Home Geology and Mineralogy A combination of genetic inversion and seismic frequency attributes to delineate reservoir targets in offshore northern Orange Basin, South Africa
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A combination of genetic inversion and seismic frequency attributes to delineate reservoir targets in offshore northern Orange Basin, South Africa

  • Chris Adesola Samakinde EMAIL logo , Jan Marinus van Bever Donker and Oluwaseun Adejuwon Fadipe
Published/Copyright: October 23, 2020
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Open Geosciences
From the journal Open Geosciences Volume 12 Issue 1

Abstract

The reported occurrence of Albian- and Cenomanian-aged braided fluvio-deltaic channels in the Orange Basin, South Africa, opens a window of exploration activities to characterize these channels as they are renowned to form some of the world’s giant oil field. In this study, a seismic acoustic impedance inversion and seismic attributes (instantaneous frequency and iso-frequency) analysis is used to investigate potential Albian and Cenomanian fluvio-deltaic channels in offshore, northern Orange Basin. Reservoirs were mapped using a well and 3D seismic volume (8-bit) after initial dip-steering coherency filtering had been performed on the seismic volume to remove incoherent noise and improve data resolution. Model-based acoustic impedance inversion was applied on the seismic volume to delineate fluvio-deltaic channels in addition to using the RMS (root mean square) amplitude attribute. Iso-frequency using the cosine correlative transform (CCT) method was equally applied to delineate these channels. Instantaneous frequency attribute was analyzed for potential hydrocarbon-charged sediments. This was achieved by utilizing thirty-three seismic traces as an input in the Hilbert transform window, after which trace envelope and instantaneous phase were transformed into instantaneous frequency. Acoustic impedance inversion results reveal the presence of two channels within the Cenomanian sequence, which shows high porosity (∼40%) along its geometry. The CCT method shows that the 8 Hz frequency window resolved the presence of a channel within the Albian sequence. A meandering channel within the Albian sequence was equally delineated by the RMS, while the application of instantaneous frequency (IF) attribute indicates the presence of hydrocarbon-charged sediments of Cenomanian age in proximity to a listric normal fault because of the attenuation of frequency observed close to the fault. This study demonstrates a case study of the application of seismic impedance inversion and seismic attributes for the delineation of potential reservoirs and hydrocarbon-charged sediments in a basin.

Keywords: acoustic impedance inversion; seismic attributes; reservoirs; Orange basin

1 Introduction

Reservoir characterization studies in the Orange basin have focused more on utilizing geochemistry and petrography to appraise and predict the quality of reservoirs in the basin. Previous studies [1,2,3] had suggested the poor development of qualitative reservoirs due to severe precipitation of quartz and clay cements, especially in the proximal part of the Orange Basin. Evidently, the Ibhubesi gas field discovered in the southern section of the Orange basin has been declared as a tight gas reservoir [4], which suggests the presence of highly compacted reservoirs, occasioned by the severe cementation of diagenetic cements. The aforementioned studies are more localized to specific reservoirs based on drilling campaigns and not an absolute indication of the quality of reservoirs in the basin. This underscores a need for further exploration to characterize potential reservoirs for further drilling campaign in the basin. The occurrence of fluvio-deltaic channels of Albian and Cenomanian age has been reported in the Orange Basin [5]; therefore, the delineation of these channels is critical to future exploration drive in the basin.

The application of Seismic attributes and genetic inversion [6,7,8,9,10,11] is suggested to investigate potential reservoirs in this basin. Different authors [6,10,11,12,13] have documented the successful application of seismic attributes and seismic impedance inversion in characterizing reservoirs and hydrocarbon-bearing reservoirs. In these cases, seismic impedance inversion and seismic attributes are tested independently or combined to delineate hydrocarbon bearing reservoirs. However, the combination of these methods is more reliable to reduce possible uncertainties associated with the identification of depositional and structural features.

The main objective of this study is to use these methods (seismic impedance inversion and seismic attributes) to investigate the occurrence of fluvio-deltaic channels and hydrocarbon saturated reservoirs within the Albian and Cenomanian sequence in the northern Orange Basin. This study applies a genetic inversion [7] for acoustic impedance inversion, performs instantaneous frequency attributes (IF) analysis of the seismic data, decomposes frequency at different bandwidths (iso-frequency) from the seismic data, and performs a root mean square (RMS) of the seismic data waveform.

The genetic inversion process involves the use of a nonlinear inversion algorithm output operator to transform the seismic data into the desired log-response equivalence by estimating a minimal difference between the computed synthetic and the recorded seismic trace [14]. However, seismic attributes can be analyzed directly from the seismic data as they are components of seismic data that can be computed or implied from the seismic data, which are often sensitive to geological features and can define a particular reservoir property [15]. These concepts are applied within an exploration block in the northern Orange Basin, South Africa (Figure 1), after an initial noise filtering of the 3D seismic cube had been performed for a quality check. This process eliminates passive frequency through a Ricker frequency filter and improves the poststack seismic data quality. The application of these concepts reveals some interesting findings in this study.

Figure 1 Location map of 3D seismic survey position, various 2D lines acquired and well AF-1 used within it (a), the coverage of Orange Basin with three wells drilled so far in block 1, while the red arrows point to the Orange river system in the North and Oilfants river system in the South respectively (modified from Hartwig [5]) (b).
Figure 1

Location map of 3D seismic survey position, various 2D lines acquired and well AF-1 used within it (a), the coverage of Orange Basin with three wells drilled so far in block 1, while the red arrows point to the Orange river system in the North and Oilfants river system in the South respectively (modified from Hartwig [5]) (b).

2 Geology of the study area

The Orange Basin is situated along the passive South Atlantic continental margin that straddles the borders of Namibia and South Africa [16]. The architecture of the basin is defined by the Walvis Ridge in the north and Agulhas-Columbine arch in the South (Figure 2a). Margin evolution was initiated by extensional forces that started in the early Mesozoic [17,18] and culminated in rifting and drifting apart of the South American and African continents, in the late Jurassic and early Cretaceous.

Figure 2 Location map of Orange Basin, South Africa (a) and the generalized stratigraphy of Orange Basin the study area (b) modified from Broad et al. [19].
Figure 2

Location map of Orange Basin, South Africa (a) and the generalized stratigraphy of Orange Basin the study area (b) modified from Broad et al. [19].

Major tectonic phases that characterize the Orange Basin are classified into pre-, syn and post-rifts [18]. The pre-rift basement rocks are overlain by a succession of pre-Barremian syn-rift basic lavas within the central rift sequence, and coarse continental clastic, fluvial, and lacustrine sediments, along with volcanic deposits within the marginal rift basin [Figure 2b; 19]. These are in turn overlain by a Barremian to post-rift succession of alternating fluvial red beds and marine sandy rocks that are deposited as a result of transgression and regression of sea level [20].

The Albian sediments that overly the Aptian sediments consist of thick-bedded bioturbated mudstones and massive planar cross-bedded sandstones [21]. Deepest marine conditions was experienced in the basin in the early late-Cretaceous depositing mainly siliciclastic sediments [22]. However, by the end of Cenozoic, sedimentation rates had reduced and deposits composed mainly of a mix of carbonates, siliciclastics, and authigenic sediments [22]

In addition, the sedimentary evolution in the Basin was affected by major slumping events in the late Cretaceous-early Cenozoic, which reshaped the basin morphology because of massive erosion and sediments bypassing that characterized these periods [23]. The major reservoirs in this basin are the Barremian Aeolian sandstones of the commercial Kudu gas field [24]. This is in addition to the lower Cretaceous (Albian) and upper Cretaceous (Cenomanian) marine sandstones (including sand-rich distributary channels), which are the main reservoirs in the South Africa section of the Basin [5]. As shown in Figure 2b, the sedimentary deposits in the Albian and Cenomanian period are of deltaic and coastal plain origin, and their sedimentary environment ranges from fluvial in the South to deltaic/shallow marine in the North of the Basin [2].

3 Methods and materials

3.1 Seismic data acquisition and processing

The 3D seismic data were acquired in 2009 under a joint proprietary between the Petroleum South Africa and Cairn India with the aim of investigating a sniffer anomaly [25]. The survey covers an area of 750 sq km exploration Block in the northern Orange Basin, South Africa. The survey utilized a shot and receiver group interval of 25 and 12.5 m, respectively, a sampling rate of 2 ms, and a maximum recording length of 7 s. The dominant frequency ranges between 100 and 125 Hz, while a low-cut off frequency of 3 Hz was applied. The processing technique involves an automatic gain recovery to account for amplitude loss followed by the deconvolution process at the operator length of 200 ms, while a 3D Dip moveout correction was applied using a maximum dip of 40 ms/trace.

3.2 Quality control and seismic-well tie

The seismic cube was subjected to dip-steering coherency filtering to remove incoherent noises and enhance resolution of seismic and geological features (Figure 3a and b). A time-depth relationship between the 3D seismic volume (8-bit) seismic data and the well was built by utilizing formation tops and checkshot data to generate a synthetic seismogram (Figures 4 and 5). This workflow process was completed by first generating velocity log from sonic log using the following formula:

Velocity=1/Sonic.
Figure 3 Seismic data at 968 ms before frequency filtering to remove incoherency and enhance the mapping of geological features (a). Seismic data at 968 ms after frequency filtering to enhance the mapping of geological features (b).
Figure 3

Seismic data at 968 ms before frequency filtering to remove incoherency and enhance the mapping of geological features (a). Seismic data at 968 ms after frequency filtering to enhance the mapping of geological features (b).

Figure 4 The different log signatures of well AF-1 showing the positions of target sequence of Albian and Cenomanian age (a). A seismic cross-section showing Albian and Cenomanian sequence investigated for potential reservoirs (b).
Figure 4

The different log signatures of well AF-1 showing the positions of target sequence of Albian and Cenomanian age (a). A seismic cross-section showing Albian and Cenomanian sequence investigated for potential reservoirs (b).

Figure 5 The synthetic log generated from well AF-1 tied to the seismic section to position formation tops to its actual position for mapping. Inset is the dominant frequency of the seismic data.
Figure 5

The synthetic log generated from well AF-1 tied to the seismic section to position formation tops to its actual position for mapping. Inset is the dominant frequency of the seismic data.

Thereafter, the velocity log was used to generate an acoustic impedance log by multiplying the obtained values with formation density log values [26]. In addition, a reflection coefficient log was generated with a synthetic seismogram to calibrate the results with the 3D seismic data at the well position (Figures 4 and 5).

3.3 Genetic inversion

Acoustic impedance inversion (forward model based inversion) enables the description of internal rock properties such as lithology, porosity, and fluid types. The theoretical principle of genetic inversion process is based on acoustic waves reflecting off subsurface rock interfaces at different amplitudes based on the density and velocity contrast of these interfaces. Based on this, an earth model centered on the arrival time and amplitude of acoustic waves can be generated by utilizing the poststack seismic data to produce an estimate of the earth’s acoustic impedance.

In this study, genetic inversion algorithm combines neural network and generic algorithm to determine single nonlinear operator, which produces a best fit between poststack seismic data and logs data of control wells was applied on the 3D seismic data to generate 3D acoustic impedance cube [7]. Seismic acoustic impedance stochastic inversion as performed here involves the use of high-frequency acoustic impedance log generated from the process mentioned earlier (uder quality control section) to train 3D seismic cube to generate a 3D acoustic impedance cube. The process uses a nonlinear multi trace operator to convert seismic cube to a corresponding log property [7]. The observations made from the acoustic impedance inversion were calibrated with the density log estimated-porosity model because of the relationship between these two rock properties. Subsequently, the mapping of the Albian and Cenomanian sequences were done from the respective formation tops positions to identify main reservoir targets within these sequences, and time slice sections within these periods (Albian and Cenomanian) were investigated.

3.4 Iso-frequency (frequency decomposition)

Iso-frequency (frequency decomposition) is applied in reservoir characterization studies to extract high-resolution stratal slices of seismic data frequency for the identification of potential hydrocarbon reservoirs in the subsurface. The suitability of a particular frequency bandwidth to image potential reservoirs is commonly dependent on reservoir thickness and geometry. For instance, in imaging thin reservoir beds, higher frequency is more appropriate, while lower frequency is suitable for thicker beds [27]. The frequency subsets could range from low to high, i.e., 15, 29, and 44 Hz [27].

The iso-frequency attribute applied in this study utilizes the correlation cosine transform (CCT) method: a mathematical equation for the discrete Fourier transform model (DFT). Each bin in the DFT output is an equivalent of a particular frequency where the

FrequencyofaKthbin=k×(samplingrate/N),

where N is the number of samples or cycles. In this study, N is 1.5.

3.5 Instantaneous frequency

The instantaneous frequency seismic attribute as pioneered by [28] used the Hilbert transform to convert seismic trace x(f) to a more complex seismic trace z(f). The transformation process involves the rotation of phases of real seismic trace x(f) and imaginary y(f) seismic traces. These represent cosine and sine of spectral amplitudes, respectively. The negative and positive frequency components of the cosine are rotated by +90 and −90, respectively, to complete the Hilbert transformation process [29]. The application of this method in reservoir characterization is impeccable in isolating sweetness (hydrocarbon charged reservoirs) because of frequency attenuation associated with gas compressibility [30]. In this study, a default value of 33 was used as an input in the Hilbert filter window, which represents the amount of seismic trace, which its amplitude (trace envelope) and instantaneous phases are transformed into instantaneous frequencies.

4 Results and discussion

4.1 Well logs and seismic data

The discrete facies log, Gamma ray log, sonic impedance log, reflection coefficient, synthetic log, density log, density porosity log, and the major unconformities of well AF-1 are shown, respectively, in tracks 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 of Figure 4a. The first track represents the depth track of the well in the subsurface. The facies logs with Gamma ray cut-off of less than 65 API for sandstones, between 65–90 API for siltstones, and greater than 90 API for shales were used in this study. The reservoirs encountered in this well are identified within the Cenomanian and the late Albian sequences, while a thinly laminated reservoir is also observed just below the Albian unconformity (Figure 4). The mapping of these sequences across the 3D volume was done from the position of the major unconformities at the well position as shown in Figures 4 and 5, which represents the formation tops. Horizon time slice intersection on the seismic volume was performed at the top of 14AT-1 and 14JT-1 sequences in which there are occurrence of potential Albian and Cenomanian reservoirs, respectively (Figures 4 and 5). Figure 5 shows the position of the formation tops (see the Z values) on the seismic volume after well-tie had been performed.

4.2 Validation of acoustic impedance and porosity relationship

The acoustic impedance log generated from a product of velocity and density logs during the process of the creation of a synthetic seismogram was used for the inversion process to generate the earth’s acoustic impedance model from the 3D seimic data. Acoustic impedance typically increases with the depth as porosity decreases with the depth [31]; therefore, a relationship exists which makes it essential to calibrate observations made from one with the other. To validate this relationship, porosity derived from the density log is plotted against acoustic impedance log as shown in Figure 6 to determine the correlation coefficient. Because of the inverse relationship between acoustic impedance and porosity, a negative correlation coefficient is expected, and this is evident with the −0.837048 correlation coefficient value for the plot (Figure 6). This value suggests a less than perfect correlation between these variables; this is not unexpected because of various diagenetic events, which could include the degree of cementation, pressure dissolution, and reprecipitation. Reprecipitation and a higher degree of cementation could increase chemical compaction and consequently increase the acoustic impedance [14]. In addition, pressure dissolution could cause an anomalous increase in porosity at deeper depth without a direct corresponding increase in acoustic impedance.

Figure 6 Validation of acoustic impedance and porosity data relationship for well AF-1. The correlation coefficient is −0.83.
Figure 6

Validation of acoustic impedance and porosity data relationship for well AF-1. The correlation coefficient is −0.83.

4.3 Genetic inversion and RMS amplitude

The time slice of the acoustic impedance inversion extracted within the Cenomanian sequence at inline 2,340 indicates the presence of two parallel Cenomanian-aged channels at time slice 968 ms (Figure 7). The channels display a low-medium acoustic impedance signature along its geometry as shown in Figure 7. This suggests that the channels are not well consolidated or likely less cemented. The first channel (A) has an average width of 378 m, while the second channel is on average 285 m (B) in width (Figure 8). The channels are suggested to be paleo channels of the Orange River system, which in the present day is at close proximity to the study area as shown in Figure 1. The calibration of these observations with observations made on the porosity inversion indicates that these channels show high porosity along its geometry (Figure 8). These characteristics make these channels an ideal reservoir target, subject to their vertical thickness. Root-mean-square (RMS) amplitude attribute indicates medium-low amplitude signatures are dominant within the seismic data and reveals the presence of a medium amplitude, Albian-aged meandering channel at time slice 2,000 ms (Figure 9). The channel has a loop toward the tail-end of its geometry.

Figure 7 Acoustic impedance inversion showing the two low-impedance channels parallel to each other within the Cenomanian sequence at time slice 968 ms.
Figure 7

Acoustic impedance inversion showing the two low-impedance channels parallel to each other within the Cenomanian sequence at time slice 968 ms.

Figure 8 Porosity inversion shows high porosity along the two parallel channels geometry at time slice 968 ms.
Figure 8

Porosity inversion shows high porosity along the two parallel channels geometry at time slice 968 ms.

Figure 9 RMS amplitude section showing a low-amplitude meandering channel within the Albian sequence at time slice 2,000 ms. The channel displays a meander loop toward the termination of its geometry.
Figure 9

RMS amplitude section showing a low-amplitude meandering channel within the Albian sequence at time slice 2,000 ms. The channel displays a meander loop toward the termination of its geometry.

4.4 Frequency attributes

Instantaneous and iso-frequency attributes are applied to delineate potential reservoirs and likely hydrocarbon-bearing reservoirs in the study area. A bright spot (high amplitude) anomaly noticed on either side of the fault plane of a listric fault within the Cenomanian sequence suggests the likely presence of hydrocarbon-charged sediments possibly caused by the leakage of gas across the fault plane (Figure 10). Instantaneous frequency resolved the observation that the bright spot anomaly is due to hydrocarbon-charged sediments at the time slice of 758 ms because of the attenuation of frequency observed around the bright spot anomaly. Frequency attenuationin gas saturated sediments is due to the compressible nature of gas, which causes it to absorb higher seismic frequency. The hydrocarbon saturated sediments observed on either side of the fault suggests a potential leakage of gas across the fault may have caused the attenutation to occur on either side of the fault (Figure 11).

Figure 10 Seismic section showing a listric normal fault with an associated high amplitude (bright spot anomaly) at inline 758 ms within the Cenomanian sequence. Bright spot anomaly as observed here suggests gas leakage along the fault plane.
Figure 10

Seismic section showing a listric normal fault with an associated high amplitude (bright spot anomaly) at inline 758 ms within the Cenomanian sequence. Bright spot anomaly as observed here suggests gas leakage along the fault plane.

Figure 11 Instantaneous frequency at inline 758 ms showing the listric normal fault and frequency attenuation around the bright spot (a). Time slice at 968 ms showing the listric normal fault (with bright spot anomaly) with frequency attenuation on both sides of the fault plane. Frequency attenuation here suggests gas-bearing sediments at the close proximity to the fault.
Figure 11

Instantaneous frequency at inline 758 ms showing the listric normal fault and frequency attenuation around the bright spot (a). Time slice at 968 ms showing the listric normal fault (with bright spot anomaly) with frequency attenuation on both sides of the fault plane. Frequency attenuation here suggests gas-bearing sediments at the close proximity to the fault.

The iso-frequency attributes time slice extraction was performed to test the frequency bandwith suitable for the seismic data to delineate the possible presence of potential reservoir channels. At time slice of 1,540 ms and frequency of 45 Hz bandwith, the seismic data indicate the presence of sediments with high-frequency signatures (Figure 12a), which is ambiguous for the delineation of potential reservoirs as the frequency of most reservoirs in this area are of low frequencies. A further frequency tunning was performed at various frequency bandwiths; however, at frequency of 8 Hz, an occurrence of of a narrow, straight channel within the Albian sequence was delineated, which could be a potential reservoir target (Figure 12b).

Figure 12 Iso-frequency time slice 1,540 ms taken at 45 Hz bandwidth (a). The figure shows an ambiguous variation in frequency signatures of the sediments. The frequency is not suitable to delineate possible buried channels in the study area. Iso-frequency time slice 1,540 ms taken at 8 Hz bandwidth (b). This figure shows the presence of a low-frequency, narrow channel within the Albian sequence. This suggests the reservoir target here is of low-frequency signature.
Figure 12

Iso-frequency time slice 1,540 ms taken at 45 Hz bandwidth (a). The figure shows an ambiguous variation in frequency signatures of the sediments. The frequency is not suitable to delineate possible buried channels in the study area. Iso-frequency time slice 1,540 ms taken at 8 Hz bandwidth (b). This figure shows the presence of a low-frequency, narrow channel within the Albian sequence. This suggests the reservoir target here is of low-frequency signature.

5 Conclusions

Model-based genetic inversion has been used to investigate potential hydrocarbon reservoirs within the Albian and Cenomanian sequences of the northern Orange Basin. The utilization of coherency filtering attributes enhanced the quality of the data, reduced incoherency, and made acoustic impedance inversion successful. The comparison of observations made from the acoustic impedance inversion with the porosity attributes reduced the uncertainty that could be associated with the identification of features made solely from acoustic impedance inversion. Based on this, two Cenomanian-aged fluvial channels were delineated. These two fluvial channels have low-medium impedance and high porosity along their geometry (Figures 7 and 8). RMS amplitude also indicates the presence of a low-medium amplitude meandering channel within the Albian sequence. The identification of a bright spot anomaly around a listric normal fault prompted its resolution by instantaneous frequency attribute. This shows that the frequency attenuation observed on either side of the fault plane is due to the presence of gas-bearing sediments in close proximity to the fault plane. The attenuation is stronger on either side of the fault plane due to the compressible nature of gas, which makes it to absorb more seismic frequency and thus confirms the presence of gas as the cause of the bright spot anomaly seen on the seismic section. The iso-frequency decomposition also revealed the presence of a low-frequency, narrow channel within the Albian sequence at 8 Hz. Finally, the presence of buried channels as seen within the Albian and Cenomanian sequences subject to the determination of their vertical thickness could be potential hydrocarbon reservoirs in this part of the basin.

Acknowledgements

Appreciation goes to the National Research Foundation for funding the research as a part of PhD project, The Petroleum agency South Africa for data collection and the division of Postgraduate Studies, University of the Western Cape for the institutional support. Dr Katz, Dr Liro, and Dr Goggin are equally appreciated for their thorough review of the manuscript.

  1. Author Contributions: The SDC approach is adopted in describing the contributions of the authors. CS: data collection, conceptualization, technical content, and write-up. JvBD: proofreading, editing, manuscript structuring, validation, and advise. OF: proofreading, manuscript structuring, and software support.

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Received: 2020-06-12
Revised: 2020-09-23
Accepted: 2020-10-01
Published Online: 2020-10-23

© 2020 Chris Adesola Samakinde et al., published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  13. Application of combined electrical resistivity tomography and seismic reflection method to explore hidden active faults in Pingwu, Sichuan, China
  14. Impact of interpolation techniques on the accuracy of large-scale digital elevation model
  15. Natural and human-induced factors controlling the phreatic groundwater geochemistry of the Longgang River basin, South China
  16. Land use/land cover assessment as related to soil and irrigation water salinity over an oasis in arid environment
  17. Effect of tillage, slope, and rainfall on soil surface microtopography quantified by geostatistical and fractal indices during sheet erosion
  18. Validation of the number of tie vectors in post-processing using the method of frequency in a centric cube
  19. An integrated petrophysical-based wedge modeling and thin bed AVO analysis for improved reservoir characterization of Zhujiang Formation, Huizhou sub-basin, China: A case study
  20. A grain size auto-classification of Baikouquan Formation, Mahu Depression, Junggar Basin, China
  21. Dynamics of mid-channel bars in the Middle Vistula River in response to ferry crossing abutment construction
  22. Estimation of permeability and saturation based on imaginary component of complex resistivity spectra: A laboratory study
  23. Distribution characteristics of typical geological relics in the Western Sichuan Plateau
  24. Inconsistency distribution patterns of different remote sensing land-cover data from the perspective of ecological zoning
  25. A new methodological approach (QEMSCAN®) in the mineralogical study of Polish loess: Guidelines for further research
  26. Displacement and deformation study of engineering structures with the use of modern laser technologies
  27. Virtual resolution enhancement: A new enhancement tool for seismic data
  28. Aeromagnetic mapping of fault architecture along Lagos–Ore axis, southwestern Nigeria
  29. Deformation and failure mechanism of full seam chamber with extra-large section and its control technology
  30. Plastic failure zone characteristics and stability control technology of roadway in the fault area under non-uniformly high geostress: A case study from Yuandian Coal Mine in Northern Anhui Province, China
  31. Comparison of swarm intelligence algorithms for optimized band selection of hyperspectral remote sensing image
  32. Soil carbon stock and nutrient characteristics of Senna siamea grove in the semi-deciduous forest zone of Ghana
  33. Carbonatites from the Southern Brazilian platform: I
  34. Seismicity, focal mechanism, and stress tensor analysis of the Simav region, western Turkey
  35. Application of simulated annealing algorithm for 3D coordinate transformation problem solution
  36. Application of the terrestrial laser scanner in the monitoring of earth structures
  37. The Cretaceous igneous rocks in southeastern Guangxi and their implication for tectonic environment in southwestern South China Block
  38. Pore-scale gas–water flow in rock: Visualization experiment and simulation
  39. Assessment of surface parameters of VDW foundation piles using geodetic measurement techniques
  40. Spatial distribution and risk assessment of toxic metals in agricultural soils from endemic nasopharyngeal carcinoma region in South China
  41. An ABC-optimized fuzzy ELECTRE approach for assessing petroleum potential at the petroleum system level
  42. Microscopic mechanism of sandstone hydration in Yungang Grottoes, China
  43. Importance of traditional landscapes in Slovenia for conservation of endangered butterfly
  44. Landscape pattern and economic factors’ effect on prediction accuracy of cellular automata-Markov chain model on county scale
  45. The influence of river training on the location of erosion and accumulation zones (Kłodzko County, South West Poland)
  46. Multi-temporal survey of diaphragm wall with terrestrial laser scanning method
  47. Functionality and reliability of horizontal control net (Poland)
  48. Strata behavior and control strategy of backfilling collaborate with caving fully-mechanized mining
  49. The use of classical methods and neural networks in deformation studies of hydrotechnical objects
  50. Ice-crevasse sedimentation in the eastern part of the Głubczyce Plateau (S Poland) during the final stage of the Drenthian Glaciation
  51. Structure of end moraines and dynamics of the recession phase of the Warta Stadial ice sheet, Kłodawa Upland, Central Poland
  52. Mineralogy, mineral chemistry and thermobarometry of post-mineralization dykes of the Sungun Cu–Mo porphyry deposit (Northwest Iran)
  53. Main problems of the research on the Palaeolithic of Halych-Dnister region (Ukraine)
  54. Application of isometric transformation and robust estimation to compare the measurement results of steel pipe spools
  55. Hybrid machine learning hydrological model for flood forecast purpose
  56. Rainfall thresholds of shallow landslides in Wuyuan County of Jiangxi Province, China
  57. Dynamic simulation for the process of mining subsidence based on cellular automata model
  58. Developing large-scale international ecological networks based on least-cost path analysis – a case study of Altai mountains
  59. Seismic characteristics of polygonal fault systems in the Great South Basin, New Zealand
  60. New approach of clustering of late Pleni-Weichselian loess deposits (L1LL1) in Poland
  61. Implementation of virtual reference points in registering scanning images of tall structures
  62. Constraints of nonseismic geophysical data on the deep geological structure of the Benxi iron-ore district, Liaoning, China
  63. Mechanical analysis of basic roof fracture mechanism and feature in coal mining with partial gangue backfilling
  64. The violent ground motion before the Jiuzhaigou earthquake Ms7.0
  65. Landslide site delineation from geometric signatures derived with the Hilbert–Huang transform for cases in Southern Taiwan
  66. Hydrological process simulation in Manas River Basin using CMADS
  67. LA-ICP-MS U–Pb ages of detrital zircons from Middle Jurassic sedimentary rocks in southwestern Fujian: Sedimentary provenance and its geological significance
  68. Analysis of pore throat characteristics of tight sandstone reservoirs
  69. Effects of igneous intrusions on source rock in the early diagenetic stage: A case study on Beipiao Formation in Jinyang Basin, Northeast China
  70. Applying floodplain geomorphology to flood management (The Lower Vistula River upstream from Plock, Poland)
  71. Effect of photogrammetric RPAS flight parameters on plani-altimetric accuracy of DTM
  72. Morphodynamic conditions of heavy metal concentration in deposits of the Vistula River valley near Kępa Gostecka (central Poland)
  73. Accuracy and functional assessment of an original low-cost fibre-based inclinometer designed for structural monitoring
  74. The impacts of diagenetic facies on reservoir quality in tight sandstones
  75. Application of electrical resistivity imaging to detection of hidden geological structures in a single roadway
  76. Comparison between electrical resistivity tomography and tunnel seismic prediction 303 methods for detecting the water zone ahead of the tunnel face: A case study
  77. The genesis model of carbonate cementation in the tight oil reservoir: A case of Chang 6 oil layers of the Upper Triassic Yanchang Formation in the western Jiyuan area, Ordos Basin, China
  78. Disintegration characteristics in granite residual soil and their relationship with the collapsing gully in South China
  79. Analysis of surface deformation and driving forces in Lanzhou
  80. Geochemical characteristics of produced water from coalbed methane wells and its influence on productivity in Laochang Coalfield, China
  81. A combination of genetic inversion and seismic frequency attributes to delineate reservoir targets in offshore northern Orange Basin, South Africa
  82. Explore the application of high-resolution nighttime light remote sensing images in nighttime marine ship detection: A case study of LJ1-01 data
  83. DTM-based analysis of the spatial distribution of topolineaments
  84. Spatiotemporal variation and climatic response of water level of major lakes in China, Mongolia, and Russia
  85. The Cretaceous stratigraphy, Songliao Basin, Northeast China: Constrains from drillings and geophysics
  86. Canal of St. Bartholomew in Seča/Sezza: Social construction of the seascape
  87. A modelling resin material and its application in rock-failure study: Samples with two 3D internal fracture surfaces
  88. Utilization of marble piece wastes as base materials
  89. Slope stability evaluation using backpropagation neural networks and multivariate adaptive regression splines
  90. Rigidity of “Warsaw clay” from the Poznań Formation determined by in situ tests
  91. Numerical simulation for the effects of waves and grain size on deltaic processes and morphologies
  92. Impact of tourism activities on water pollution in the West Lake Basin (Hangzhou, China)
  93. Fracture characteristics from outcrops and its meaning to gas accumulation in the Jiyuan Basin, Henan Province, China
  94. Impact evaluation and driving type identification of human factors on rural human settlement environment: Taking Gansu Province, China as an example
  95. Identification of the spatial distributions, pollution levels, sources, and health risk of heavy metals in surface dusts from Korla, NW China
  96. Petrography and geochemistry of clastic sedimentary rocks as evidence for the provenance of the Jurassic stratum in the Daqingshan area
  97. Super-resolution reconstruction of a digital elevation model based on a deep residual network
  98. Seismic prediction of lithofacies heterogeneity in paleogene hetaoyuan shale play, Biyang depression, China
  99. Cultural landscape of the Gorica Hills in the nineteenth century: Franciscean land cadastre reports as the source for clarification of the classification of cultivable land types
  100. Analysis and prediction of LUCC change in Huang-Huai-Hai river basin
  101. Hydrochemical differences between river water and groundwater in Suzhou, Northern Anhui Province, China
  102. The relationship between heat flow and seismicity in global tectonically active zones
  103. Modeling of Landslide susceptibility in a part of Abay Basin, northwestern Ethiopia
  104. M-GAM method in function of tourism potential assessment: Case study of the Sokobanja basin in eastern Serbia
  105. Dehydration and stabilization of unconsolidated laminated lake sediments using gypsum for the preparation of thin sections
  106. Agriculture and land use in the North of Russia: Case study of Karelia and Yakutia
  107. Textural characteristics, mode of transportation and depositional environment of the Cretaceous sandstone in the Bredasdorp Basin, off the south coast of South Africa: Evidence from grain size analysis
  108. One-dimensional constrained inversion study of TEM and application in coal goafs’ detection
  109. The spatial distribution of retail outlets in Urumqi: The application of points of interest
  110. Aptian–Albian deposits of the Ait Ourir basin (High Atlas, Morocco): New additional data on their paleoenvironment, sedimentology, and palaeogeography
  111. Traditional agricultural landscapes in Uskopaljska valley (Bosnia and Herzegovina)
  112. A detection method for reservoir waterbodies vector data based on EGADS
  113. Modelling and mapping of the COVID-19 trajectory and pandemic paths at global scale: A geographer’s perspective
  114. Effect of organic maturity on shale gas genesis and pores development: A case study on marine shale in the upper Yangtze region, South China
  115. Gravel roundness quantitative analysis for sedimentary microfacies of fan delta deposition, Baikouquan Formation, Mahu Depression, Northwestern China
  116. Features of terraces and the incision rate along the lower reaches of the Yarlung Zangbo River east of Namche Barwa: Constraints on tectonic uplift
  117. Application of laser scanning technology for structure gauge measurement
  118. Calibration of the depth invariant algorithm to monitor the tidal action of Rabigh City at the Red Sea Coast, Saudi Arabia
  119. Evolution of the Bystrzyca River valley during Middle Pleistocene Interglacial (Sudetic Foreland, south-western Poland)
  120. A 3D numerical analysis of the compaction effects on the behavior of panel-type MSE walls
  121. Landscape dynamics at borderlands: analysing land use changes from Southern Slovenia
  122. Effects of oil viscosity on waterflooding: A case study of high water-cut sandstone oilfield in Kazakhstan
  123. Special Issue: Alkaline-Carbonatitic magmatism
  124. Carbonatites from the southern Brazilian Platform: A review. II: Isotopic evidences
  125. Review Article
  126. Technology and innovation: Changing concept of rural tourism – A systematic review
https://doi.org/10.1515/geo-2020-0200
Keywords for this article
acoustic impedance inversion; seismic attributes; reservoirs; Orange basin
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

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  2. The simulation approach to the interpretation of archival aerial photographs
  3. The application of137Cs and210Pbexmethods in soil erosion research of Titel loess plateau, Vojvodina, Northern Serbia
  4. Provenance and tectonic significance of the Zhongwunongshan Group from the Zhongwunongshan Structural Belt in China: insights from zircon geochronology
  5. Analysis, Assessment and Early Warning of Mudflow Disasters along the Shigatse Section of the China–Nepal Highway
  6. Sedimentary succession and recognition marks of lacustrine gravel beach-bars, a case study from the Qinghai Lake, China
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  8. An Overview of the Carbonatites from the Indian Subcontinent
  9. A new statistical approach to the geochemical systematics of Italian alkaline igneous rocks
  10. The significance of karst areas in European national parks and geoparks
  11. Geochronology, trace elements and Hf isotopic geochemistry of zircons from Swat orthogneisses, Northern Pakistan
  12. Regional-scale drought monitor using synthesized index based on remote sensing in northeast China
  13. Application of combined electrical resistivity tomography and seismic reflection method to explore hidden active faults in Pingwu, Sichuan, China
  14. Impact of interpolation techniques on the accuracy of large-scale digital elevation model
  15. Natural and human-induced factors controlling the phreatic groundwater geochemistry of the Longgang River basin, South China
  16. Land use/land cover assessment as related to soil and irrigation water salinity over an oasis in arid environment
  17. Effect of tillage, slope, and rainfall on soil surface microtopography quantified by geostatistical and fractal indices during sheet erosion
  18. Validation of the number of tie vectors in post-processing using the method of frequency in a centric cube
  19. An integrated petrophysical-based wedge modeling and thin bed AVO analysis for improved reservoir characterization of Zhujiang Formation, Huizhou sub-basin, China: A case study
  20. A grain size auto-classification of Baikouquan Formation, Mahu Depression, Junggar Basin, China
  21. Dynamics of mid-channel bars in the Middle Vistula River in response to ferry crossing abutment construction
  22. Estimation of permeability and saturation based on imaginary component of complex resistivity spectra: A laboratory study
  23. Distribution characteristics of typical geological relics in the Western Sichuan Plateau
  24. Inconsistency distribution patterns of different remote sensing land-cover data from the perspective of ecological zoning
  25. A new methodological approach (QEMSCAN®) in the mineralogical study of Polish loess: Guidelines for further research
  26. Displacement and deformation study of engineering structures with the use of modern laser technologies
  27. Virtual resolution enhancement: A new enhancement tool for seismic data
  28. Aeromagnetic mapping of fault architecture along Lagos–Ore axis, southwestern Nigeria
  29. Deformation and failure mechanism of full seam chamber with extra-large section and its control technology
  30. Plastic failure zone characteristics and stability control technology of roadway in the fault area under non-uniformly high geostress: A case study from Yuandian Coal Mine in Northern Anhui Province, China
  31. Comparison of swarm intelligence algorithms for optimized band selection of hyperspectral remote sensing image
  32. Soil carbon stock and nutrient characteristics of Senna siamea grove in the semi-deciduous forest zone of Ghana
  33. Carbonatites from the Southern Brazilian platform: I
  34. Seismicity, focal mechanism, and stress tensor analysis of the Simav region, western Turkey
  35. Application of simulated annealing algorithm for 3D coordinate transformation problem solution
  36. Application of the terrestrial laser scanner in the monitoring of earth structures
  37. The Cretaceous igneous rocks in southeastern Guangxi and their implication for tectonic environment in southwestern South China Block
  38. Pore-scale gas–water flow in rock: Visualization experiment and simulation
  39. Assessment of surface parameters of VDW foundation piles using geodetic measurement techniques
  40. Spatial distribution and risk assessment of toxic metals in agricultural soils from endemic nasopharyngeal carcinoma region in South China
  41. An ABC-optimized fuzzy ELECTRE approach for assessing petroleum potential at the petroleum system level
  42. Microscopic mechanism of sandstone hydration in Yungang Grottoes, China
  43. Importance of traditional landscapes in Slovenia for conservation of endangered butterfly
  44. Landscape pattern and economic factors’ effect on prediction accuracy of cellular automata-Markov chain model on county scale
  45. The influence of river training on the location of erosion and accumulation zones (Kłodzko County, South West Poland)
  46. Multi-temporal survey of diaphragm wall with terrestrial laser scanning method
  47. Functionality and reliability of horizontal control net (Poland)
  48. Strata behavior and control strategy of backfilling collaborate with caving fully-mechanized mining
  49. The use of classical methods and neural networks in deformation studies of hydrotechnical objects
  50. Ice-crevasse sedimentation in the eastern part of the Głubczyce Plateau (S Poland) during the final stage of the Drenthian Glaciation
  51. Structure of end moraines and dynamics of the recession phase of the Warta Stadial ice sheet, Kłodawa Upland, Central Poland
  52. Mineralogy, mineral chemistry and thermobarometry of post-mineralization dykes of the Sungun Cu–Mo porphyry deposit (Northwest Iran)
  53. Main problems of the research on the Palaeolithic of Halych-Dnister region (Ukraine)
  54. Application of isometric transformation and robust estimation to compare the measurement results of steel pipe spools
  55. Hybrid machine learning hydrological model for flood forecast purpose
  56. Rainfall thresholds of shallow landslides in Wuyuan County of Jiangxi Province, China
  57. Dynamic simulation for the process of mining subsidence based on cellular automata model
  58. Developing large-scale international ecological networks based on least-cost path analysis – a case study of Altai mountains
  59. Seismic characteristics of polygonal fault systems in the Great South Basin, New Zealand
  60. New approach of clustering of late Pleni-Weichselian loess deposits (L1LL1) in Poland
  61. Implementation of virtual reference points in registering scanning images of tall structures
  62. Constraints of nonseismic geophysical data on the deep geological structure of the Benxi iron-ore district, Liaoning, China
  63. Mechanical analysis of basic roof fracture mechanism and feature in coal mining with partial gangue backfilling
  64. The violent ground motion before the Jiuzhaigou earthquake Ms7.0
  65. Landslide site delineation from geometric signatures derived with the Hilbert–Huang transform for cases in Southern Taiwan
  66. Hydrological process simulation in Manas River Basin using CMADS
  67. LA-ICP-MS U–Pb ages of detrital zircons from Middle Jurassic sedimentary rocks in southwestern Fujian: Sedimentary provenance and its geological significance
  68. Analysis of pore throat characteristics of tight sandstone reservoirs
  69. Effects of igneous intrusions on source rock in the early diagenetic stage: A case study on Beipiao Formation in Jinyang Basin, Northeast China
  70. Applying floodplain geomorphology to flood management (The Lower Vistula River upstream from Plock, Poland)
  71. Effect of photogrammetric RPAS flight parameters on plani-altimetric accuracy of DTM
  72. Morphodynamic conditions of heavy metal concentration in deposits of the Vistula River valley near Kępa Gostecka (central Poland)
  73. Accuracy and functional assessment of an original low-cost fibre-based inclinometer designed for structural monitoring
  74. The impacts of diagenetic facies on reservoir quality in tight sandstones
  75. Application of electrical resistivity imaging to detection of hidden geological structures in a single roadway
  76. Comparison between electrical resistivity tomography and tunnel seismic prediction 303 methods for detecting the water zone ahead of the tunnel face: A case study
  77. The genesis model of carbonate cementation in the tight oil reservoir: A case of Chang 6 oil layers of the Upper Triassic Yanchang Formation in the western Jiyuan area, Ordos Basin, China
  78. Disintegration characteristics in granite residual soil and their relationship with the collapsing gully in South China
  79. Analysis of surface deformation and driving forces in Lanzhou
  80. Geochemical characteristics of produced water from coalbed methane wells and its influence on productivity in Laochang Coalfield, China
  81. A combination of genetic inversion and seismic frequency attributes to delineate reservoir targets in offshore northern Orange Basin, South Africa
  82. Explore the application of high-resolution nighttime light remote sensing images in nighttime marine ship detection: A case study of LJ1-01 data
  83. DTM-based analysis of the spatial distribution of topolineaments
  84. Spatiotemporal variation and climatic response of water level of major lakes in China, Mongolia, and Russia
  85. The Cretaceous stratigraphy, Songliao Basin, Northeast China: Constrains from drillings and geophysics
  86. Canal of St. Bartholomew in Seča/Sezza: Social construction of the seascape
  87. A modelling resin material and its application in rock-failure study: Samples with two 3D internal fracture surfaces
  88. Utilization of marble piece wastes as base materials
  89. Slope stability evaluation using backpropagation neural networks and multivariate adaptive regression splines
  90. Rigidity of “Warsaw clay” from the Poznań Formation determined by in situ tests
  91. Numerical simulation for the effects of waves and grain size on deltaic processes and morphologies
  92. Impact of tourism activities on water pollution in the West Lake Basin (Hangzhou, China)
  93. Fracture characteristics from outcrops and its meaning to gas accumulation in the Jiyuan Basin, Henan Province, China
  94. Impact evaluation and driving type identification of human factors on rural human settlement environment: Taking Gansu Province, China as an example
  95. Identification of the spatial distributions, pollution levels, sources, and health risk of heavy metals in surface dusts from Korla, NW China
  96. Petrography and geochemistry of clastic sedimentary rocks as evidence for the provenance of the Jurassic stratum in the Daqingshan area
  97. Super-resolution reconstruction of a digital elevation model based on a deep residual network
  98. Seismic prediction of lithofacies heterogeneity in paleogene hetaoyuan shale play, Biyang depression, China
  99. Cultural landscape of the Gorica Hills in the nineteenth century: Franciscean land cadastre reports as the source for clarification of the classification of cultivable land types
  100. Analysis and prediction of LUCC change in Huang-Huai-Hai river basin
  101. Hydrochemical differences between river water and groundwater in Suzhou, Northern Anhui Province, China
  102. The relationship between heat flow and seismicity in global tectonically active zones
  103. Modeling of Landslide susceptibility in a part of Abay Basin, northwestern Ethiopia
  104. M-GAM method in function of tourism potential assessment: Case study of the Sokobanja basin in eastern Serbia
  105. Dehydration and stabilization of unconsolidated laminated lake sediments using gypsum for the preparation of thin sections
  106. Agriculture and land use in the North of Russia: Case study of Karelia and Yakutia
  107. Textural characteristics, mode of transportation and depositional environment of the Cretaceous sandstone in the Bredasdorp Basin, off the south coast of South Africa: Evidence from grain size analysis
  108. One-dimensional constrained inversion study of TEM and application in coal goafs’ detection
  109. The spatial distribution of retail outlets in Urumqi: The application of points of interest
  110. Aptian–Albian deposits of the Ait Ourir basin (High Atlas, Morocco): New additional data on their paleoenvironment, sedimentology, and palaeogeography
  111. Traditional agricultural landscapes in Uskopaljska valley (Bosnia and Herzegovina)
  112. A detection method for reservoir waterbodies vector data based on EGADS
  113. Modelling and mapping of the COVID-19 trajectory and pandemic paths at global scale: A geographer’s perspective
  114. Effect of organic maturity on shale gas genesis and pores development: A case study on marine shale in the upper Yangtze region, South China
  115. Gravel roundness quantitative analysis for sedimentary microfacies of fan delta deposition, Baikouquan Formation, Mahu Depression, Northwestern China
  116. Features of terraces and the incision rate along the lower reaches of the Yarlung Zangbo River east of Namche Barwa: Constraints on tectonic uplift
  117. Application of laser scanning technology for structure gauge measurement
  118. Calibration of the depth invariant algorithm to monitor the tidal action of Rabigh City at the Red Sea Coast, Saudi Arabia
  119. Evolution of the Bystrzyca River valley during Middle Pleistocene Interglacial (Sudetic Foreland, south-western Poland)
  120. A 3D numerical analysis of the compaction effects on the behavior of panel-type MSE walls
  121. Landscape dynamics at borderlands: analysing land use changes from Southern Slovenia
  122. Effects of oil viscosity on waterflooding: A case study of high water-cut sandstone oilfield in Kazakhstan
  123. Special Issue: Alkaline-Carbonatitic magmatism
  124. Carbonatites from the southern Brazilian Platform: A review. II: Isotopic evidences
  125. Review Article
  126. Technology and innovation: Changing concept of rural tourism – A systematic review
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