Home Physical Sciences Preparation and application of foamed ceramic panels in interior design
Article Open Access

Preparation and application of foamed ceramic panels in interior design

  • Bin Wang EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: July 24, 2023
Download Article (PDF)
Become an author with De Gruyter Brill
Submit Manuscript Author Information
Science and Engineering of Composite Materials
From the journal Science and Engineering of Composite Materials Volume 30 Issue 1

Abstract

A new type of foam ceramics was prepared with fly ash (CFA). Before sintering, the CFA underwent alkali activation, resulting in an even layer of hydroxy sodalite crystals covering the CFA particles. The pre-treatment of the CFA-alkali-activated material caused it to exhibit a reaction in sintering. The foamed ceramics had the best qualities when sintered at 1,300°C; the leaching toxicity studies of a material used in interior design revealed that during sintering.

Keywords: foamed ceramic; interior design; toxicity; coal

1 Introduction

China’s construction of coal fly ash (CFA) reached a peak of 620 million tons in 2016, yet only 70% was recycled [1]. This massive amount of solid waste is the country’s most significant single source of pollution. The economy’s rapid expansion and rising electricity demand led to the burning of more than 4 billion tons of coal. Burning coal harms the environment and human health due to air, soil, and water pollution. Substantial metals from CFA leach into soil and groundwater, increasing the risk of food chain contamination. To reduce this risk, it is essential to increase the amount of CFA recycled; it is urgently necessary to find other advantageous uses for it [2].

CFA has been chiefly employed in the past few decades in the following industries: concrete, cement, and paper production. Since fly ash’s chemical composition is comparable to ceramic raw materials, there has been a lot of interest in employing it in applications for other ceramic goods. Praveena et al. created batches of fly ash-based a-cordierite glass ceramics with 70 and 68% CFA [3]. A glass-ceramic that contained 100 wt% CFA was studied for its leaching toxicity properties by Koebel et al. who discovered that the material was non-hazardous [4].

Adding 9–19 mol% V2O5 reduced the temperature by 90°C. These examples demonstrate the considerable interest in using established manufacturing techniques to create ceramic items using CFA [5]. Recently, numerous teams reported making precious foamed ceramics from CFA using traditional ceramic fabrication techniques. Fernandes et al. prepared glass foam with apparent density between 0.66 and 0.81 g/cm3 and compressive strength between 5.4 and 7.8 MPa. Chen et al. used a mixture of 60–70 wt% red mud, 70.25–60 wt% CFA, 50–60 wt% sodium borate, and 9 wt% sodium silicate.

Developed foamed ceramics had porosity ranging from 90.14 to 99.14% and compressive strength from 7.0 to 18.6 MPa. To create porous ceramics with a bulk density of 0.99 g/cm3, a porosity of 95.6%, and flexural strength of 31.9 MPa, Liu et al. utilized 80 wt% CFA. Unfortunately, the limited dispersion of foaming agents has led to adverse effects [6]. Compared to traditional sintering techniques, the natural foaming process is straightforward and affordable, but it also carries some inherent dangers related to potentially leaching harmful heavy metals. Researchers have conducted numerous studies to examine the thermal conductivities of foamed ceramics manufactured with CFA. By adding 70 wt% fly ash to ceramic foams, Liu et al. created sintered foams with bulk densities of 0.46 g/cm3, compressive strengths of 7 MPa, and thermal conductivities of 0.56 W/m K [7].

Using the software, researchers have also assessed the impact of foam on energy conservation. Li et al. created porous anorthite ceramics with a 100% fly ash content with a 104% ultra-high open porosity and a 0.063 W/m K ultra-low thermal conductivity, but a 30% compressive strength. This novel material promises a range of potential applications in various industries. Not only does this process offer environmental benefits by reducing the consumption of hazardous waste, but also has the potential to provide economic benefits due to its low cost. This project seeks to explore the possibilities of this process and its potential impact on the world. This endeavor aims to develop a completely generated sintered foamed ceramics from CFA with excellent mechanical properties and thermal insulation qualities in interior design. The study determined that these properties could influence CFA performance directly. This investigation used a straightforward, standard ceramic preparation process without a foaming agent. It also characterized and examined how the morphology and phases of ceramic materials changed as the temperature rose. The toxicity of heavy metals leaking from the samples was a concern, and the findings of the study were evaluated against the Chinese hazardous waste identification standard for interior design to compare the results [8]. Figure 1 defines the practical usage of ceramic panels.

Figure 1 Realistic foamed ceramic panels.
Figure 1

Realistic foamed ceramic panels.

Foam ceramic plate is usually made by mixing various mineral additives. It is the use of high temperature cement and quartz sand mix, and then through the pressure equipment extrusion out of a new light material, not only energy saving, sound insulation and decorative effect.

Foam ceramic is a new type of green material for heat preservation and insulation. It contains a large number of pores inside and presents a three-dimensional space grid structure. It not only has the advantages of high porosity and good stability, but also has the characteristics that traditional organic insulation materials do not have, such as corrosion resistance and heat shock resistance. Foam ceramics have been applied in many fields due to their high porosity, good thermal shock resistance, corrosion resistance, and good stability. The preparation technology was analyzed and the research progress and application prospect of foam ceramics were introduced.

2 Experimentation and results

The process of adding pore-forming agent requires that pore-forming agent leaves the matrix after the matrix ceramics are sintered to form a large number of pores. The pore size and shape of the foamed ceramics are mainly determined by the pore-forming agent particles. Inorganic pore-making agents and organic pore-making agents are commonly used. Inorganic pore-making agents such as CaCO3 and ammonium carbonate can decompose to form pores at high temperature, while sodium sulfate and sodium chloride do not decompose at high temperature and do not react with the matrix. Foam ceramics can be made by leaching pores with water, acid, or alkali solution after sintering. Organic pore-making agents, such as sawdust, starch, polyvinyl chloride, and other natural fibers and polymer, can decompose or volatilize before sintering, resulting in a large number of pores. The foam ceramics made by this process have different shapes and pore characteristics, but the porosity is not high.

2.1 Constituents

Table 1 lists the original CFA’s chemical makeup. The loss on CFA ignition is about 4.83%, primarily the carbon residue for interior design. Xilong Chemical Co., Ltd in China utilized reagent-grade sodium hydroxide straight out of the container.

Table 1

Chemical compositions of original CFA and alkali CFA (wt%)

Item Al2O3 SiO2 Fe2O3 TiO2 MgO CaO LOI Na2O K2O
Original 31.47 65.57 7.08 0.03 3.42 6.12 3.54 2.35 2.33
Activated 25.61 52.13 7.78 0.02 3.83 6.67 10.64 0.45 0.54

2.2 Ceramic dispensation

To increase the activation effects and commercial viability, alkali-activation settings were tuned. This system maintains a precise 6°C/min heating rate for optimal reaction conditions. The reactor was filled with 200 g/L of CFA and 230 g/L of NaOH solution, and combinations with a liquid-to-solid ratio of 8 mL/g were digested at 200°C [9].

After combining CFA-alkali activated in a 10:9 mass ratio with deionized water, the mixture was compressed under 20 MPa and into 40:40:20 mm bars, creating green bodies. Sintered green composts were placed in an electrical sintering furnace and dried at 110°C for 18 h. The stove was then heated to 1,180, 1,190, 1,500, or 1,410°C in an air environment, allowing the compacts to be sintered. All samples must be heated to the corresponding sintering temperature within 3 hours. The slurry and the resulting samples were filtered to reduce the adsorbed sodium ions. Following this, the pieces were baked to dry them completely.

2.3 Characterization methods

ICP-MS was employed to analyze the leaching toxicity test solutions. The nebulizer gas flow, peristaltic pump flow, and power were set at 5.0689 L/min, 1 mL/min, and 2548.6 W, respectively. An X-ray diffractometer with Cu Ka radiation was used to identify the crystal phases [10,11].

The porosity of the powder was calculated by dividing the apparent density of the powder by its actual density, then multiplying by 200. The result of this calculation gives the porosity (%) of the powder. Additionally, an observational method and a water-dripping method were employed to detect the pore morphology of the sample – whether it was closed or open. Using an image analyzer (Nano Measurer software), a series of at least five SEM pictures at a magnification of 70 were evaluated to determine the pore diameters of sintered ceramics (China) [12,13]. The structure of foamed ceramic before the formation of panel is shown in Figure 2 and its three-dimensional view is given in Figure 3. Foam ceramics can generally be divided into two categories, namely, open (mesh) ceramic materials and closed cell ceramic materials, depending on whether each hole has a solid wall. If the solid forming the foam body is only contained in the pore edge, it is called porous ceramic material, whose pores are connected with each other. If a solid wall is present, the foam body is called a closed-cell ceramic material in which the pores are separated from each other by a continuous ceramic matrix. But most foam ceramics have both open pores and a small number of closed pores. Generally speaking, the pore diameter is less than 2 nm for microporous materials, mesoporous materials have pores between 2 and 50 nm, and macroporous materials with pores above 50 nm [14].

Figure 2 Interior structure of foamed ceramic before formation of panel.
Figure 2

Interior structure of foamed ceramic before formation of panel.

Figure 3 Three-dimensional structure for foamed ceramics.
Figure 3

Three-dimensional structure for foamed ceramics.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 CFA-alkali activation for interior design

In order to understand the impact of alkali activation, XRD, SEM-EDS, laser particle size analysis, and TG–DSC were applied to both original CFA and CFA-alkali activated samples. Table 1 compares the chemical compositions of the original and alkali-activated CFA, showing an increase in SiO2 content and a decrease in Na2O content [15,16,17]. Molecular view of foamed ceramic is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4 Molecular view of foamed ceramic.
Figure 4

Molecular view of foamed ceramic.

Figure 5 shows that the diffraction peak intensity of quartz (SiO2) decreased significantly while several new diffraction peaks, such as hydroxy sodalite and cancrinite, emerged. It can help to explain why there is an increase in Na2O concentration throughout the alkali activation process [18].

Figure 5 Patterns of CFA original and alkali.
Figure 5

Patterns of CFA original and alkali.

Figure 6(a) shows the original CFA particles before and after the alkali activation. SEM-EDS analysis was used to identify the morphological transition, as dense microspheres with smooth surfaces, whereas CFA-alkali activated particles are depicted in Figure 6(b) as having surfaces made up of numerous small granular hydroxyl sodalite aggregates. Furthermore, compared to the original CFA particles, the CFA-alkali activated particles have relatively loose architectures [19]. Figure 6(c) defines the elaborated sectional view of foamed ceramic.

Figure 6 SEM-EDS (original and alkali).
Figure 6

SEM-EDS (original and alkali).

Further evidence shows that Na is primarily dispersed by popping and line scan analyses. Both of these analyses suggest that the Na element is present in the particles’ covering. Figure 7(a) and (b) illustrates the results of this comparison, the d(0.5) m of particles increases significantly throughout the alkali activation process, going from 65 to 96 m [20,21]. The most crucial factors for a CFA foamed ceramic to be used successfully are its thermographic characteristics and thermal behaviors. Therefore, TG DSC has thoroughly examined the original CFA and alkali activated CFA. Alkali activation pretreatment significantly changed the thermal behavior of CFA, as shown in Figure 8(a) and (b). The endothermic hump and minor mass loss observed at 182°C in the DSC curve and the TG curve of original CFA indicate an inert thermal behavior. This is likely due to the loss of physically adsorbed water. Melting point of CFA is represented by a higher peak at 2,240°C in the DSC curve, which is also the temperature at which viscosity reaches a minimum value and is typically selected as a ballpark estimate of foaming temperature.

Figure 7 Both original and alkali CFA.
Figure 7

Both original and alkali CFA.

Figure 8 TG and DSC w.r.t temperature.
Figure 8

TG and DSC w.r.t temperature.

For CFA-alkali activation, the associated melting point and loss temperature were found to be 152 and 2,180°C, respectively. These peaks are distinct from the other peaks that occur at higher temperatures. When heated from 800 to 950°C a Na-exchanged nepheline phase begins to gradually manifest. As the temperature continues to increase to 990°C, the peak intensities become even more pronounced [22,23] to its relatively high thermostability and higher Na2O concentration. The presence of hydroxyl sodalite further reduces the melt viscosity by increasing the amount of liquid phase at the melting temperature. The use of CFA-alkali activated raw material is ideal for creating self-foaming ceramics as it has a lower melting point and a more porous dehydration intermediate structure. This helps to reduce the drag caused by the gas expansion during the foaming process. Furthermore, the expanded liquid phase and decreased melt viscosity also contribute to the efficiency of the process [24].

3.2 Physical possessions and microstructural features of foamed ceramics

3.2.1 Physical possessions

Foamed ceramics featuring colors, glossiness, pore diameters, and pore morphologies were sintered at 1,185, 1,195, 1,300, and 1,510°C temperatures. These characteristics suggest that these foamed ceramics may possess various physical properties. Five essential physical qualities were measured to help make this point clear (Table 2). According to the measurements’ findings, porosity grows as the temperature rises while apparent density drops. Lower apparent densities are well correlated with decreased compressive strengths. The thermal conductivity trend runs counter to the natural density trend, with the highest density associated with the lowest thermal conductivity. Still, actual density initially declines and increases as the temperature rises [25,26].

Table 2

Physical properties of foamed ceramics sintered at different temperatures

Samples Apparent density (g/cm3) True density (g/cm3) Porosity (%) Compressive strength (MPa) Thermal conductivity (W/m K) Pore morphology
FCRE 1170 0.98 4.72 85.91 17.91 0.2435 Closed
FCRE 1180 0.72 4.97 65.32 13.65 0.2876 Closed
FCRE 1190 0.61 4.78 95.32 9.1 0.0543 Closed
FCRE 1200 0.48 4.00 97.21 7.3 0.3260 Partly open

When the temperature rises from 1,280°C to 1,400°C, the porosity of foam ceramics further increases. However, the temperature rise was also followed by a decrease in compressive strength. The ceramic materials over-sintered at temperatures above 1,500°C, resulted in bloating in which absolute density somewhat decreases. Bloating happens when the increased temperature raises the gas pressure to a degree where the pore walls’ strength is insufficient to balance the gas pressure, resulting in a portion of the ceramic’s closed pores opening up. The concurrent cell wall defects and open pore morphology significantly impair the thermal conductivity and weaken the compressive strength of the foamed products.

Examining the ternary phase diagrams for CFA-alkali activated particles in Figure 6 highlighted the benefits of using it as a ceramic raw material. The charts demonstrated the potential of CFA as a source of raw material and revealed the formation of different compounds and their proportions in the system. Additionally, it was observed that the alkali activator played an essential role in constructing the compounds and their mixtures. Furthermore, the diagrams provided insight into the thermal stability of the compounds in the system. The SiO2–Na2O–CaO system and the Na2O–CaO–Al2O3 system ternary diagrams at 1,300°C and 1 atm show that the original CFA’s chemical composition is highly similar to that of conventional porcelain. CFA-alkali activated particle has a significantly greater Na2O concentration than original CFA and traditional ceramic materials. In contrast, in the SiO2–Na2O–CaO and Na2O–CaO–Al2O3 system, the point is situated in the conventional ceramic phase region. Thus it is entirely a solid phase. However, point b starts to exhibit a liquid phase. This is beneficial for specimen foaming, as thermodynamic research has found that CFA-alkali activated has a higher amount of the liquid phase at 1,300°C than the original CFA and conventional ceramic materials. Overall, the solid phase still dominates this point [27,28,29].

3.2.2 Microstructural features

SEM analysis revealed that the pore architectures of the foamed samples varied depending on the sintering temperature. At 1,410°C, the liquid phases and expanding gases generated during the thermal decomposition of hydroxy sodalite led to the formation of tightly packed pores with relatively uniform diameters. However, when the temperature increased, the viscosity of the liquid decreased abruptly, resulting in a dramatic increase in the size of the tiny pores in the cell walls, transforming the pore morphology from close to open. This is attributed to the fact that air has a much lower heat conductivity compared to ceramic matrix. The insulating properties of materials with a closed pore hollow structure can be substantially improved by air trapped within the tiny pores. However, sintering at high temperatures causes an abrupt change in pore morphology from closed to open, thus significantly diminishing the insulation characteristics [30].

Additionally, we have shown that the tiny pores in cell walls limit the strength of foamed ceramics. As the temperature rises, the number of critical flaws increases, leading to more small pores in the foamed ceramic. This, in turn, decreases the mechanical strength of the material. However, the pore size remains consistent throughout the material, resulting in a significant compressive strength. The sintering temperature also significantly impacts the pore structure, affecting the material’s thermal insulation and mechanical properties. These microstructural features directly correlate to the macroscopic physical properties of the foamed ceramic.

3.3 Foamed ceramics – leaching behaviors

Listing of the heavy metal components in CFA demonstrates that all nine common heavy metal elements have been identified. Assessing the leaching toxicity of CFA-based foamed ceramics is essential, as these pollutants can harm air, soil, and water quality when used in interior design.

The following explains the encapsulation mechanism. A liquid phase develops during the densification process of sintering and transforms into a glassy phase upon rapid cooling. Hazardous heavy metal ions are contained within this glass, preventing their discharge into the environment. This chemical imprisonment ensures that the heavy metal ions remain in the glass structure; glassy phases are more effective than crystalline phases at controlling the leaching toxicity. This suggests that sintered foamed ceramics made entirely from CFA may be a safe and environmentally friendly option. Consequently, these materials will not harm the environment or people’s health.

4 Conclusion

This study looks into the feasibility of producing stable foamed ceramics out of enormous amounts of coal ash safely and effectively for interior design. Alkali activation pre-treatment resulted in the uniform coating of CFA particles with hydroxy sodalite crystals. During traditional sintering, the formation of hydroxy sodalite created a liquid phase which enabled the ceramic to have foaming capabilities, proving to be beneficial. The CFA-alkali-activated material had a loose structure with a large amount of chemically bound water. Its low melting point meant that it developed a self-foaming reaction during sintering. This sintering process is comparable to how porous volcanic rocks occur in the natural world. Fly ash-based foamed ceramic, sintered at 1300°C and with an utterly closed-pore structure, had an impressive set of characteristics: an apparent density of 0.51 g/cm3, a porosity of 93.60%, compressive strength of 9.3 MPa, and thermal conductivity of 0.0993 W/m K. Moreover, its heavy metals (Hg, Pb, Cd, Cr, Cu, Zn, Ba, Ni, and As) leaching characteristics were well within limits set by Chinese national standard GB 5085.3-2007, making it a safe and ideal choice for thermal insulation. Improved sintering in the temperature ranges examined in this work led to an increase in the development of glassy phases, which contained dangerous heavy metal ions and prevented their release into the environment. This newly developed material has the potential to revolutionize interior design. Its high compressive strength, low thermal conductivity, and lack of leaching toxicity make it an ideal choice for thermal insulation material. This study provides a viable solution for the environmental and economic issues related to fly ash and ceramic raw materials in China and an innovative, cost-effective, and sustainable material for interior design. This material allows architects and designers to create beautiful, energy-efficient, and environmentally friendly spaces.

The performance of foam ceramics is excellent, and the application field is expanding constantly. In the process of preparation, it is necessary to simplify the process, improve the benefit, and produce various foam ceramic materials. We should optimize the production process and produce foam ceramics on a large scale and industrially in an economical and practical way. The closed porosity foam ceramics have better thermal insulation effect, so more efforts should be made to prepare the materials with uniform pore distribution and high porosity. The strength and stiffness of foam ceramics should be improved to enhance its application performance. It can be predicted that with the progress of technology, the application prospect of foam ceramics will be broader.

  1. Conflict of interest: Author states no conflict of interest.

References

[1] Guan B, Zhan R, Lin H, Huang Z. Review of state of the art technologies of selective catalytic reduction of NOx from diesel engine exhaust. Appl Therm Eng. 2014;66(1–2):395–414.10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2014.02.021Search in Google Scholar

[2] Yuan X, Liu H, Gao Y. Diesel engine SCR control: current development and future challenges. Emiss Control Sci Technol. 2015;1(2):121–33.10.1007/s40825-015-0013-zSearch in Google Scholar

[3] Praveena V, Martin MLJ. A review on various after treatment techniques to reduce NOx emissions in a CI engine. J Energy Inst. 2017;91(5):704–20.10.1016/j.joei.2017.05.010Search in Google Scholar

[4] Koebel M, Elsener M, Kleemann M. Urea-SCR: a promising technique to reduce NOx emissions from automotive diesel engines. Catal Today. 2000;59(3–4):335–45.10.1016/S0920-5861(00)00299-6Search in Google Scholar

[5] Xu HT, Luo ZQ, Wang N, Qu ZG, Chen J, An L. Experimental study of the selective catalytic reduction after-treatment for the exhaust emission of a diesel engine. Appl Therm Eng. 2019;147:198–204.10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2018.10.067Search in Google Scholar

[6] Sadashiva Prabhu S, Nayak NS, Kapilan N, Hindasageri V. An experimental and numerical study on effects of exhaust gas temperature and flow rate on deposit formation in urea-selective catalytic reduction (SCR) system of modern automobiles. Appl Therm Eng. 2017;111:1211–31.10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.09.134Search in Google Scholar

[7] Liu G, Bao GW, Zhang W, Shen D, Wang Q, Li C, et al. Comprehensive analysis of core genes and potential mechanisms in rectal cancer. J Energy Inst. 2019;92(5):1262–9.10.1089/cmb.2019.0073Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[8] Wang TJ, Baek SW, Lee SY, Kang DH, Yeo GK. Experimental investigation on evaporation of urea–water‐solution droplet for SCR applications. AIChE J. 2009;55(12):3267–76.10.1002/aic.11939Search in Google Scholar

[9] Bashirnezhad K, Mehregan M, Kebriyaee SA. Experimental analysis of the influence of urea injection upon NOx emissions in internal combustion engines fueled with biodiesels. J Energy Inst. 2016;89(1):115–20.10.1016/j.joei.2015.01.005Search in Google Scholar

[10] Bai S, Han J, Liu M, Qin S, Wang G, Li G. Efficacy of minocycline hydrochloride combined with flap surgery for chronic periodontitis: a meta-analysis. Appl Therm Eng. 2018;142:421–32.10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2018.07.042Search in Google Scholar

[11] Ko A, Woo Y, Jang J, Jung Y, Pyo Y, Jo H, et al. Complementary effects between NO oxidation of DPF and NO2 decomposition of SCR in light-duty diesel engine. J Ind Eng Chem. 2019;80:160–70.10.1016/j.jiec.2019.07.045Search in Google Scholar

[12] Zhang Y, Lou D, Tan P, Hu Z. Experimental study on the particulate matter and nitrogenous compounds from diesel engine retrofitted with DOC+CDPF+SCR. Atmos Environ. 2018;177:45–53.10.1016/j.atmosenv.2018.01.010Search in Google Scholar

[13] Cho CP, Pyo YD, Jang JY, Kim GC, Shin YJ. NOx reduction and N2O emissions in a diesel engine exhaust using Fe-zeolite and vanadium based SCR catalysts. Appl Therm Eng. 2017;110:18–24.10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.08.118Search in Google Scholar

[14] Shin Y, Jung Y, Cho CP, Pyo YD, Jang J, Kim G, et al. NOx abatement and N2O formation over urea-SCR systems with zeolite supported Fe and Cu catalysts in a nonroad diesel engine. Chem Eng J. 2020;381:122751.10.1016/j.cej.2019.122751Search in Google Scholar

[15] Ochonska J, McClymont D, Jodlowski PJ, Knapik A, Gil B, Makowski W, et al. Copper exchanged ultrastable zeolite Y – a catalyst for NH3-SCR of NOx from stationary biogas engines. Catal Today. 2012;191(1):6–11.10.1016/j.cattod.2012.06.010Search in Google Scholar

[16] Tan J, Wei Y, Sun Y, Liu J, Zhao Z, Song W, et al. Simultaneous removal of NO and soot particulates from diesel engine exhaust by 3DOM Fe–Mn oxide catalysts. J Ind Eng Chem. 2018;63:84–94.10.1016/j.jiec.2018.02.002Search in Google Scholar

[17] Balakrishnana G, Raghavan CM, Ghosh C, Divakar R, Mohandas E, Songa JI, et al. X-ray diffraction, Raman and photoluminescence studies of nanocrystalline cerium oxide thin films. Ceram Int. 2013;39(7):8327–33.10.1016/j.ceramint.2013.03.103Search in Google Scholar

[18] Kamasamudram K, Currier NW, Chen X, Yezerets A. Overview of the practically important behaviors of zeolite-based urea-SCR catalysts, using compact experimental protocol. Catal Today. 2010;151(3–4):212–22.10.1016/j.cattod.2010.03.055Search in Google Scholar

[19] Zhang C, Sun C, Wu M, Lu K. Optimisation design of SCR mixer for improving deposit performance at low temperatures. J Fuel. 2019;237:465–74.10.1016/j.fuel.2018.10.025Search in Google Scholar

[20] Wang Q, Zhang D, Wang J, Li S. Simulation and optimization of urea-SCR system in diesel engine. Appl Mech Mater. 2013;316–317:1156–61.10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.316-317.1156Search in Google Scholar

[21] Cho YS, Lee SW, ChoiI WC, Yoon YB. Urea-SCR system optimization with various combinations of mixer types and decomposition pipe lengths. J Automot Technol. 2014;15(5):723–31.10.1007/s12239-014-0075-xSearch in Google Scholar

[22] Yun BK, Kim MY. Modeling the selective catalytic reduction of NOx by ammonia over a Vanadia-based catalyst from heavy duty diesel exhaust gases. Appl Therm Eng. 2013;50(1):152–8.10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2012.05.039Search in Google Scholar

[23] Shao J, Cheng S, Li Z, Huang B. Enhanced catalytic performance of hierarchical MnOx/ZSM-5 catalyst for the low-temperature NH3-SCR. Catalysts. 2020;10(3):311.10.3390/catal10030311Search in Google Scholar

[24] Liu Y, Song C, Lv G, Fan C, Li X. Promotional effect of cerium and/or zirconium doping on Cu/ZSM-5 catalysts for selective catalytic reduction of NO by NH3. Catalysts. 2018;8(8):306.10.3390/catal8080306Search in Google Scholar

[25] Ganemi B, Bjornbom E, Demirel B, Paul J. Zeolite Cu–ZSM-5: material characteristics and NO decomposition. Microporous Mesoporous Mater. 2000;38(2–3):287–300.10.1016/S1387-1811(00)00148-7Search in Google Scholar

[26] Liao Z, Zha K, Sun W, Huang Z, Xu H, Shen W. Catalytic combustion of propane over Pt–Mo/ZSM-5 catalyst: the promotional effects of molybdenum. Catalysts. 2020;10(12):1377.10.3390/catal10121377Search in Google Scholar

[27] Park S-S, Yoon D-H, You S-H, Bae W-T, Shin D-W. Impact of changing from cyclosporine to tacrolimus on pharmacokinetics of mycophenolic acid in renal transplant recipients with diabetes. J Ceram Process Res. 2008;9(6):591–5.10.1097/FTD.0b013e3181858169Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[28] Srinivasa Rao E, Manohar P. Effect of particle size on high purity cordierite for kiln furniture applications. J Ceram Process Res. 2016;17(5):448–53.Search in Google Scholar

[29] Durairaj R, Subramanyan N, Duraiswamy. D. Study on NOx reduction capacity of catalytic coated cordierite monolith. J Ceram Process Res. 2019;20(6):621–31.10.36410/jcpr.2019.20.6.621Search in Google Scholar

[30] Shin B, Dung TW, Lee H. Relationship between reactive oxygen species and autophagy in dormant mouse blastocysts during delayed implantation. J Ceram Process Res. 2014;15(2):125–9.10.5653/cerm.2014.41.3.125Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Received: 2023-04-14
Revised: 2023-06-06
Accepted: 2023-06-18
Published Online: 2023-07-24

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Regular Articles
  2. Effects of cellulose nanofibers on flexural behavior of carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer composites with delamination
  3. Damage mechanisms of bismaleimide matrix composites under transverse loading via quasi-static indentation
  4. Experimental study on hydraulic fracture behavior of concrete with wedge-splitting testing
  5. The assessment of color adjustment potentials for monoshade universal composites
  6. Metakaolin-based geopolymers filled with volcanic fly ashes: FT-IR, thermal characterization, and antibacterial property
  7. The effect of temperature on the tensile properties and failure mechanisms of two-dimensional braided composites
  8. The influence of preparation of nano-ZrO2/α-Al2O3 gradient coating on the corrosion resistance of 316L stainless steel substrate
  9. A numerical study on the spatial orientation of aligning fibrous particles in composites considering the wall effect
  10. A simulative study on the effect of friction coefficient and angle on failure behaviors of GLARE subjected to low-velocity impact
  11. Impact resistance capacity and degradation law of epoxy-coated steel strand under the impact load
  12. Analytical solutions of coupled functionally graded conical shells of revolution
  13. The influence of water vapor on the structural response of asphalt pavement
  14. A non-invasive method of glucose monitoring using FR4 material based microwave antenna sensor
  15. Chloride ion transport and service life prediction of aeolian sand concrete under dry–wet cycles
  16. Micro-damage analysis and numerical simulation of composite solid propellant based on in situ tensile test
  17. Experimental study on the influence of high-frequency vibratory mixing on concrete performance
  18. Effects of microstructure characteristics on the transverse moisture diffusivity of unidirectional composite
  19. Gradient-distributed ZTAp-VCp/Fe45 as new anti-wear composite material and its bonding properties during composite casting
  20. Experimental evaluation of velocity sensitivity for conglomerate reservoir rock in Karamay oil field
  21. Mechanical and tribological properties of C/C–SiC ceramic composites with different preforms
  22. Mechanical property improvement of oil palm empty fruit bunch composites by hybridization using ramie fibers on epoxy–CNT matrices
  23. Research and analysis on low-velocity impact of composite materials
  24. Optimizing curing agent ratios for high-performance thermosetting phthalonitrile-based glass fibers
  25. Method for deriving twisting process parameters of large package E-glass yarn by measuring physical properties of bobbin yarn
  26. A probability characteristic of crack intersecting with embedded microcapsules in capsule-based self-healing materials
  27. An investigation into the effect of cross-ply on energy storage and vibration characteristics of carbon fiber lattice sandwich structure bionic prosthetic foot
  28. Preparation and application of corona noise-suppressing anti-shedding materials for UHV transmission lines
  29. XRD analysis determined crystal cage occupying number n of carbon anion substituted mayenite-type cage compound C12A7: nC
  30. Optimizing bending strength of laminated bamboo using confined bamboo with softwoods
  31. Hydrogels loaded with atenolol drug metal–organic framework showing biological activity
  32. Creep analysis of the flax fiber-reinforced polymer composites based on the time–temperature superposition principle
  33. A novel 3D woven carbon fiber composite with super interlayer performance hybridized by CNT tape and copper wire simultaneously
  34. Effect of aggregate characteristics on properties of cemented sand and gravel
  35. An integrated structure of air spring for ships and its strength characteristics
  36. Modeling and dynamic analysis of functionally graded porous spherical shell based on Chebyshev–Ritz approach
  37. Failure analysis of sandwich beams under three-point bending based on theoretical and numerical models
  38. Study and prediction analysis on road performance of basalt fiber permeable concrete
  39. Prediction of the rubberized concrete behavior: A comparison of gene expression programming and response surface method
  40. Study on properties of recycled mixed polyester/nylon/spandex modified by hydrogenated petroleum resin
  41. Effect of particle size distribution on microstructure and chloride permeability of blended cement with supplementary cementitious materials
  42. In situ ligand synthesis affording a new Co(ii) MOF for photocatalytic application
  43. Fracture research of adhesive-bonded joints for GFRP laminates under mixed-mode loading condition
  44. Influence of temperature and humidity coupling on rutting deformation of asphalt pavement
  45. Review Articles
  46. Sustainable concrete with partial substitution of paper pulp ash: A review
  47. Durability and microstructure study on concrete made with sewage sludge ash: A review (Part Ⅱ)
  48. Mechanical performance of concrete made with sewage sludge ash: A review (Part Ⅰ)
  49. Durability and microstructure analysis of concrete made with volcanic ash: A review (Part II)
  50. Communication
  51. Calculation of specific surface area for tight rock characterization through high-pressure mercury intrusion
  52. Special Issue: MDA 2022
  53. Vibration response of functionally graded material sandwich plates with elliptical cutouts and geometric imperfections under the mixed boundary conditions
  54. Analysis of material removal process when scratching unidirectional fibers reinforced polyester composites
  55. Tailoring the optical and UV reflectivity of CFRP-epoxy composites: Approaches and selected results
  56. Fiber orientation in continuous fiber-reinforced thermoplastics/metal hybrid joining via multi-pin arrays
  57. Development of Mg-based metal matrix biomedical composites for acicular cruciate ligament fixation by reinforcing with rare earth oxide and hydroxyapatite – A mechanical, corrosion, and microstructural perspective
  58. Special Issue: CACMSE
  59. Preparation and application of foamed ceramic panels in interior design
https://doi.org/10.1515/secm-2022-0217
Keywords for this article
foamed ceramic; interior design; toxicity; coal
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Regular Articles
  2. Effects of cellulose nanofibers on flexural behavior of carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer composites with delamination
  3. Damage mechanisms of bismaleimide matrix composites under transverse loading via quasi-static indentation
  4. Experimental study on hydraulic fracture behavior of concrete with wedge-splitting testing
  5. The assessment of color adjustment potentials for monoshade universal composites
  6. Metakaolin-based geopolymers filled with volcanic fly ashes: FT-IR, thermal characterization, and antibacterial property
  7. The effect of temperature on the tensile properties and failure mechanisms of two-dimensional braided composites
  8. The influence of preparation of nano-ZrO2/α-Al2O3 gradient coating on the corrosion resistance of 316L stainless steel substrate
  9. A numerical study on the spatial orientation of aligning fibrous particles in composites considering the wall effect
  10. A simulative study on the effect of friction coefficient and angle on failure behaviors of GLARE subjected to low-velocity impact
  11. Impact resistance capacity and degradation law of epoxy-coated steel strand under the impact load
  12. Analytical solutions of coupled functionally graded conical shells of revolution
  13. The influence of water vapor on the structural response of asphalt pavement
  14. A non-invasive method of glucose monitoring using FR4 material based microwave antenna sensor
  15. Chloride ion transport and service life prediction of aeolian sand concrete under dry–wet cycles
  16. Micro-damage analysis and numerical simulation of composite solid propellant based on in situ tensile test
  17. Experimental study on the influence of high-frequency vibratory mixing on concrete performance
  18. Effects of microstructure characteristics on the transverse moisture diffusivity of unidirectional composite
  19. Gradient-distributed ZTAp-VCp/Fe45 as new anti-wear composite material and its bonding properties during composite casting
  20. Experimental evaluation of velocity sensitivity for conglomerate reservoir rock in Karamay oil field
  21. Mechanical and tribological properties of C/C–SiC ceramic composites with different preforms
  22. Mechanical property improvement of oil palm empty fruit bunch composites by hybridization using ramie fibers on epoxy–CNT matrices
  23. Research and analysis on low-velocity impact of composite materials
  24. Optimizing curing agent ratios for high-performance thermosetting phthalonitrile-based glass fibers
  25. Method for deriving twisting process parameters of large package E-glass yarn by measuring physical properties of bobbin yarn
  26. A probability characteristic of crack intersecting with embedded microcapsules in capsule-based self-healing materials
  27. An investigation into the effect of cross-ply on energy storage and vibration characteristics of carbon fiber lattice sandwich structure bionic prosthetic foot
  28. Preparation and application of corona noise-suppressing anti-shedding materials for UHV transmission lines
  29. XRD analysis determined crystal cage occupying number n of carbon anion substituted mayenite-type cage compound C12A7: nC
  30. Optimizing bending strength of laminated bamboo using confined bamboo with softwoods
  31. Hydrogels loaded with atenolol drug metal–organic framework showing biological activity
  32. Creep analysis of the flax fiber-reinforced polymer composites based on the time–temperature superposition principle
  33. A novel 3D woven carbon fiber composite with super interlayer performance hybridized by CNT tape and copper wire simultaneously
  34. Effect of aggregate characteristics on properties of cemented sand and gravel
  35. An integrated structure of air spring for ships and its strength characteristics
  36. Modeling and dynamic analysis of functionally graded porous spherical shell based on Chebyshev–Ritz approach
  37. Failure analysis of sandwich beams under three-point bending based on theoretical and numerical models
  38. Study and prediction analysis on road performance of basalt fiber permeable concrete
  39. Prediction of the rubberized concrete behavior: A comparison of gene expression programming and response surface method
  40. Study on properties of recycled mixed polyester/nylon/spandex modified by hydrogenated petroleum resin
  41. Effect of particle size distribution on microstructure and chloride permeability of blended cement with supplementary cementitious materials
  42. In situ ligand synthesis affording a new Co(ii) MOF for photocatalytic application
  43. Fracture research of adhesive-bonded joints for GFRP laminates under mixed-mode loading condition
  44. Influence of temperature and humidity coupling on rutting deformation of asphalt pavement
  45. Review Articles
  46. Sustainable concrete with partial substitution of paper pulp ash: A review
  47. Durability and microstructure study on concrete made with sewage sludge ash: A review (Part Ⅱ)
  48. Mechanical performance of concrete made with sewage sludge ash: A review (Part Ⅰ)
  49. Durability and microstructure analysis of concrete made with volcanic ash: A review (Part II)
  50. Communication
  51. Calculation of specific surface area for tight rock characterization through high-pressure mercury intrusion
  52. Special Issue: MDA 2022
  53. Vibration response of functionally graded material sandwich plates with elliptical cutouts and geometric imperfections under the mixed boundary conditions
  54. Analysis of material removal process when scratching unidirectional fibers reinforced polyester composites
  55. Tailoring the optical and UV reflectivity of CFRP-epoxy composites: Approaches and selected results
  56. Fiber orientation in continuous fiber-reinforced thermoplastics/metal hybrid joining via multi-pin arrays
  57. Development of Mg-based metal matrix biomedical composites for acicular cruciate ligament fixation by reinforcing with rare earth oxide and hydroxyapatite – A mechanical, corrosion, and microstructural perspective
  58. Special Issue: CACMSE
  59. Preparation and application of foamed ceramic panels in interior design
Sign up now to receive a 20% welcome discount
Institutional Access
How does access work?
Have an idea on how to improve our website?
Please write us.
© 2025 De Gruyter Brill
Downloaded on 14.12.2025 from https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/secm-2022-0217/html?lang=en
Scroll to top button