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Influence of Three Gorges Dam on earthquakes based on GRACE gravity field

  • Yaxiang Wang , Ziyi Cao , Zhaojun Pang EMAIL logo , Yan Liu , Jiawei Tian , Juan Li , Lirong Yin EMAIL logo , Wenfeng Zheng and Shan Liu
Published/Copyright: May 12, 2022
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Open Geosciences
From the journal Open Geosciences Volume 14 Issue 1

Abstract

After the completion of the Three Gorges Dam, it increases the risk of inducing an earthquake. We use the GRACE Gravity Field Model to analyze the relationship between the operation of the Three Gorges Reservoir and the change of gravity field in western Sichuan. The research results indicate that the reservoir water level and the western Sichuan gravitational field are positively correlated. In the early stage of rising water level, the change of gravity field is not apparent, and the change of gravity field gradually increases with time. Therefore, the change of reservoir water level affects the gravity field in western Sichuan. The dynamic changes of the gravity field can reflect the Earth’s material change and deformation process and are closely related to earthquakes. Consequently, the Three Gorges Dam will indirectly affect the seismicity in western Sichuan by affecting the gravity field. The research provides valuable information for studying regional reservoir earthquake disasters and supports related policy decisions.

Keywords: correlation analysis; earthquakes; GRACE gravity field model; Three Gorges Dam

1 Introduction

Nowadays, water resources have become more important [1,2,3]. As the most common water retaining structure, dams have a long history and are of great significance for regulating river runoff. Half of the world’s dams are located in China, and southwest China is a vital hydropower development area [4]. Although dams bring many benefits, dams may induce geological disasters: including earthquakes [5]. So far, as the world’s largest water conservancy project, the Three Gorges Project’s average water level is 175 m, total storage capacity is 39.3 billion m³, total length is over 600 km, the average width is 1.1 km, and reservoir area is 1,084 km [6,7]. With the completion of the large-scaled Three Gorges Dam and the rise of reservoir water, the underground pressure of the upstream and the surrounding areas increase. As a result, the existing balance is broken, and the risk of induced earthquakes significantly increases [8,9].

Due to seismic-formative conditions and mechanisms’ complexity, randomness, and suddenness, seismic activity is considered an infinitely complex system that cannot be accurately predicted [10]. Reservoir-induced earthquake seismicity (RIS) refers to the seismicity in or near the reservoir area induced by the reservoir water storage and release activities [9,11]. Many vital aspects must be considered in analyzing the complexity of the seismic activity [12].

In studying geological conditions of reservoir-induced earthquakes, Gupta summarized the typical characteristics of RIS [13]. The tectonic stress state of the reservoir area directly determines the maximum intensity of reservoir earthquakes [14,15]. Therefore, it is not difficult to find that RIS has drawn lots of attention and been studied thoroughly. McGarr believed that the tectonic stress state of the reservoir area directly determines the maximum intensity of the reservoir earthquake. For example, a reservoir-induced earthquake has an intensity of 5, so there must be an appropriate size fault near the reservoir that can generate an earthquake of this intensity [16]. Mao has studied RIS data for almost 50 years. In his opinion, there are many reasons for RIS, but the fault response phenomenon that induces earthquakes is evident. This phenomenon is caused by the uneven distribution and concentration of RIS. Reflected by the uncertainty of the relationship between the seismic zone and the location of the reservoir and the distribution of certain faults along the reservoir area of the seismic zone [17].

At present, due to the development of data processing [18,19,20,21] and deep learning [22,23,24,25], scholars have further deepened their seismological research on RIS. In terms of the characteristics of the earthquake sequence, Hainzl and Ogata [26] carefully studied the relationship between RIS activities and the action of the reservoir fluid and proposed the idea of using the infectious aftershock sequence model (ETAS model) to quantitatively detect the fluid-induced action. In his opinion, the combined action of internal and external stresses causes the reservoir fluid to induce earthquakes. In terms of focal mechanism, Talwani [27] has studied many RISs in the Carolinas of the United States and believes that the occurrence of earthquakes is related to water pressure. The pore penetration of reservoir water pressure causes reservoir water to penetrate into the focal point of the earthquake, which leads to the occurrence of reservoir earthquakes. In terms of the frequency spectrum characteristics of RIS, Jain et al. [28] analyzed the abnormal characteristics of the seismic stress drop of the reservoir and the abnormal characteristics of the corner frequency.

This research studies the impact of the Three Gorges Dam on seismic activity in western Sichuan using the GRACE Gravity Field Model, which can provide a new reference direction for earthquake-related research and provide reference material for earthquake prediction, which can promote the development of research in this area. In addition, western Sichuan is not within the Three Gorges Reservoir area, so this article studies the impact of the Three Gorges Reservoir on seismic activities outside the reservoir area. So far, research on the impact of the reservoir on earthquakes outside the reservoir area is relatively rare, so this article is not only for economic development. Moreover, the practical significance of earthquake prevention and disaster reduction also has essential significance in scientific research.

2 Study area and data

The Three Gorges Project is currently the largest concrete gravity dam globally [29]. The normal storage level of the reservoir is 175 m, the total storage capacity is 39.3 billion m3, the total length of the reservoir is more than 600 km, and the reservoir area is 1,084 km2. Therefore, the Three Gorges Reservoir brings greater benefits to our lives. However, many problems may also arise. This article will conduct an in-depth study on the impact of the construction of the Three Gorges Dam on seismic activity in a certain area.

This article selects the western Sichuan region as the research area because Sichuan is the most severely affected area of geological disasters around the Three Gorges Dam. In addition, it is one of the high earthquake-prone areas in China. Most of the earthquakes in Sichuan occur in western Sichuan [30,31]. Western Sichuan is located at the junction of the three plates of the Qiangtang block, the Yangzi block, and the Songpan-Garze block. It is the middle-south section of the central axis tectonic belt of the Chinese mainland and is prone to earthquakes. We have counted the earthquake data in Sichuan and displayed it on the map, as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Earthquake source distribution map in western Sichuan, 1970.1.1–2013.6.30.
Figure 1

Earthquake source distribution map in western Sichuan, 1970.1.1–2013.6.30.

The UTCSR Center releases the gravity field data selected in this study, and currently, the monthly data of the Level-2 RL05 version is commonly used by everyone [32]. Selected 128 months of data from 2002.04 to 2013.07, of which 8 months of data such as 2002.06, 2002.07, 2003.06, 2011.01, 2011.06, 2012.05, 2012.10, and 2013.03 are missing. The bit model of the Level-2 RL05 version data is solved to the 60th order. This article uses the GSM static gravity field model. The data of this model not only cover the 60th order bit coefficients but also include the spherical harmonic coefficient error and standard deviation.

3 Methods

There are several assumptions about why regional or global gravity fields change [21,33]. One of the assumptions is that the crustal stress changes cause the vertical changes of observation points; the change of the stress field causes the change of the density of the crustal medium and the source medium, which leads to the changes of the observation points’ gravity; the change of the regional stress field makes the underground cracks increase, and the cracks penetrate, which lead to the gush of heat mantle material and the change of gravity field; the dislocation and movement of the fault can cause the gravity field change. Therefore, the dynamic changes of the gravity field can reflect the change and deformation of inside material and close contact with the earthquake in the deep part of the Earth’s crust.

When grace satellites orbit the Earth, the gravity changes will show in the distance change between the GRACE A and GRACE B [23,34,35]. When the coordinate origin of the selected reference ellipsoid coincides with the Earth’s centroid, the gravitational force of the outer space of the Earth can be represented by spherical harmonic coefficients [36,37]:

(1) V ( r , θ , λ ) = W ( r , θ , λ ) − Z ( r , θ , λ ) = G M r ∑ l = 2 N max R r l ∑ l m = 0 ( C ¯ n m cos m λ + s n m sin m λ ) P ¯ n m ( cos θ ) .

In formula (1), V is gravitational potential, W is gravity potential, Z is the potential of centrifugal force, which can calculate the coefficients of spherical harmonics. Moreover, r is the radial distance between the earth center and the calculation point. R is the equatorial radius of the Earth. G is the gravitational constant, M is the total mass of the Earth, n is the order of the spherical function, m is a series of spherical harmonics, N max is the maximum orders of spherical function, λ is the longitude, and θ is the colatitude, P nm is n order m normalized associated Legendre function, C ¯ n m and s n m are normalized spherical function coefficients. Usually, gravity anomalies can be divided into two kinds [38,39]. We select the mixed gravity anomaly as the research object. The relation between the gravity anomaly and the disturbance position coefficient can be obtained by the Molodensky boundary value problem [40,41]. By calculating Legendre function by standard forward nematic method [42] and determining Gaussian smoothing filter function as the space smoothing function, the recurrence formula can be as follows:

(2) W 0 = 1 , W 1 = 1 + e − 2 a 1 − e − 2 a − 1 a , W 1 = 2 l − 1 a W l − 1 + W l − 2 .

To better show the regional gravity anomaly changes, it is necessary to filter out errors and other physical signal interference generated during GRACE satellite observations. The commonly used method is Gaussian filtering. The filtering effect of Gaussian smoothing filter radius of different sizes is different. The experiment shows that with the increase of the Gaussian smoothing radius, the band interference in the gravity change becomes less and less, and the gravity change becomes more apparent. The effect is best when the radius is 789 km, and it is easier to observe the information of the gravity field change. According to the literature, when the gravity field model is intercepted to order 60, the filter radius of the Gaussian filter has an upper limit. The maximum is 789 km [43]. Therefore, the filter radius of the Gaussian filter in this article is 789 km.

4 Results

The gravity change of the western Sichuan gravity field can be calculated according to formula (2). The gravity field change of western Sichuan is studied for two cases: water storage and reservoir drainage. Research stages are shown in Table 1. Moreover, the gravity change of storage and drainage periods is shown in Figures 2–13. The legend is on the right side of the figure, and different colors represent different gravity field variation values, and the unit is 10−8 m s−2. The period when the water level rises from 68 to 135 m is marked as XL1, XL2, and XL3. The period when the water level rises from 145 to 175 m is marked as XH1, XH2, XH3, XH4, and XH5. The period when the water level descends from 175 to 145 m is marked as F1, F2, F3, and F4.

Table 1

Water storage and release research stage

Water level rises (water storage) Water level falls (water release)
68–135 m 145–175 m 175–145 m
Serial number Time Serial number Time Serial number Time
XL1 2002.11–2003.07 XH1 2008.07–2008.11 F1 2008.11–2009.06
XL2 2002.11–2005.02 XH2 2008.07–2009.11 F2 2008.11–2010.06
XL3 2002.11–2006.04 XH3 2008.07–2010.11 F3 2008.11–2011.07
XH4 2008.07–2011.12 F4 2008.11–2012.06
XH5 2008.07–2013.01
Figure 2 The gravity variation contour map of the XL1 stage of the Three Gorges Dam in the western Sichuan (unit: 10−8 m s−2).
Figure 2

The gravity variation contour map of the XL1 stage of the Three Gorges Dam in the western Sichuan (unit: 10−8 m s−2).

Figure 3 The gravity variation contour map of the XL2 stage of the Three Gorges Dam in the western Sichuan (unit: 10−8 m s−2).
Figure 3

The gravity variation contour map of the XL2 stage of the Three Gorges Dam in the western Sichuan (unit: 10−8 m s−2).

Figure 4 The gravity variation contour map of the XL3 stage of the Three Gorges Dam in the western Sichuan (unit: 10−8 m s−2).
Figure 4

The gravity variation contour map of the XL3 stage of the Three Gorges Dam in the western Sichuan (unit: 10−8 m s−2).

Figure 5 The gravity variation contour map of the XH1 stage of the Three Gorges Dam in the western Sichuan (unit: 10−8 m s−2).
Figure 5

The gravity variation contour map of the XH1 stage of the Three Gorges Dam in the western Sichuan (unit: 10−8 m s−2).

Figure 6 The gravity variation contour map of the XH2 stage of the Three Gorges Dam in the western Sichuan (unit: 10−8 m s−2).
Figure 6

The gravity variation contour map of the XH2 stage of the Three Gorges Dam in the western Sichuan (unit: 10−8 m s−2).

Figure 7 The gravity variation contour map of the XH3 stage of the Three Gorges Dam in the western Sichuan (unit: 10−8 m s−2).
Figure 7

The gravity variation contour map of the XH3 stage of the Three Gorges Dam in the western Sichuan (unit: 10−8 m s−2).

Figure 8 The gravity variation contour map of the XH4 stage of the Three Gorges Dam in the western Sichuan (unit: 10−8 m s−2).
Figure 8

The gravity variation contour map of the XH4 stage of the Three Gorges Dam in the western Sichuan (unit: 10−8 m s−2).

Figure 9 The gravity variation contour map of the XH5 stage of the Three Gorges Dam in the western Sichuan (unit: 10−8 m s−2).
Figure 9

The gravity variation contour map of the XH5 stage of the Three Gorges Dam in the western Sichuan (unit: 10−8 m s−2).

Figure 10 The gravity variation contour map of the F1 stage of the Three Gorges Dam in the western Sichuan (unit: 10−8 m s−2).
Figure 10

The gravity variation contour map of the F1 stage of the Three Gorges Dam in the western Sichuan (unit: 10−8 m s−2).

Figure 11 The gravity variation contour map of the F2 stage of the Three Gorges Dam in the western Sichuan (unit: 10−8 m s−2).
Figure 11

The gravity variation contour map of the F2 stage of the Three Gorges Dam in the western Sichuan (unit: 10−8 m s−2).

Figure 12 The gravity variation contour map of the F3 stage of the Three Gorges Dam in the western Sichuan (unit: 10−8 m s−2).
Figure 12

The gravity variation contour map of the F3 stage of the Three Gorges Dam in the western Sichuan (unit: 10−8 m s−2).

Figure 13 The gravity variation contour map of the F4 stage of the Three Gorges Dam in the western Sichuan (unit: 10−8 m s−2).
Figure 13

The gravity variation contour map of the F4 stage of the Three Gorges Dam in the western Sichuan (unit: 10−8 m s−2).

Figures 2–4 show the changes in the gravity field in western Sichuan when the water level rises from 68 to 135 m. The ranges of changes are 0.6–2.6, 2.0–2.8, and 3.5–4.0, respectively, and the changes are all positive. Figures 5–9 show the low water level from 145 to 145 m. The gravity changes at the high water level of 175 m (from the trough to the continuous peak), the ranges of changes are 1.7–2.6, 0–2.3, 1.1–1.7, 1.0–1.9, and 0.6–1.7, respectively, and the changes are also positive. Figures 10–13 show the gravity changes from the high water level from 175 m to the low water level 145 m (peak to continuous wave trough), the change ranges are −0.7 to −0.1, −0.6 to 0.4, −1.0 to −0.6, and −2.3 to −1.5, and the changes are all negative.

The gravity field change is positive when the water level rises, or the contrary. Therefore, it is easy to tell that the gravity field change is more evident as time passes. Moreover, the reason is that the western Sichuan is far away from the Three Gorges Reservoir, and the water level’s effect on gravity is delayed. Therefore, the water level of the Three Gorges Reservoir will affect the gravity field of western Sichuan. According to research, some scholars think the earthquake usually happens during the reverse recovery of the gravity field.

Furthermore, some scholars conclude that several years before the earthquake, the regional gravity field shows the change tendency from positive to negative. Therefore, there is a close relationship between the earthquake and the gravity field. Moreover, the water level of the Three Gorges Reservoir can influence the earthquake activity of western Sichuan by changing the gravity field.

5 Discussion

The seismic data used in this study come from the China Seismological Network, the Three Gorges water level data come from the official website of China Three Gorges Corporation, and the gravity field data come from the official website of the German Potsdam Geoscience Research Center (GFZ). The source of the data is authentic and reliable. This article studies the impact of the construction of the Three Gorges Dam and its impoundment and release on the earthquake activity in western Sichuan. The influence of other factors on the earthquake in western Sichuan cannot be ruled out. The occurrence of the earthquake in western Sichuan is the result of the combined effect of many factors [31]. This study uses Fourier transform and correlation analysis to quantitatively explore the correlation between the two and explain the impact of the Three Gorges Dam on the seismic activity in western Sichuan from the perspective of the changes in the gravity field of the western Sichuan. To a certain extent, it affects the seismic activity in western Sichuan. The Three Gorges Dam affects the seismic activity in western Sichuan by affecting the changes in the gravity field in western Sichuan. The Three Gorges Dam impounds water. As a result, the gravity field in western Sichuan changes to positive, and the Three Gorges Dam releases water, and the gravity field in western Sichuan changes to negative.

In the initial stage of the rise of the water level, the gravitational field changes insignificantly. As time goes by, the gravitational field changes gradually increase. The change of reservoir water level affects the gravity field in western Sichuan. The dynamic change of the gravity field can reflect the change and deformation process of the Earth’s internal material and is closely related to earthquakes. Liu et al. [44] built a high-resolution Boussinesq water-load model for the Badong County section of the Three Gorges Reservoir by referring to Google Earth image data for different years. First, they explained the seismogenic mechanism of earthquakes (from 2003 to now) in Badong County. Then, they traced the evolution of earthquakes in the reservoir area before and after impoundment on a NE–SW transect. Compared with this study, our study did not build a model. We can get the result only by relying on the dark flowers on the other side of the gravity field, significantly saving time wastage.

Besides, using the data of four wells with similar borehole logging, aquifer lithology, and water chemistry type around the Three Gorges Dam, Ma et al. [45] examined the relationship between earthquake-induced hydrologic changes and faults. The results indicate that two of the wells that penetrate the fault damage zones recorded sustained water level changes and experienced changes in tidal response and hydraulic properties following the Wenchuan M W 7.9 earthquake. Compared with this, our study gets the result only by relying on the changes in the gravity field without too many elements, where the changes are more apparent, and the conclusions are more convincing.

This article studies the impact of the Three Gorges Dam on the seismic activity in the long-distance area outside the reservoir area. The current research on the impact of the reservoir on the seismic activity is generally carried out on the seismic activity in the reservoir area and the study on the impact on the long-distance area outside the reservoir area. It is still in the early stage, this article is still exploring, and there are still many shortcomings in the research process. This is also the direction for this research to continue to work in the future:

  1. This article explains the influence of the Three Gorges Dam on the seismic activity in western Sichuan from two aspects: the changes in the gravity field in western Sichuan and the position of the plate where the Three Gorges Dam is located. The influence of the Three Gorges Dam on seismic activity in western Sichuan may be in many ways. Yes, this article only selects two of them for the explanation. In the future, scholars can study how the Three Gorges Dam affects seismic activity in western Sichuan from other angles [14].

  2. This article only analyzes the distribution characteristics of earthquakes in western Sichuan from a statistical point of view combined with plate structure. The distribution of earthquakes may be related to local geological structural conditions, lithological conditions, and hydrogeological conditions [34,46]. Therefore, the reservoir impacts the distribution of earthquakes outside the reservoir area. The impact needs to be further studied.

  3. In the future, scholars can also establish a three-dimensional geological model of the study area according to the actual topography and geological structure to study the impact of water-loading effects on faults. They can also carry out special studies on the effects of water on rock masses, focusing on the study of groundwater effects on deep parts [30,47]. The effects of infiltration and softening of fault materials, pore pressure diffusion, and its effects are the dominant factors.

6 Conclusion

This article uses the earthquake catalog from 1970 to 2013 and the water level data of the Three Gorges Reservoir from 2002 to 2013 as the primary research data, using statistical methods according to the discovery phenomenon – exploring the cause – explaining the idea of focusing on the Three Gorges Dam to the long-distance area outside the reservoir area, studied the impact of the earthquake, taking western Sichuan as an example.

This correlation is explained from the perspective of the Three Gorges Dam’s influence on the changes in the gravity field in western Sichuan and thus the seismic activity. This article has concluded that the changes in the water level of the Three Gorges Reservoir affect the gravity field in western Sichuan, and some scholars have concluded that earthquakes are closely related to the changes in the gravity field. Finally, the article combines the geographical location of the Three Gorges Dam and the Chinese mainland plate map to explain the characteristics of earthquakes in the western Sichuan region before and after the construction of the Three Gorges Dam and in different impounding periods.

  1. Funding information: This work was supported by the Sichuan Science and Technology Program (2021YFQ0003).

  2. Author contributions: Wenfeng Zheng contributed to the conception of the paper and supervision. Yaxiang Wang performed the formal experiment. Ziyi Cao and Yan Liu contributed significantly to analysis and manuscript preparation. Jiawei Tian and Zhaojun Pang performed the data analyses and wrote the manuscript. Juan Li and Lirong Yin helped perform the analysis with constructive discussions. Shan Liu, Lirong Yin performed the formal analysis and revised the manuscript.

  3. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2021-09-16
Revised: 2021-12-17
Accepted: 2022-01-13
Published Online: 2022-05-12

© 2022 Yaxiang Wang et al., published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/geo-2022-0350
Keywords for this article
correlation analysis; earthquakes; GRACE gravity field model; Three Gorges Dam
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Regular Articles
  2. Study on observation system of seismic forward prospecting in tunnel: A case on tailrace tunnel of Wudongde hydropower station
  3. The behaviour of stress variation in sandy soil
  4. Research on the current situation of rural tourism in southern Fujian in China after the COVID-19 epidemic
  5. Late Triassic–Early Jurassic paleogeomorphic characteristics and hydrocarbon potential of the Ordos Basin, China, a case of study of the Jiyuan area
  6. Application of X-ray fluorescence mapping in turbiditic sandstones, Huai Bo Khong Formation of Nam Pat Group, Thailand
  7. Fractal expression of soil particle-size distribution at the basin scale
  8. Study on the changes in vegetation structural coverage and its response mechanism to hydrology
  9. Spatial distribution analysis of seismic activity based on GMI, LMI, and LISA in China
  10. Rock mass structural surface trace extraction based on transfer learning
  11. Hydrochemical characteristics and D–O–Sr isotopes of groundwater and surface water in the northern Longzi county of southern Tibet (southwestern China)
  12. Insights into origins of the natural gas in the Lower Paleozoic of Ordos basin, China
  13. Research on comprehensive benefits and reasonable selection of marine resources development types
  14. Embedded deformation of the rubble-mound foundation of gravity-type quay walls and influence factors
  15. Activation of Ad Damm shear zone, western Saudi Arabian margin, and its relation to the Red Sea rift system
  16. A mathematical conjecture associates Martian TARs with sand ripples
  17. Study on spatio-temporal characteristics of earthquakes in southwest China based on z-value
  18. Sedimentary facies characterization of forced regression in the Pearl River Mouth basin
  19. High-precision remote sensing mapping of aeolian sand landforms based on deep learning algorithms
  20. Experimental study on reservoir characteristics and oil-bearing properties of Chang 7 lacustrine oil shale in Yan’an area, China
  21. Estimating the volume of the 1978 Rissa quick clay landslide in Central Norway using historical aerial imagery
  22. Spatial accessibility between commercial and ecological spaces: A case study in Beijing, China
  23. Curve number estimation using rainfall and runoff data from five catchments in Sudan
  24. Urban green service equity in Xiamen based on network analysis and concentration degree of resources
  25. Spatio-temporal analysis of East Asian seismic zones based on multifractal theory
  26. Delineation of structural lineaments of Southeast Nigeria using high resolution aeromagnetic data
  27. 3D marine controlled-source electromagnetic modeling using an edge-based finite element method with a block Krylov iterative solver
  28. A comprehensive evaluation method for topographic correction model of remote sensing image based on entropy weight method
  29. Quantitative discrimination of the influences of climate change and human activity on rocky desertification based on a novel feature space model
  30. Assessment of climatic conditions for tourism in Xinjiang, China
  31. Attractiveness index of national marine parks: A study on national marine parks in coastal areas of East China Sea
  32. Effect of brackish water irrigation on the movement of water and salt in salinized soil
  33. Mapping paddy rice and rice phenology with Sentinel-1 SAR time series using a unified dynamic programming framework
  34. Analyzing the characteristics of land use distribution in typical village transects at Chinese Loess Plateau based on topographical factors
  35. Management status and policy direction of submerged marine debris for improvement of port environment in Korea
  36. Influence of Three Gorges Dam on earthquakes based on GRACE gravity field
  37. Comparative study of estimating the Curie point depth and heat flow using potential magnetic data
  38. The spatial prediction and optimization of production-living-ecological space based on Markov–PLUS model: A case study of Yunnan Province
  39. Major, trace and platinum-group element geochemistry of harzburgites and chromitites from Fuchuan, China, and its geological significance
  40. Vertical distribution of STN and STP in watershed of loess hilly region
  41. Hyperspectral denoising based on the principal component low-rank tensor decomposition
  42. Evaluation of fractures using conventional and FMI logs, and 3D seismic interpretation in continental tight sandstone reservoir
  43. U–Pb zircon dating of the Paleoproterozoic khondalite series in the northeastern Helanshan region and its geological significance
  44. Quantitatively determine the dominant driving factors of the spatial-temporal changes of vegetation-impacts of global change and human activity
  45. Can cultural tourism resources become a development feature helping rural areas to revitalize the local economy under the epidemic? An exploration of the perspective of attractiveness, satisfaction, and willingness by the revisit of Hakka cultural tourism
  46. A 3D empirical model of standard compaction curve for Thailand shales: Porosity in function of burial depth and geological time
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  48. An intelligent approach for reservoir quality evaluation in tight sandstone reservoir using gradient boosting decision tree algorithm
  49. Detection of sub-surface fractures based on filtering, modeling, and interpreting aeromagnetic data in the Deng Deng – Garga Sarali area, Eastern Cameroon
  50. Influence of heterogeneity on fluid property variations in carbonate reservoirs with multistage hydrocarbon accumulation: A case study of the Khasib formation, Cretaceous, AB oilfield, southern Iraq
  51. Designing teaching materials with disaster maps and evaluating its effectiveness for primary students
  52. Assessment of the bender element sensors to measure seismic wave velocity of soils in the physical model
  53. Appropriated protection time and region for Qinghai–Tibet Plateau grassland
  54. Identification of high-temperature targets in remote sensing based on correspondence analysis
  55. Influence of differential diagenesis on pore evolution of the sandy conglomerate reservoir in different structural units: A case study of the Upper Permian Wutonggou Formation in eastern Junggar Basin, NW China
  56. Planting in ecologically solidified soil and its use
  57. National and regional-scale landslide indicators and indexes: Applications in Italy
  58. Occurrence of yttrium in the Zhijin phosphorus deposit in Guizhou Province, China
  59. The response of Chudao’s beach to typhoon “Lekima” (No. 1909)
  60. Soil wind erosion resistance analysis for soft rock and sand compound soil: A case study for the Mu Us Sandy Land, China
  61. Investigation into the pore structures and CH4 adsorption capacities of clay minerals in coal reservoirs in the Yangquan Mining District, North China
  62. Overview of eco-environmental impact of Xiaolangdi Water Conservancy Hub on the Yellow River
  63. Response of extreme precipitation to climatic warming in the Weihe river basin, China and its mechanism
  64. Analysis of land use change on urban landscape patterns in Northwest China: A case study of Xi’an city
  65. Optimization of interpolation parameters based on statistical experiment
  66. Late Cretaceous adakitic intrusive rocks in the Laimailang area, Gangdese batholith: Implications for the Neo-Tethyan Ocean subduction
  67. Tectonic evolution of the Eocene–Oligocene Lushi Basin in the eastern Qinling belt, Central China: Insights from paleomagnetic constraints
  68. Geographic and cartographic inconsistency factors among different cropland classification datasets: A field validation case in Cambodia
  69. Distribution of large- and medium-scale loess landslides induced by the Haiyuan Earthquake in 1920 based on field investigation and interpretation of satellite images
  70. Numerical simulation of impact and entrainment behaviors of debris flow by using SPH–DEM–FEM coupling method
  71. Study on the evaluation method and application of logging irreducible water saturation in tight sandstone reservoirs
  72. Geochemical characteristics and genesis of natural gas in the Upper Triassic Xujiahe Formation in the Sichuan Basin
  73. Wehrlite xenoliths and petrogenetic implications, Hosséré Do Guessa volcano, Adamawa plateau, Cameroon
  74. Changes in landscape pattern and ecological service value as land use evolves in the Manas River Basin
  75. Spatial structure-preserving and conflict-avoiding methods for point settlement selection
  76. Fission characteristics of heavy metal intrusion into rocks based on hydrolysis
  77. Sequence stratigraphic filling model of the Cretaceous in the western Tabei Uplift, Tarim Basin, NW China
  78. Fractal analysis of structural characteristics and prospecting of the Luanchuan polymetallic mining district, China
  79. Spatial and temporal variations of vegetation coverage and their driving factors following gully control and land consolidation in Loess Plateau, China
  80. Assessing the tourist potential of cultural–historical spatial units of Serbia using comparative application of AHP and mathematical method
  81. Urban black and odorous water body mapping from Gaofen-2 images
  82. Geochronology and geochemistry of Early Cretaceous granitic plutons in northern Great Xing’an Range, NE China, and implications for geodynamic setting
  83. Spatial planning concept for flood prevention in the Kedurus River watershed
  84. Geophysical exploration and geological appraisal of the Siah Diq porphyry Cu–Au prospect: A recent discovery in the Chagai volcano magmatic arc, SW Pakistan
  85. Possibility of using the DInSAR method in the development of vertical crustal movements with Sentinel-1 data
  86. Using modified inverse distance weight and principal component analysis for spatial interpolation of foundation settlement based on geodetic observations
  87. Geochemical properties and heavy metal contents of carbonaceous rocks in the Pliocene siliciclastic rock sequence from southeastern Denizli-Turkey
  88. Study on water regime assessment and prediction of stream flow based on an improved RVA
  89. A new method to explore the abnormal space of urban hidden dangers under epidemic outbreak and its prevention and control: A case study of Jinan City
  90. Milankovitch cycles and the astronomical time scale of the Zhujiang Formation in the Baiyun Sag, Pearl River Mouth Basin, China
  91. Shear strength and meso-pore characteristic of saturated compacted loess
  92. Key point extraction method for spatial objects in high-resolution remote sensing images based on multi-hot cross-entropy loss
  93. Identifying driving factors of the runoff coefficient based on the geographic detector model in the upper reaches of Huaihe River Basin
  94. Study on rainfall early warning model for Xiangmi Lake slope based on unsaturated soil mechanics
  95. Extraction of mineralized indicator minerals using ensemble learning model optimized by SSA based on hyperspectral image
  96. Lithofacies discrimination using seismic anisotropic attributes from logging data in Muglad Basin, South Sudan
  97. Three-dimensional modeling of loose layers based on stratum development law
  98. Occurrence, sources, and potential risk of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in southern Xinjiang, China
  99. Attribution analysis of different driving forces on vegetation and streamflow variation in the Jialing River Basin, China
  100. Slope characteristics of urban construction land and its correlation with ground slope in China
  101. Limitations of the Yang’s breaking wave force formula and its improvement under a wider range of breaker conditions
  102. The spatial-temporal pattern evolution and influencing factors of county-scale tourism efficiency in Xinjiang, China
  103. Evaluation and analysis of observed soil temperature data over Northwest China
  104. Agriculture and aquaculture land-use change prediction in five central coastal provinces of Vietnam using ANN, SVR, and SARIMA models
  105. Leaf color attributes of urban colored-leaf plants
  106. Application of statistical and machine learning techniques for landslide susceptibility mapping in the Himalayan road corridors
  107. Sediment provenance in the Northern South China Sea since the Late Miocene
  108. Drones applications for smart cities: Monitoring palm trees and street lights
  109. Double rupture event in the Tianshan Mountains: A case study of the 2021 Mw 5.3 Baicheng earthquake, NW China
  110. Review Article
  111. Mobile phone indoor scene features recognition localization method based on semantic constraint of building map location anchor
  112. Technical Note
  113. Experimental analysis on creep mechanics of unsaturated soil based on empirical model
  114. Rapid Communications
  115. A protocol for canopy cover monitoring on forest restoration projects using low-cost drones
  116. Landscape tree species recognition using RedEdge-MX: Suitability analysis of two different texture extraction forms under MLC and RF supervision
  117. Special Issue: Geoethics 2022 - Part I
  118. Geomorphological and hydrological heritage of Mt. Stara Planina in SE Serbia: From river protection initiative to potential geotouristic destination
  119. Geotourism and geoethics as support for rural development in the Knjaževac municipality, Serbia
  120. Modeling spa destination choice for leveraging hydrogeothermal potentials in Serbia
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