in high-resolution remote sensing images based on multi-hot cross-entropy loss
  93. Identifying driving factors of the runoff coefficient based on the geographic detector model in the upper reaches of Huaihe River Basin
  94. Study on rainfall early warning model for Xiangmi Lake slope based on unsaturated soil mechanics
  95. Extraction of mineralized indicator minerals using ensemble learning model optimized by SSA based on hyperspectral image
  96. Lithofacies discrimination using seismic anisotropic attributes from logging data in Muglad Basin, South Sudan
  97. Three-dimensional modeling of loose layers based on stratum development law
  98. Occurrence, sources, and potential risk of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in southern Xinjiang, China
  99. Attribution analysis of different driving forces on vegetation and streamflow variation in the Jialing River Basin, China
  100. Slope characteristics of urban construction land and its correlation with ground slope in China
  101. Limitations of the Yang’s breaking wave force formula and its improvement under a wider range of breaker conditions
  102. The spatial-temporal pattern evolution and influencing factors of county-scale tourism efficiency in Xinjiang, China
  103. Evaluation and analysis of observed soil temperature data over Northwest China
  104. Agriculture and aquaculture land-use change prediction in five central coastal provinces of Vietnam using ANN, SVR, and SARIMA models
  105. Leaf color attributes of urban colored-leaf plants
  106. Application of statistical and machine learning techniques for landslide susceptibility mapping in the Himalayan road corridors
  107. Sediment provenance in the Northern South China Sea since the Late Miocene
  108. Drones applications for smart cities: Monitoring palm trees and street lights
  109. Double rupture event in the Tianshan Mountains: A case study of the 2021 Mw 5.3 Baicheng earthquake, NW China
  110. Review Article
  111. Mobile phone indoor scene features recognition localization method based on semantic constraint of building map location anchor
  112. Technical Note
  113. Experimental analysis on creep mechanics of unsaturated soil based on empirical model
  114. Rapid Communications
  115. A protocol for canopy cover monitoring on forest restoration projects using low-cost drones
  116. Landscape tree species recognition using RedEdge-MX: Suitability analysis of two different texture extraction forms under MLC and RF supervision
  117. Special Issue: Geoethics 2022 - Part I
  118. Geomorphological and hydrological heritage of Mt. Stara Planina in SE Serbia: From river protection initiative to potential geotouristic destination
  119. Geotourism and geoethics as support for rural development in the Knjaževac municipality, Serbia
  120. Modeling spa destination choice for leveraging hydrogeothermal potentials in Serbia
https://doi.org/10.1515/geo-2022-0386
Keywords for this article
unsaturated soil; creep; empirical model; matric suction; initial tangent modulus
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Regular Articles
  2. Study on observation system of seismic forward prospecting in tunnel: A case on tailrace tunnel of Wudongde hydropower station
  3. The behaviour of stress variation in sandy soil
  4. Research on the current situation of rural tourism in southern Fujian in China after the COVID-19 epidemic
  5. Late Triassic–Early Jurassic paleogeomorphic characteristics and hydrocarbon potential of the Ordos Basin, China, a case of study of the Jiyuan area
  6. Application of X-ray fluorescence mapping in turbiditic sandstones, Huai Bo Khong Formation of Nam Pat Group, Thailand
  7. Fractal expression of soil particle-size distribution at the basin scale
  8. Study on the changes in vegetation structural coverage and its response mechanism to hydrology
  9. Spatial distribution analysis of seismic activity based on GMI, LMI, and LISA in China
  10. Rock mass structural surface trace extraction based on transfer learning
  11. Hydrochemical characteristics and D–O–Sr isotopes of groundwater and surface water in the northern Longzi county of southern Tibet (southwestern China)
  12. Insights into origins of the natural gas in the Lower Paleozoic of Ordos basin, China
  13. Research on comprehensive benefits and reasonable selection of marine resources development types
  14. Embedded deformation of the rubble-mound foundation of gravity-type quay walls and influence factors
  15. Activation of Ad Damm shear zone, western Saudi Arabian margin, and its relation to the Red Sea rift system
  16. A mathematical conjecture associates Martian TARs with sand ripples
  17. Study on spatio-temporal characteristics of earthquakes in southwest China based on z-value
  18. Sedimentary facies characterization of forced regression in the Pearl River Mouth basin
  19. High-precision remote sensing mapping of aeolian sand landforms based on deep learning algorithms
  20. Experimental study on reservoir characteristics and oil-bearing properties of Chang 7 lacustrine oil shale in Yan’an area, China
  21. Estimating the volume of the 1978 Rissa quick clay landslide in Central Norway using historical aerial imagery
  22. Spatial accessibility between commercial and ecological spaces: A case study in Beijing, China
  23. Curve number estimation using rainfall and runoff data from five catchments in Sudan
  24. Urban green service equity in Xiamen based on network analysis and concentration degree of resources
  25. Spatio-temporal analysis of East Asian seismic zones based on multifractal theory
  26. Delineation of structural lineaments of Southeast Nigeria using high resolution aeromagnetic data
  27. 3D marine controlled-source electromagnetic modeling using an edge-based finite element method with a block Krylov iterative solver
  28. A comprehensive evaluation method for topographic correction model of remote sensing image based on entropy weight method
  29. Quantitative discrimination of the influences of climate change and human activity on rocky desertification based on a novel feature space model
  30. Assessment of climatic conditions for tourism in Xinjiang, China
  31. Attractiveness index of national marine parks: A study on national marine parks in coastal areas of East China Sea
  32. Effect of brackish water irrigation on the movement of water and salt in salinized soil
  33. Mapping paddy rice and rice phenology with Sentinel-1 SAR time series using a unified dynamic programming framework
  34. Analyzing the characteristics of land use distribution in typical village transects at Chinese Loess Plateau based on topographical factors
  35. Management status and policy direction of submerged marine debris for improvement of port environment in Korea
  36. Influence of Three Gorges Dam on earthquakes based on GRACE gravity field
  37. Comparative study of estimating the Curie point depth and heat flow using potential magnetic data
  38. The spatial prediction and optimization of production-living-ecological space based on Markov–PLUS model: A case study of Yunnan Province
  39. Major, trace and platinum-group element geochemistry of harzburgites and chromitites from Fuchuan, China, and its geological significance
  40. Vertical distribution of STN and STP in watershed of loess hilly region
  41. Hyperspectral denoising based on the principal component low-rank tensor decomposition
  42. Evaluation of fractures using conventional and FMI logs, and 3D seismic interpretation in continental tight sandstone reservoir
  43. U–Pb zircon dating of the Paleoproterozoic khondalite series in the northeastern Helanshan region and its geological significance
  44. Quantitatively determine the dominant driving factors of the spatial-temporal changes of vegetation-impacts of global change and human activity
  45. Can cultural tourism resources become a development feature helping rural areas to revitalize the local economy under the epidemic? An exploration of the perspective of attractiveness, satisfaction, and willingness by the revisit of Hakka cultural tourism
  46. A 3D empirical model of standard compaction curve for Thailand shales: Porosity in function of burial depth and geological time
  47. Attribution identification of terrestrial ecosystem evolution in the Yellow River Basin
  48. An intelligent approach for reservoir quality evaluation in tight sandstone reservoir using gradient boosting decision tree algorithm
  49. Detection of sub-surface fractures based on filtering, modeling, and interpreting aeromagnetic data in the Deng Deng – Garga Sarali area, Eastern Cameroon
  50. Influence of heterogeneity on fluid property variations in carbonate reservoirs with multistage hydrocarbon accumulation: A case study of the Khasib formation, Cretaceous, AB oilfield, southern Iraq
  51. Designing teaching materials with disaster maps and evaluating its effectiveness for primary students
  52. Assessment of the bender element sensors to measure seismic wave velocity of soils in the physical model
  53. Appropriated protection time and region for Qinghai–Tibet Plateau grassland
  54. Identification of high-temperature targets in remote sensing based on correspondence analysis
  55. Influence of differential diagenesis on pore evolution of the sandy conglomerate reservoir in different structural units: A case study of the Upper Permian Wutonggou Formation in eastern Junggar Basin, NW China
  56. Planting in ecologically solidified soil and its use
  57. National and regional-scale landslide indicators and indexes: Applications in Italy
  58. Occurrence of yttrium in the Zhijin phosphorus deposit in Guizhou Province, China
  59. The response of Chudao’s beach to typhoon “Lekima” (No. 1909)
  60. Soil wind erosion resistance analysis for soft rock and sand compound soil: A case study for the Mu Us Sandy Land, China
  61. Investigation into the pore structures and CH4 adsorption capacities of clay minerals in coal reservoirs in the Yangquan Mining District, North China
  62. Overview of eco-environmental impact of Xiaolangdi Water Conservancy Hub on the Yellow River
  63. Response of extreme precipitation to climatic warming in the Weihe river basin, China and its mechanism
  64. Analysis of land use change on urban landscape patterns in Northwest China: A case study of Xi’an city
  65. Optimization of interpolation parameters based on statistical experiment
  66. Late Cretaceous adakitic intrusive rocks in the Laimailang area, Gangdese batholith: Implications for the Neo-Tethyan Ocean subduction
  67. Tectonic evolution of the Eocene–Oligocene Lushi Basin in the eastern Qinling belt, Central China: Insights from paleomagnetic constraints
  68. Geographic and cartographic inconsistency factors among different cropland classification datasets: A field validation case in Cambodia
  69. Distribution of large- and medium-scale loess landslides induced by the Haiyuan Earthquake in 1920 based on field investigation and interpretation of satellite images
  70. Numerical simulation of impact and entrainment behaviors of debris flow by using SPH–DEM–FEM coupling method
  71. Study on the evaluation method and application of logging irreducible water saturation in tight sandstone reservoirs
  72. Geochemical characteristics and genesis of natural gas in the Upper Triassic Xujiahe Formation in the Sichuan Basin
  73. Wehrlite xenoliths and petrogenetic implications, Hosséré Do Guessa volcano, Adamawa plateau, Cameroon
  74. Changes in landscape pattern and ecological service value as land use evolves in the Manas River Basin
  75. Spatial structure-preserving and conflict-avoiding methods for point settlement selection
  76. Fission characteristics of heavy metal intrusion into rocks based on hydrolysis
  77. Sequence stratigraphic filling model of the Cretaceous in the western Tabei Uplift, Tarim Basin, NW China
  78. Fractal analysis of structural characteristics and prospecting of the Luanchuan polymetallic mining district, China
  79. Spatial and temporal variations of vegetation coverage and their driving factors following gully control and land consolidation in Loess Plateau, China
  80. Assessing the tourist potential of cultural–historical spatial units of Serbia using comparative application of AHP and mathematical method
  81. Urban black and odorous water body mapping from Gaofen-2 images
  82. Geochronology and geochemistry of Early Cretaceous granitic plutons in northern Great Xing’an Range, NE China, and implications for geodynamic setting
  83. Spatial planning concept for flood prevention in the Kedurus River watershed
  84. Geophysical exploration and geological appraisal of the Siah Diq porphyry Cu–Au prospect: A recent discovery in the Chagai volcano magmatic arc, SW Pakistan
  85. Possibility of using the DInSAR method in the development of vertical crustal movements with Sentinel-1 data
  86. Using modified inverse distance weight and principal component analysis for spatial interpolation of foundation settlement based on geodetic observations
  87. Geochemical properties and heavy metal contents of carbonaceous rocks in the Pliocene siliciclastic rock sequence from southeastern Denizli-Turkey
  88. Study on water regime assessment and prediction of stream flow based on an improved RVA
  89. A new method to explore the abnormal space of urban hidden dangers under epidemic outbreak and its prevention and control: A case study of Jinan City
  90. Milankovitch cycles and the astronomical time scale of the Zhujiang Formation in the Baiyun Sag, Pearl River Mouth Basin, China
  91. Shear strength and meso-pore characteristic of saturated compacted loess
  92. Key point extraction method for spatial objects in high-resolution remote sensing images based on multi-hot cross-entropy loss
  93. Identifying driving factors of the runoff coefficient based on the geographic detector model in the upper reaches of Huaihe River Basin
  94. Study on rainfall early warning model for Xiangmi Lake slope based on unsaturated soil mechanics
  95. Extraction of mineralized indicator minerals using ensemble learning model optimized by SSA based on hyperspectral image
  96. Lithofacies discrimination using seismic anisotropic attributes from logging data in Muglad Basin, South Sudan
  97. Three-dimensional modeling of loose layers based on stratum development law
  98. Occurrence, sources, and potential risk of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in southern Xinjiang, China
  99. Attribution analysis of different driving forces on vegetation and streamflow variation in the Jialing River Basin, China
  100. Slope characteristics of urban construction land and its correlation with ground slope in China
  101. Limitations of the Yang’s breaking wave force formula and its improvement under a wider range of breaker conditions
  102. The spatial-temporal pattern evolution and influencing factors of county-scale tourism efficiency in Xinjiang, China
  103. Evaluation and analysis of observed soil temperature data over Northwest China
  104. Agriculture and aquaculture land-use change prediction in five central coastal provinces of Vietnam using ANN, SVR, and SARIMA models
  105. Leaf color attributes of urban colored-leaf plants
  106. Application of statistical and machine learning techniques for landslide susceptibility mapping in the Himalayan road corridors
  107. Sediment provenance in the Northern South China Sea since the Late Miocene
  108. Drones applications for smart cities: Monitoring palm trees and street lights
  109. Double rupture event in the Tianshan Mountains: A case study of the 2021 Mw 5.3 Baicheng earthquake, NW China
  110. Review Article
  111. Mobile phone indoor scene features recognition localization method based on semantic constraint of building map location anchor
  112. Technical Note
  113. Experimental analysis on creep mechanics of unsaturated soil based on empirical model
  114. Rapid Communications
  115. A protocol for canopy cover monitoring on forest restoration projects using low-cost drones
  116. Landscape tree species recognition using RedEdge-MX: Suitability analysis of two different texture extraction forms under MLC and RF supervision
  117. Special Issue: Geoethics 2022 - Part I
  118. Geomorphological and hydrological heritage of Mt. Stara Planina in SE Serbia: From river protection initiative to potential geotouristic destination
  119. Geotourism and geoethics as support for rural development in the Knjaževac municipality, Serbia
  120. Modeling spa destination choice for leveraging hydrogeothermal potentials in Serbia
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