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Experimental analysis and numerical simulation of the effect of opening hole behavior after hygrothermal aging on the compression properties of laminates

  • Lipeng Liu , Yuxuan Zhang , Yue Guan , Shi Yan EMAIL logo , Xin Wang , Hanhua Li and Junjun Zhai
Published/Copyright: May 15, 2025
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Science and Engineering of Composite Materials
From the journal Science and Engineering of Composite Materials Volume 32 Issue 1

Abstract

Carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (CFRP) are widely used in aeronautical and engineering fields because of their excellent mechanical properties and lower manufacturing costs. Among them, resin–matrix composite material is one of the widely used material types. In this study, the effect of the opening behavior of composite laminates under different hygrothermal aging conditions on their compression properties was studied. At the same time, the finite-element analysis method is used to numerically simulate the hygrothermal aging process and compression experiment. It is found that the hygroscopic behavior in the hygrothermal aging process is compounded by Fick’s second law. After the compression experiment, it is further found that aging time is the main reason affecting the mechanical properties of materials. At the same time, the failure caused by compression behavior mainly occurs laterally along the opening until brittle failure occurs.

Keywords: carbon fiber-reinforced polymers; hygrothermal aging; finite-element analysis; numerical simulation; laminates; compression properties; C-scan

1 Introduction

Carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (CFRP) are widely used in aerospace, automobile manufacturing, and other fields because of their excellent mechanical properties and lower manufacturing costs [1,2,3,4]. Among them, epoxy resin matrix composites are widely used in shipbuilding, ocean engineering, and other fields because of their better chemical properties (especially thermal stability properties). Hygrothermal environment, salt spray environment, high humidity environment, etc., are the most common aging environments for CFRP [5,6,7,8,9]. Relevant studies have shown that when the opening position is not properly deployed, CFRP will cause delamination [10], fracture [11], hole circularity surface [12], microstructure damage [13], and other damages. The appearance of these damages will inevitably affect the integrity, reliability, and safety of CFRP. Some relevant research reports point out [14] that improperly deployed opening positions can cause quality problems for up to 60% of the parts in the aircraft and affect flight safety. Based on this, the aging mechanism of CFRP in a hygrothermal environment and the effect of opening holes on mechanical properties (such as compression) are the focus of the researchers.

A considerable number of reports have demonstrated that CFRP reduces mechanical properties in hygrothermal environments [15,16]. The main reasons for the degradation of composite properties are the expansion, fracture, and hydrolysis of micro-cracks in the process of reabsorption [17]. Zhang et al. [18] studied the mechanism of hygrothermal aging of three-dimensional four-direction braided composites (3D4d-BC) with two different matrixes. The results show that the infiltration of water molecules, the chemical composition, and the temperature of the resin-based materials will cause the degradation of the matrix during the hydrothermal aging process. At the same time, it is confirmed that the post-curing process mainly occurs in the hygrothermal aging process. These factors will cause further degradation of the mechanical properties of 3D4d-BC. Han and Nairn [19] conducted aging experiments on laminates under different hygrothermal environments. The results show that with the increase of aging time, temperature, and relative humidity (RH), the toughness of microcracks decreases gradually. Jana and Bhunia [20] conducted interlaminar shear experiments on both slotted and unslotted composite material specimens. The results show that the interlaminar shear strength is related to the number of thermal cycles. Youssef et al. [21] conducted a study on the response to the changes in internal stress caused by the damp-heat aging process. Ma et al. [22] systematically studied the influence of the hygrothermal aging process on the impact properties of CFRP. The results showed that the fiber/matrix interface of CFRP was damaged after aging.

Similarly, the influence of the opening position on its mechanical properties is also one of the hot issues that researchers focus on. Wang et al. [23] studied the tensile and compressive strength of isotropic laminated plates after hole punching. Suemasu et al. [24] explained the compression failure mechanism of quasi-isotropic laminates after opening holes through experiments and numerical simulation. Guan et al. [25] conducted an experimental analysis and numerical simulation on the evolution process of compression damage of the lower composite plate under the effect of hygrothermal aging. Xu et al. [26] observed the fracture morphology of porous composites in hygrothermal environments and room temperature/dry (RTD) environments. It is found that the failure modes in two different environments are not the same. Tojaga et al. [27] introduced the micromechanics of kink band formation in porous composites under compressive load. Zhang et al. [28] proposed a three-dimensional progressive damage analysis model considering fiber kink and shear effects for the damage characteristics of perforated composite laminates. Yildirim et al. [29] used a variety of monitoring methods to study the mechanical behavior and damage evolution of CF/PEKK laminates under tensile loads.

Although many scholars have conducted relevant studies on the mechanism, damage forms, and aging effects of hygrothermal aging, there is still a lack of experimental research on opening holes after wet and heat aging. Based on this, the experimental idea of “hygrothermal aging – opening hole- compression” is set up in this study. Hygrothermal aging type sets different conditions and aging times. It is 70°C–85%Relative Humidity (RH) and 70°C–Soak and the aging time is 500, 1,000 and 2,000 h. On this basis, compression experiments were carried out to analyze the effect of opening hole behavior on mechanical properties after hygrothermal aging. Similarly, the finite-element analysis (FEA) of the hygrothermal aging process and the compression experimental process is carried out to further understand the damage behavior and failure mechanism. This study will provide the experimental basis and numerical simulation experience for the effect of opening hole behavior on the mechanical properties of composite laminates after hygrothermal aging.

2 Experimental procedure

2.1 Materials

Epoxy resin matrix composite laminate (T700/U3160) was used in this study. Specifically, layering sequence is [0°/45°/90°/−45°]s, single layer thickness is 0.75 mm, plate size is 100 mm × 150 mm × 6.5 mm, and error is ±0.5 mm. The specific parameters of specimens are shown in Table 1.

Table 1

T700/U3160 composite laminate-related parameters

Parameter type Carbon fiber Epoxy resin
Coefficient of thermal expansion (10−6 K) 3.1 56.9
Coefficient of wet expansion (10−3/H2O) 0 3.24
Wet diffusivity (10−4 mm/h) 0 18.828
Maximum moisture absorption (%) 0 88%
Density (kg/m3) 1,760 1,190

2.2 Experimental equipment and process

2.2.1 Hygrothermal aging

According to ASTM hygroscopic standard D5229/D5229M-92, the test part was weighed with a balance with an accuracy of 0.1 mg to record the mass of the test part during the hygroscopic process. Before moisture absorption, the test part was washed, the surface dirt was wiped off, and the test part was dried in a vacuum drying box at 85°C for 72 h to the engineering dry state, and the initial weight M0 after drying was measured, accurate to 0.1 mg. During the initial hygroscopic stage, wet test pieces were removed from the furnace every 24 h, and the mass of each test piece was recorded after wiping the surface moisture of the test pieces, with an accuracy of 0.1 mg. The hygrothermal aging process under the condition of 70°C–85%RH is carried out in a constant temperature and humidity test chamber (Figure 1a). The hygrothermal aging process is 70°C–Soak in a thermostatic water bath (Figure 1b). The equipment parameters are shown in Table 2.

Figure 1 Wet heat test equipment: (a) constant temperature and humidity test chamber and (b) thermostatic water bath.
Figure 1

Wet heat test equipment: (a) constant temperature and humidity test chamber and (b) thermostatic water bath.

Table 2

Hygrothermal aging equipment parameters

Device name Type Main parameter
Constant temperature and humidity test chamber JHY-H-150L Temperature interval: −60°C to 150°C
Humidity interval: 20%RH to 98%RH
Thermostatic water bath HWY-501 Volume: 20 L
Temperature: Room temperature to 80°C

2.2.2 Open hole experiment

After the hygrothermal aging experiment, all specimens were subjected to an open-hole experiment to study the effect of open-hole behavior on material properties after hygrothermal aging behavior. A small CNC engraving machine (Jiangyin DEGAO Electronic Control Equipment Co., LTD., Wuxi, Jiangsu, China) was used in this experiment. The spindle speed was 8,000 rpm, the feed rate was 0.05 mm, and the cutting edge was a 6 mm two-edge tungsten steel flat-bottom milling cutter made by Taiwan Chunbao (WF25). Milling cutter-specific parameters are shown in Table 3. The opening process is shown in Figure 2.

Table 3

Specific parameters of milling cutter

Name Type Number of blades Cutting hardness Spiral angle
Two-point tungsten steel flat-end milling cutter Taiwan Chunbao (WF25) 2 For steel: ≤58° Θ1: 40°–42°
For aluminum: ≤60° Θ2: 42°–45°
Figure 2 Process of the opening experiment: (a) specimen opening diagram and (b) the opening hole experiment process.
Figure 2

Process of the opening experiment: (a) specimen opening diagram and (b) the opening hole experiment process.

2.2.3 Compression experiment

The treated sample was compressed at room temperature. The compression test follows ASTM D7137/D71377-07 standard, and the experimental equipment is a 200 kN hydraulic universal testing machine (UTM). Experimental process: compression load was applied to the sample at a displacement speed of 0.5 mm/min on the upper test-piece’s head of the hydraulic UTM until the sample was damaged and failed. In the compression test, a special fixture (Figure 3b) was used to fix the specimen to ensure that the force direction of the specimen was vertical. At the same time, a 2 mm gap is reserved to provide space for transverse expansion of the specimen that may occur in the case of compression failure. At the beginning, a small prestress is applied to the specimen to ensure complete contact between the specimen and the fixture. Ultrasonic C-scan (C-scan) was used to detect the internal damage area of the specimen (Figure 3d). The C-scan device model is Sonoscan D9500 with a frequency of 5 to 40 M, a sound wave width of 0.25 ns to 1 μs, and a Z-axis resolution of 9 nm. The compression experiment process is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3 Hygroscopic curves under two kinds of hygrothermal aging conditions. Note: FEM represents numerical simulation results.
Figure 3

Hygroscopic curves under two kinds of hygrothermal aging conditions. Note: FEM represents numerical simulation results.

3 Hygrothermal aging process and analysis

3.1 Experimental analysis method

The composite laminates aged by moisture and heat were weighed after drying at the same time every day. The weight of the specimen weighed on day t is denoted as M t , and the mass of the specimen during drying is denoted as M 0. The composite material absorbs water in a hygrothermal environment, and the degree of water absorption (denoted as c) is expressed by the water absorption concentration (Formula (1))

(1) C = M t − M 0 M 0 × 100 % .

According to Fick’s second law (Formula (2)):

(2) G = M t − M 0 M ∞ − M 0 = 1 − 8 π 2 ∑ n = 0 ∞ 1 ( 2 n + 1 ) 2 exp − Q ( 2 n + 1 ) 2 π 2 t H 2 ,

where G means moisture absorption rate; M ∞ means hygroscopic mass of the specimen after saturation; t means moisture absorption time; H means specimen thickness; Q means wet diffusion coefficient. Q is calculated by

(3) Q = π H 2 16 M ∞ 2 M i − M i − 1 t i − t i − 1 ,

where M i − M i − 1 t i − t i − 1 is the slope of the hygroscopic dynamic curve of the initial hygroscopic material.

Formula (2) can also be reduced to

(4) G = M t − M 0 M ∞ − M 0 = 4 Qt π H 2 ,

(5) M t = kt ,

where K is a constant related to the coefficient of water absorption.

3.2 Numerical simulation analysis method

Based on the material characteristics and test process of composite laminates, a strain-based three-dimensional Hashin criterion is adopted as the damage criterion.

Fiber stretching pattern ( σ 11 > 0 ):

(6) σ 11 2 X T 2 + α σ 12 2 + σ 13 2 S 12 2 = 1 .

Fiber compression mode ( σ 11 < 0 ):

(7) σ 11 2 X c 2 = 1 .

Matrix tensile mode ( σ 22 + σ 22 > 0 ):

(8) ( σ 22 + σ 33 Y T ) 2 + ( σ 12 + σ 13 S 12 ) 2 + σ 23 2 − σ 22 σ 33 S 23 2 = 1 .

Matrix compression mode ( σ 22 + σ 22 < 0 )

(9) 1 4 S 23 2 − 1 Y c ( σ 22 + σ 33 ) + ( σ 22 + σ 33 ) 2 4 S 23 2 + σ 23 2 − σ 22 σ 33 S 23 2 + σ 12 2 + σ 13 2 S 12 2 = 1 .

3.3 Analysis of hygrothermal aging results

The relationship between the hygroscopic concentration c and t1/2 calculated according to the above analysis is shown in Figure 3. In general, when the absolute value of the mass difference of two consecutive weighing attempts is less than or equal to 0.01%, the sample is considered to have reached the stage of hygroscopic equilibrium. It can be seen from Figure 3 that in the initial stage of hygroscopicity, water rapidly diffuses in the composite material. This is because moisture first enters void spaces or defects such as bubbles and cracks inside the material, resulting in a rapid increase in mass. With the increase of hygrothermal aging time, the mass change rate increases slowly and then tends to be stable. Finally, the mass change rate enters the relative saturation stage.

Specific analysis, the specimen numbered 2,000 h–70°C–Soak showed a slight decrease in moisture absorption concentration in the first 2 days. The reason for this phenomenon may be that it has not been previously dried to the engineering dry state. However, 2,000 h–70°C–Soak after reaching the engineering dry state, the water absorption concentration c changes with t 1/2 with other samples still conforms to Fick’s second law. With the increase of moisture absorption time, the water absorption concentration of the test piece began to flatten out. During the whole process, the dilute humidity concentration C is “70°C–70°C/85%RH”. This shows that the higher the humidity, the more moisture absorption of the laminate. In engineering, that is, the higher the humidity in the service environment and the longer the service time, the higher the moisture absorption, and the more obvious the performance decline of the matrix caused by the moisture absorption process. This is mainly due to the mismatch between the moisture and heat expansion of the matrix, which leads to the degradation of the interface bonding properties, and eventually the matrix properties of the composite materials. Similarly, the numerical analysis results of the hygroscopic model established according to Fick’s law fit well with the actual experiment, especially the hygroscopic concentration in the hygroscopic equilibrium stage (Tables 4 and 5). This further indicates that the hygroscopic process in the real environment conforms to Fick’s law.

Table 4

Comparison of experimental data and simulation results in 70°C–Soak

Aging time (h) 70°C–Soak 70°C–Soak–FEM Error (%)
500 0.47837 0.61016 −22
1,000 0.66029 0.73163 −10
2,000 0.7883 0.79393 −1
Table 5

Comparison of experimental data and simulation results in 70°C/85%RH

Aging time (h) 70°C/85%RH–Soak 70°C/85%RH–Soak –FEM Error (%)
500 0.2385 0.37902 −37
1,000 0.42249 0.4987 −15
2,000 0.56559 0.58432 −3

4 Compression experiment

4.1 Analysis of the compression experiment

The “Distance–Load” curve of all specimens is shown in Figure 4, and the peak load statistics of all specimens are shown in Table 6. Among them, RT represents the test pieces at room temperature (without hygrothermal aging) as the experimental group. Red, green, and blue are used, respectively, to indicate that the aging specimen is less than 500, 1,000, and 2,000 h. As can be seen from the figure, the maximum peak load of the RT group is 164.54KN. After 2,000 h aging treatment, the maximum peak load reduction of the specimen is about 15%. For the same-aged specimens, the peak load difference between 85%RH and Soak is about 1%. Therefore, the increase of humidity will slightly reduce the compressive strength of the material. Aging time is the main factor affecting compressive strength. It should be noted in particular that during the compression experiment, we did not apply prestress to the specimen, resulting in false contact between the top of the specimen and the bottom of the pressure plate. This operation causes the “Load–Displacement” curve to rise slowly in the early stages. The compression modulus calculated from the experimental curve will produce an error of about 20%. It should be noted that the operation error does not affect the compressive failure load of the structure. This paper focuses on the compression failure form and failure behavior after the wet and heat behavior and will further demonstrate its mechanical behavior in the numerical simulation.

Figure 4 The “Distance–Load” curve of all specimens.
Figure 4

The “Distance–Load” curve of all specimens.

Table 6

Peak load statistics under different wet heat aging conditions

Hygrothermal aging conditions Load (kN) Ratio to control (%)
RT 164.54 —
500 h–70°C/85%RH 162.35 1.33
500 h–70°C–Soak 162.27 1.38
1,000 h–70°C/85%RH 157.48 4.29
1,000 h–70°C–Soak 154.77 5.94
2,000 h–70°C/85%RH 139.75 15.06
2,000 h–70°C–Soak 139.69 15.10

Similarly, the numerical simulation results under two different aging conditions (aging time 2,000 h) were compared with the experimental results, as shown in Figure 5. The results show that the trend of “Distance–Load” curve obtained by numerical simulation is in good agreement with the experimental results; the differences are 7.1% and 4.9%, respectively. The simulation results validate the conclusions obtained from the test and enhance the reliability of the test conclusions.

Figure 5 The numerical simulation results were compared with the experimental results under two different aging conditions (aging time 2,000 h).
Figure 5

The numerical simulation results were compared with the experimental results under two different aging conditions (aging time 2,000 h).

According to different aging conditions and aging times, all specimens were divided into two groups to explore the influence of different humidity and temperature on compressive strength. Figure 6 shows the “Distance–Load” curve under different humidity conditions at the same time. According to Figure 6a, with the increase of aging time, the peak load of the sample at 85% humidity becomes smaller and smaller, and the load–displacement curve is relatively gentle, showing a certain lag. Figure 6b follows the same rule. It is indicated that the longer the material is in service under hot and humid conditions, the lower the mechanical properties and failure load of the material.

Figure 6 “Load–Distance” curves under different aging conditions: (a) 70°C/85%RH and (b) 70°C-Soak.
Figure 6

“Load–Distance” curves under different aging conditions: (a) 70°C/85%RH and (b) 70°C-Soak.

Figure 7 shows the “Distance–Load” curve under the same humidity and different aging times. In the graph, you can clearly see that the peak load in the “85%RH” condition is slightly larger than the “Soak” condition. With the increase of displacement, the first failure is 85%RH, and Soak has a certain lag. This indicates that at the same temperature, the more the water molecules/the greater the humidity, the more intense the Brownian motion, and the more water enters the material through the inherent defects, further leading to the softening of the matrix and the interface debonding.

Figure 7 “Load–Distance” curves under different aging times: (a) 500 h, (b) 1,000 h, and (c) 2,000 h.
Figure 7

“Load–Distance” curves under different aging times: (a) 500 h, (b) 1,000 h, and (c) 2,000 h.

C-scan was performed on all specimens after the compression test, and the results are shown in Figure 8. The statistics of the damaged area are shown in Table 7. As shown in Figure 8, the compression failure extends laterally along the opening until the specimen fails. With the increase of aging time, the damage area is expanding. This indicates that the hygrothermal aging process will cause the specimen to destick and delaminate, which further leads to the decline of mechanical properties. The results shown in Table 7 show that the internal damage area of the specimen treated with 2,000 h is nearly 10% higher than that treated with 500 h. Similarly, the increase in humidity will also increase the area of damage. Therefore, higher humidity and longer aging time are the main reasons for the deterioration of the mechanical properties of specimens.

Figure 8 C-scan images of all specimens: (a) 500 h–70°C–Soak, (b) 1,000 h–70°C–Soak, (c) 2,000 h–70°C–Soak, (d) 500 h–70°C/85%, (e) 1,000 h–70°C/85%, and (f) 2,000 h–70°C/85%.
Figure 8

C-scan images of all specimens: (a) 500 h–70°C–Soak, (b) 1,000 h–70°C–Soak, (c) 2,000 h–70°C–Soak, (d) 500 h–70°C/85%, (e) 1,000 h–70°C/85%, and (f) 2,000 h–70°C/85%.

Table 7

Internal damage area statistics

Hygrothermal aging conditions The proportion of damaged area to scanned area (%)
500 h–70°C/85%RH 2.64
500 h–70°C–Soak 5.90
1,000 h–70°C/85%RH 6.26
1,000 h–70°C–Soak 7.39
2,000 h–70°C/85%RH 15.03
2,000 h–70°C–Soak 16.83

Finite-element analysis was carried out on specimens subjected to compression tests after 2,000 h of hygrothermal aging treatment. Figure 9 shows the damage evolution of the test specimen under simulated conditions using the second layer (45°) and seventh layer (90°) as examples, which has a high fit with the results of S-can. It can be clearly seen that the loss evolution extends along the fiber laying direction until failure. The simulation is conducted under completely ideal conditions of constraints, loads, and interactions. However, in practical operation, it is inevitable to produce human errors or defects in the test piece itself. Therefore, observation can be made through the degree of fitting of stress–strain curves, loss evolution, fault mechanisms, and other aspects.

Figure 9 Damage evolution in the second layer (45°) and seventh layer (90°) under simulated conditions.
Figure 9

Damage evolution in the second layer (45°) and seventh layer (90°) under simulated conditions.

Numerical simulation results at different stages are shown in Figure 10. As can be seen from Figure 10, with the progress of the compression test, the damage went through three stages in total. In the initial stage, damage occurs along the opening position, and stress concentration occurs. Due to longitudinal compression, the transverse moment of inertia is smaller, resulting in greater force. In the damage extension stage, the lateral force is more concentrated (red area). When the ultimate compressive strength of the specimen is reached, the transverse fracture occurs through the opening position, and brittle damage occurs, and the specimen fails at this point. The damage modes and failure forms under the two different conditions are the same. Compared with the experimental results, the numerical simulation results accord with the experimental law and the degree of fitting is high. Specifically, during the whole compression process, the stress performance is 70°C/85%RH > 70°C–Soak. The results are consistent with the experimental results, which further show that higher humidity is the main reason for the deterioration of mechanical properties of materials under the same aging treatment time.

Figure 10 Numerical analysis of “stress–strain” Mises images.
Figure 10

Numerical analysis of “stress–strain” Mises images.

5 Conclusion

In this article, the effects of different hygrothermal aging conditions on the compression properties of composite laminates were studied. C-scan was used to investigate the internal damage area of the specimen after compression. At the same time, using the finite-element analysis method, the hygrothermal aging process and the compression process are numerically simulated. The numerical simulation results agree well with the experimental data. Through the above research, it is found that:

  1. The intrusion of oxygen and water molecules will reduce the compressive strength of the specimen. This is because the strength of the fiber/matrix interface inside the material decreases after the effect of hygrothermal aging.

  2. Aging time is the main factor affecting the mechanical properties of materials;

  3. The open hole compression test shows that the failure will be broken along the open hole until the failure.

  1. Funding information: This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China [No. 11972140 (Shi Yan), No. 12002003 (Junjun Zhai)], and the Natural Science Foundation of Hebei Province [No. A2023409007 (Junjun Zhai)] is acknowledged for supporting this research.

  2. Author contributions: Conceptualization, methodology: Shi Yan, Hanhua Li, Junjun Zhai; writing – original draft preparation: Lipeng Liu, Yuxuan Zhang; raw date support: Lipeng Liu, Yue Guan; writing – review and editing: Lipeng liu, Yuanxuan Zhang, Yue Guan; simulation and formal analysis: Lipeng Liu, Yue Guan; validation: Xin Wang; supervision: Shi Yan; funding provided: Shi Yan, Junjun Zhai. All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and consented to its submission to the journal, reviewed all the results and approved the final version of the manuscript.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Received: 2024-09-19
Revised: 2024-12-19
Accepted: 2025-01-29
Published Online: 2025-05-15

© 2025 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/secm-2025-0052
Keywords for this article
carbon fiber-reinforced polymers; hygrothermal aging; finite-element analysis; numerical simulation; laminates; compression properties; C-scan
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

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