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Impact of eccentricity and depth-to-breadth ratio on the behavior of skirt foundation rested on dry gypseous soil

  • Hind Jamal Abd-Alhameed and Bushra Suhale Albusoda EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: July 25, 2022
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Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Materials
From the journal Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Materials Volume 31 Issue 1

Abstract

Gypseous soils are considered one of the most problematic soils. The skirted foundation is an alternative technology that works to improve the bearing capacity and reduce settlement. This paper investigates the use of square skirted foundations resting on gypseous soil subjected to concentric and eccentric vertical load with eccentricity values of 4, 8, and 17 mm in 16 experimental model tests. To obtain the results by using this type of foundation, a small-scale physical model was designed to obtain the load–settlement behavior of the square skirted foundation; the dimension of the square footing is 100 mm × 100 mm with 1 mm thickness, the skirt depth (D s) was 0.5, 1, and 1.5B (where B is the footing width). The footing rests on dry gypseous soil with a relative density of 33%. The tests show that the gypsum content of the soil is 59%. The result shows that the highest bearing capacity for the square shape footing with D s/B = 1.5 subjected to concentric load results in an improvement ratio of 190%. For the eccentric load, with D s/B = 1.5, the increase in bearing capacity is about 120% at e = 8 mm when compared with using a foundation without a skirt.

Keywords: square skirted foundation; gypseous soil bearing capacity; settlement

1 Introduction

Gypseous soils are one of the most problematic soils to build on. Previous researchers were not thoroughly studied the square skirted foundation on soils and especially on gypseous soils. Therefore, first, it is necessary to study the effect of using a square foundation with different skirt depths on the behavior of gypseous soil in a loose and dry state and how it is possible to improve strength and reduce settlement.

The chemical composition of gypsum in soil consists of hydrated calcium sulfate (CaSO4·2H2O) [1,2,3], or it may be found as anhydrate calcium sulfate (CaSO4) [4]. Collapsible soils can be found in arid and semi-arid regions in hot climate weather when the rain rate is less than the evaporation rate. Gypseous soil can be classified according to the amount of gypsum present. When gypseous soil contains more than 2% of gypsum, it is known as ،“gypsiferous soil” as suggested by Van Alphen and Romero [5], whereas Saaed and Khorshid (1989) used the name “gypsiferous soil” when the soil contains gypsum of more than 6% [6].

In Iraq, the amount of gypsum ranges between 3 and 10% and is considered ineffective in soil properties, according to Smith and Robertson [7], while the amount of gypsum ranges between 10 and 25% gypsum crystal tends to break down the continuity of the soil mass. In civil engineering, when the amount of gypsum in the soil causes a change in soil properties, it can consider gypseous soil [8]. Table 1 shows the classification of gypseous soil. In general, gypseous soil covers 1.5% of the world’s surface area which is about 186 million ha. The distribution of gypseous soil in spatial aggregation shows a high concentration of gypseous soil in three major geographic regions, where gypseous soil covers about 72 million ha of Middle East surface area, 51 million ha of Eurasia surface area, and 37 million ha of the Mediterranean surface area in addition to small unevenly distributed areas rest of the world.

Table 1

Classification of gypseous soil [3]

Gypsum content (%) Classification
0–0.3 Non-gypsiferous
0.3–3 Very slightly gypsiferous
3–10 Slightly gypsiferous
10–25 Moderately gypsiferous
25–50 Highly gypsiferous
>50 Sandy gypsiferous soil

Gypseous soil found in Russia, Spain, Armenia, and the USA covers more than (20%) of the Iraq area [9].

Figure 1 shows the distribution of gypseous soils globally [2]. One of the most crucial characteristics of gypsum soil is its open structure; gypseous soil has low density, the number of gaps is high, and porosity in gypseous soil is also a high type of soil that is sensitive to weather factors [4,10,11]. Therefore, many civil engineers have sought to devise an effective and inexpensive method to reduce the risk of building facilities on gypseous soils. Many improvement methods were used to improve the bearing capacity and reduce settlement; some methods are expensive [12,13] and restricted by site conditions, and the others have serious side effects in the future that affect human life and the environment [14]. The skirted foundation is one of the ways that civil engineers have devised to reduce settlement and increase the bearing capacity of footing rest on the soil [15,16,17,18,19], which is one of the latest methods of improving the foundation that is considered an alternative to using the surface, pier, and piles in oil and gas facilities and offshore structures, jacket structures, and wind turbines [20,21].

Figure 1 Distribution of gypseous soils globally [2].
Figure 1

Distribution of gypseous soils globally [2].

“Skirt” can be defined as one or more walls made of steel or concrete [22,23]. This wall is either vertical or inclined. The skirt surrounding the foundation is connected to the lower part of the foundation and works as a single unit with the foundation that works to confine soil between the walls and transfers load from the structure to the soil [15,24].

A theoretical solution has been proposed to design a reinforced shallow foundation based on laboratory data from 65 small-scale strip footing bearing capacity tests to develop an analytical procedure for predicting the load–settlement and ultimate bearing capacity of a strip footing on sand that contains horizontal strips of tensile reinforcing. The theory is formulated in terms of the ratio of bearing capacity with and without reinforcing, assuming that existing methods are adequate for predicting bearing capacities on the sand with 0 reinforcing [25].

Other studies used the finite element method to investigate the effect of vertical skirts with strip and circular foundations; the result indicated that the improvement with the use of a skirt with a circular foundation is more than the use of a skirt with a strip foundation [26].

An empirical equation was applied on a skirted strip footing subjected to an inclined load. The behavior of a skirted foundation with an inclined or vertical wall on one (or more) sides under an inclined, eccentric load was investigated. The findings indicate that the skirted foundation with an inclined or vertical wall confines the underlying soil and creates resistance to skirt side sliding Figure 2 [15].

Figure 2 Parameters used in the analysis [15].
Figure 2

Parameters used in the analysis [15].

A skirted foundation is considered a shallow foundation; skirts are used with shallow foundations of square circular and rectangular shapes. Skirt sides work to reduce sliding failure. This type of foundation is cost-effective because it consumes fewer materials and is based its ease and short time of installation compared with deep foundations such as piers and piles [3].

In this research, the effect of adding a skirt on a square foundation was studied by conducting 16 small-scale physical models. The adopted square footing has a dimension of 100 mm × 100 mm with 1 mm thickness. Experimental work showed the effect of applying vertical concentric and eccentric load with eccentricity values of 4, 8, and 17 mm on the square skirted foundation resting on dry loose gypseous soil and knowing the extent of adding a skirt on the bearing capacity and settlement at different skirt depths. The skirt depth (D s) was 0.5B, 1B, and 1.5B (where B is the footing width).

2 Materials and methodology

2.1 Gypseous soil

Experiments were carried out on Gypseous soil. The soil is brought from Tikrit city north of Baghdad with 59% gypsum content. Standard tests found the particle size distribution of the soil used in the research; Figure 3 shows the particle size distribution.

Figure 3 Grain size distribution.
Figure 3

Grain size distribution.

2.2 Model skirted footing

The foundation model has a square shape made of iron with a dimension of 100 mm × 100 mm, skirts are also made of iron welded firmly; the thickness of the foundation and skirt is 1 mm. The depth of skirt (D s) to the footing width (B), D s/B values are 0, 0.5,1, and 1.5; the square footing is set above the skirt and works as a single unit. Figure 4 shows the dimension of a used skirt.

Figure 4 Dimension of a used skirt (mm).
Figure 4

Dimension of a used skirt (mm).

2.3 Setup for skirt foundation model tests

A physical model was set up to use in the experimental work to understand the performance of the skirted foundations resting on gypseous soil. The manufacturing setup consists of a glassy container box, the purpose of using the glassy container is to allow better observation of soil homogeneity, and reference markers were used on the sides of the container to help with the formation of the model that has a dimension of 60 cm × 60 cm and 60 cm high, glass thickness 10 mm, as shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5 Glassy container and frame model.
Figure 5

Glassy container and frame model.

The second part of the setup is the loading system which consists of a steel arch frame with a mechanical jack of 2 tons attached to the arch frame to apply a concentrated, eccentric load. The jack is connected to a load cell SS300-5T to measure the applied load on the footing. The cell was made from stainless steel with a maximum capacity of 5 tons. Two LVDTs of 75 mm capacity were placed at equal distance on the right and left of the jack sides to measure the settlement when applied load on the footing, and the load cell was connected with the digital indicator to give a reading of the applied load. The two LVDT and the digital indicator are connected to a data logger and “One D.A.Q.” One D.A.Q. can be defined as a new software program developed with python programming language specifically for the research. The developed software computes each channel according to predefined instructions based on the sensor type, displays the processed data on the screen in real-time, and stores them into a data file. The program was used to give a reading of the two LVDTs and the applied load. This program gives 13 reads in a second, giving an accurate soil indicator when applied load.

2.4 Skirt foundation model tests: experimental procedure

To study the behavior of a square skirted foundation resting on gypseous soil, laboratory tests were conducted on a square footing with a width (B) equal to 100 mm. To fill the container of a height of 60 cm with gypseous soil, the container was divided into six layers; each layer’s thickness was 10 cm. The soil deposit was arranged by using the raining technique. This technique was designed and developed to get the required density and uniform deposit. In this technique, the soil was dropped freely from several heights to achieve the required density for examination. A relationship is established between height and density. The height required to arrange the gypseous soil in a uniform and homogenous with relative density (33%) was calculated to be about 8.5 cm, as shown in Figure 6. After filling the container with gypseous soil, the top surface of the soil was leveled by using a straight steel plate; the soil is leveled gently to maintain the density without any change. Initially, the foundation without a skirt is placed on the gypseous soil’s surface at the required level.

Figure 6 Relationship between dry unit weight and height.
Figure 6

Relationship between dry unit weight and height.

For the skirted foundation, the skirt was placed during the raining technique after filling the container; the foundation is placed at the top of the skirt, the two LVDT is placed at an equal distance and then the load is applied. Different skirt lengths of 0.5B, 1B, and 1.5B (where B is the footing width) were adopted in this study. Care was taken to avoid any relative density changes when placing the foundation and skirts. The skirted foundation was subjected to vertical and eccentricity load values of 4, 8, and 17 mm, and the load was applied to the foundations by a hand jack, and the applied load was read by the digital indicator connected to the load cell. A “One D.A.Q.” program (Figure 7) was used to record the applied load and the settlement; the program gives 30 reads in a second to present the actual behavior of the soil while applying different loads. Figure 8 shows the test step.

Figure 7 One D.A.Q. Graphical interface. Al-KHAIRO developed it.
Figure 7

One D.A.Q. Graphical interface. Al-KHAIRO developed it.

Figure 8 Steps of soil preparation and skirt foundation placement.
Figure 8

Steps of soil preparation and skirt foundation placement.

3 Results and discussion

To analyze and determine the behavior of the square skirted foundation, a series of (16) experimental tests were carried out. The skirted foundation rests on loose gypseous soil with 33% relative density. The foundation has a size of 100 mm resting on dry gypseous soil, and the skirts have different lengths 0B, 0.5B, 1B, and 1.5B, where B is the foundation width. Skirt added to the foundation subjected to vertical and eccentric load with 4, 8, and 17 mm. Figures 9–12 show the results of the model tests. Through the tests, it is possible to raise the effect of eccentric loads on the foundation and know the effect of adding skirts to the foundation and increasing its depth—how it affects improving bearing capacity and reducing settlement.

Figure 9 Load–settlement ratio relationship at D s = 0B.
Figure 9

Load–settlement ratio relationship at D s = 0B.

Figure 10 Load–settlement ratio relationship at D s = 0.5B.
Figure 10

Load–settlement ratio relationship at D s = 0.5B.

Figure 11 Load–settlement ratio relationship at D s = 1B.
Figure 11

Load–settlement ratio relationship at D s = 1B.

Figure 12 Load–settlement ratio relationship at D s = 1.5B.
Figure 12

Load–settlement ratio relationship at D s = 1.5B.

The result shows the effect of applying eccentricity load on a square foundation with and without a skirt and illustrate the effect of using a skirt increasing its depth. Bearing capacity (at settlement 10%B) increases with a skirted foundation for square footing with D s = 1.5B; bearing capacity increases about 190%. Also, using a skirt will reduce settlement by roughly 186%. [15,16,17,18,24,26–28]. From Figures 13–16, it is observed that the failure load of square skirted foundation increased with increasing skirt depth; for the foundation with a D s of 1.5B, it is about 0.48 kN. These tests result can be compared with that found by Fattah et al. [28], which used a circular skirted foundation with various skirt depths resting on dry gypseous soil with different densities. The general result shows that using skirts with different depths with square or circular foundations increases bearing capacity and reduces settlement. The amount of improvement increases with increasing the diameter or width to the depth ratio of the skirted foundation.

Figure 13 Ultimate bearing load at D s = 0.
Figure 13

Ultimate bearing load at D s = 0.

Figure 14 Ultimate bearing load at D s = 0.5B.
Figure 14

Ultimate bearing load at D s = 0.5B.

Figure 15 Ultimate bearing load at D s = 1B.
Figure 15

Ultimate bearing load at D s = 1B.

Figure 16 Ultimate bearing load at D s = 1.5B.
Figure 16

Ultimate bearing load at D s = 1.5B.

4 Conclusion

The tests aim to study the load–settlement behavior of square foundation with and without skirt resting on dry gypseous soil with a relative density of 33% and also to know the effect of increasing skirt depth on bearing capacity and settlement. From test data and results, we can summarize the conclusions as follows:

  1. Using skirts with foundation increases the bearing capacity and reduces the settlement of foundation resting on dry gypseous soil with a concentrated load. Bearing capacity improves about 190% when using a skirt with a depth equal to 1.5B (where B is the footing width). From the result, it is observed that the ultimate bearing capacity of square skirted foundation increases with increasing skirt length.

  2. The settlement of the square foundation decreases with using the skirt. For the experimental work results, the settlement decreased by about 186% when using a skirt with a depth equal to 1.5B (where B is the footing width) and applying vertical load (concentrated load).

  3. The behavior of the footing and the displacement of the square skirted foundation depends on the skirt’s length, the type of the applied load, and the relative density of soil. Skirts work as a single unit with a foundation that works to confine the soil between the walls and transfer load from the structure to the soil.

  4. Using a square skirted foundation improved the bearing capacity of loose gypseous soil when the centric load was applied. For a square skirted foundation with D s/B = 1.5, the bearing capacity increases about 120% at e = 8 mm compared with a foundation without a skirt.

  5. The settlement decrease when using a skirted foundation and applying eccentric load. For a square skirted foundation with D s/B = 1.5 at e = 17 mm, the settlement improved by about 105% compared with a square foundation without a skirt.

  1. Funding information: None declared.

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2022-03-27
Revised: 2022-05-06
Accepted: 2022-05-09
Published Online: 2022-07-25

© 2022 Hind Jamal Abd-Alhameed and Bushra Suhale Albusoda, published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/jmbm-2022-0057
Keywords for this article
square skirted foundation; gypseous soil bearing capacity; settlement
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  6. Prediction of bearing capacity of driven piles for Basrah governatore using SPT and MATLAB
  7. Investigation on microstructural features and tensile shear fracture properties of resistance spot welded advanced high strength dual phase steel sheets in lap joint configuration for automotive frame applications
  8. Experimental and numerical investigation of drop weight impact of aramid and UHMWPE reinforced epoxy
  9. An experimental study and finite element analysis of the parametric of circular honeycomb core
  10. The study of the particle size effect on the physical properties of TiO2/cellulose acetate composite films
  11. Hybrid material performance assessment for rocket propulsion
  12. Design of ER damper for recoil length minimization: A case study on gun recoil system
  13. Forecasting technical performance and cost estimation of designed rim wheels based on variations of geometrical parameters
  14. Enhancing the machinability of SKD61 die steel in power-mixed EDM process with TGRA-based multi criteria decision making
  15. Effect of boron carbide reinforcement on properties of stainless-steel metal matrix composite for nuclear applications
  16. Energy absorption behaviors of designed metallic square tubes under axial loading: Experiment-based benchmarking and finite element calculation
  17. Synthesis and study of magnesium complexes derived from polyacrylate and polyvinyl alcohol and their applications as superabsorbent polymers
  18. Artificial neural network for predicting the mechanical performance of additive manufacturing thermoset carbon fiber composite materials
  19. Shock and impact reliability of electronic assemblies with perimeter vs full array layouts: A numerical comparative study
  20. Influences of pre-bending load and corrosion degree of reinforcement on the loading capacity of concrete beams
  21. Assessment of ballistic impact damage on aluminum and magnesium alloys against high velocity bullets by dynamic FE simulations
  22. On the applicability of Cu–17Zn–7Al–0.3Ni shape memory alloy particles as reinforcement in aluminium-based composites: Structural and mechanical behaviour considerations
  23. Mechanical properties of laminated bamboo composite as a sustainable green material for fishing vessel: Correlation of layer configuration in various mechanical tests
  24. Singularities at interface corners of piezoelectric-brass unimorphs
  25. Evaluation of the wettability of prepared anti-wetting nanocoating on different construction surfaces
  26. Review Article
  27. An overview of cold spray coating in additive manufacturing, component repairing and other engineering applications
  28. Special Issue: Sustainability and Development in Civil Engineering - Part I
  29. Risk assessment process for the Iraqi petroleum sector
  30. Evaluation of a fire safety risk prediction model for an existing building
  31. The slenderness ratio effect on the response of closed-end pipe piles in liquefied and non-liquefied soil layers under coupled static-seismic loading
  32. Experimental and numerical study of the bulb's location effect on the behavior of under-reamed pile in expansive soil
  33. Procurement challenges analysis of Iraqi construction projects
  34. Deformability of non-prismatic prestressed concrete beams with multiple openings of different configurations
  35. Response of composite steel-concrete cellular beams of different concrete deck types under harmonic loads
  36. The effect of using different fibres on the impact-resistance of slurry infiltrated fibrous concrete (SIFCON)
  37. Effect of microbial-induced calcite precipitation (MICP) on the strength of soil contaminated with lead nitrate
  38. The effect of using polyolefin fiber on some properties of slurry-infiltrated fibrous concrete
  39. Typical strength of asphalt mixtures compacted by gyratory compactor
  40. Modeling and simulation sedimentation process using finite difference method
  41. Residual strength and strengthening capacity of reinforced concrete columns subjected to fire exposure by numerical analysis
  42. Effect of magnetization of saline irrigation water of Almasab Alam on some physical properties of soil
  43. Behavior of reactive powder concrete containing recycled glass powder reinforced by steel fiber
  44. Reducing settlement of soft clay using different grouting materials
  45. Sustainability in the design of liquefied petroleum gas systems used in buildings
  46. Utilization of serial tendering to reduce the value project
  47. Time and finance optimization model for multiple construction projects using genetic algorithm
  48. Identification of the main causes of risks in engineering procurement construction projects
  49. Identifying the selection criteria of design consultant for Iraqi construction projects
  50. Calibration and analysis of the potable water network in the Al-Yarmouk region employing WaterGEMS and GIS
  51. Enhancing gypseous soil behavior using casein from milk wastes
  52. Structural behavior of tree-like steel columns subjected to combined axial and lateral loads
  53. Prospect of using geotextile reinforcement within flexible pavement layers to reduce the effects of rutting in the middle and southern parts of Iraq
  54. Ultimate bearing capacity of eccentrically loaded square footing over geogrid-reinforced cohesive soil
  55. Influence of water-absorbent polymer balls on the structural performance of reinforced concrete beam: An experimental investigation
  56. A spherical fuzzy AHP model for contractor assessment during project life cycle
  57. Performance of reinforced concrete non-prismatic beams having multiple openings configurations
  58. Finite element analysis of the soil and foundations of the Al-Kufa Mosque
  59. Flexural behavior of concrete beams with horizontal and vertical openings reinforced by glass-fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) bars
  60. Studying the effect of shear stud distribution on the behavior of steel–reactive powder concrete composite beams using ABAQUS software
  61. The behavior of piled rafts in soft clay: Numerical investigation
  62. The impact of evaluation and qualification criteria on Iraqi electromechanical power plants in construction contracts
  63. Performance of concrete thrust block at several burial conditions under the influence of thrust forces generated in the water distribution networks
  64. Geotechnical characterization of sustainable geopolymer improved soil
  65. Effect of the covariance matrix type on the CPT based soil stratification utilizing the Gaussian mixture model
  66. Impact of eccentricity and depth-to-breadth ratio on the behavior of skirt foundation rested on dry gypseous soil
  67. Concrete strength development by using magnetized water in normal and self-compacted concrete
  68. The effect of dosage nanosilica and the particle size of porcelanite aggregate concrete on mechanical and microstructure properties
  69. Comparison of time extension provisions between the Joint Contracts Tribunal and Iraqi Standard Bidding Document
  70. Numerical modeling of single closed and open-ended pipe pile embedded in dry soil layers under coupled static and dynamic loadings
  71. Mechanical properties of sustainable reactive powder concrete made with low cement content and high amount of fly ash and silica fume
  72. Deformation of unsaturated collapsible soils under suction control
  73. Mitigation of collapse characteristics of gypseous soils by activated carbon, sodium metasilicate, and cement dust: An experimental study
  74. Behavior of group piles under combined loadings after improvement of liquefiable soil with nanomaterials
  75. Using papyrus fiber ash as a sustainable filler modifier in preparing low moisture sensitivity HMA mixtures
  76. Study of some properties of colored geopolymer concrete consisting of slag
  77. GIS implementation and statistical analysis for significant characteristics of Kirkuk soil
  78. Improving the flexural behavior of RC beams strengthening by near-surface mounting
  79. The effect of materials and curing system on the behavior of self-compacting geopolymer concrete
  80. The temporal rhythm of scenes and the safety in educational space
  81. Numerical simulation to the effect of applying rationing system on the stability of the Earth canal: Birmana canal in Iraq as a case study
  82. Assessing the vibration response of foundation embedment in gypseous soil
  83. Analysis of concrete beams reinforced by GFRP bars with varying parameters
  84. One dimensional normal consolidation line equation
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