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International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching

Editors-in-Chief: and

Language: English

First published: January 1, 1963

Publication Frequency: 4 issues per year

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International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching (IRAL) is devoted to problems of general and applied linguistics in their various forms. IRAL's long-term interest lies in areas of research which concern first- and second-language acquisition (including sign language and gestural systems). Contributions are welcome on naturalistic and instructed language learning, language loss, bilingualism, language contact, pidgins and creoles, language for specific purposes, language technology, mother-tongue education, terminology and translation. The journal also features occasional thematic issues.

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L2 writers’ critical AI literacy in AI-assisted academic writing: scale development and validation

March 17, 2026

Guangyuan Yao, Lingxi Fan

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The proliferation of generative AI (GenAI) in academic writing necessitates that second language (L2) writers develop Critical AI Literacy (CAIL) – a set of competencies extending beyond operational skills to include ethical, strategic, and critical engagement. While conceptual frameworks for CAIL are emerging, a validated instrument to empirically measure this multifaceted construct for L2 writers has been conspicuously absent. This study addresses this gap by detailing the development and validation of the L2 Writers’ Critical AI Literacy Scale (L2-CAILS). Following established psychometric procedures, the scale was developed through literature review, expert validation, and pilot testing, and was subsequently administered to 420 L2 university students. The data were subjected to both exploratory (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to establish construct validity and reliability. The analysis yielded a robust and reliable 25-item, five-factor model of CAIL: (1) Awareness and Understanding of AI, (2) Ethical and Responsible Use, (3) AI Application Strategies, (4) Critical Evaluation of AI Outputs, and (5) Metacognitive Engagement and Self-Regulation. The L2-CAILS provides a validated tool for researchers and educators to assess L2 writers’ competencies, design targeted pedagogical interventions, and conduct empirical research on the role of CAIL in AI-assisted academic writing.
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Profiling adolescent EFL learners’ socio-psychological orientations toward willingness to communicate: a Q methodology study

March 2, 2026

Jiayi Zhang, Peijian Paul Sun

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Second language (L2) oral communication involves not only linguistic competence but also complex socio-psychological processes. Guided by the E4MC well-being model, this study employed Q methodology to investigate adolescent EFL learners’ subjective perceptions of various socio-psychological factors influencing their willingness to communicate (WTC). The study involved 29 Chinese secondary students, who were invited to sort 47 statements covering six dimensions: emotions, emotional intelligence, empathy, engagement, motivation, and character strengths. Factor analysis identified six distinct learner profiles: (1) emotionally sensitive yet engaging learners, (2) empathic learners with interpersonal awareness, (3) confidence-oriented learners motivated by constructive feedback, (4) resilient learners with intrinsic motivation, (5) collaborative learners motivated by peer support, and (6) low-motivation learners reliant on teacher feedback. The findings further indicate that classroom oral communication is shaped by interrelated psychological and social dimensions, highlighting the importance of emotionally responsive and learner-centred pedagogy to promote well-being in L2 classrooms.
Open Access
Verb-construction integration in L2 spoken production: a comparative analysis of EFL and ESL learners

February 24, 2026

Hyunwoo Kim, Eunseok Ro

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This study investigates the impact of learning contexts on the usage patterns of verbs and verb argument structure constructions (VACs) in L2 spoken production, comparing English as a Foreign Language (EFL) and English as a Second Language (ESL) learners. Analyzing spoken corpus data from 400 participants, we examined verb–VAC associations, semantic cohesion, and verb diversity. Results reveal that compared to EFL learners, ESL learners demonstrate significantly stronger verb–VAC associations, higher semantic cohesion within VACs, and a trend towards greater verb diversity. These findings suggest that immersive language environments facilitate the development of more native-like representations of verbs and VACs. We discuss these findings in connection with both usage-based theories of language acquisition and the noisy representations account.
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Incidental and planned focus on form in EMI science classes: possible role of teachers’ past ESL/EFL teaching experience

February 10, 2026

Jiangshan An

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English medium instruction often bears the promise of providing a meaning-focused approach to L2 learning alongside content learning. However, EMI teachers are found to resist their role as language teachers. A common reason is they are typically content specialists with no language training or teaching experience. This study investigates when EMI teachers do possess ESL/EFL teaching experience whether there is a difference in their integration of language during teacher-whole class interaction. The SLA concept, focus on form, is adopted to analyze the incidental and planned focus on form in 30 video recorded EMI science classes taught by 15 native speakers of English teachers (NSTs), where five of them possess past ESL/EFL teaching experience. Findings show teachers with such experience used more focus on form, and two teachers with extensive past ESL/EFL teaching experience had lengthy planned focus on form. Suggestions are made in optimizing focus on form in EMI classes.
Open Access
Long-term effects of pragmatics strategy instruction: email invitation-requests and Chinese EFL learners

February 4, 2026

Su Lai, Maria Economidou-Kogetsidis, Christine Savvidou

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This study employs a pre-test/post-test/delayed post-test design to investigate the long-term effects of pragmatics strategy instruction on Chinese EFL learners’ email invitation-requests. It further examines the extent to which learner motivation influences instructional effectiveness. Two groups of learners – a high-motivation group and a low-motivation group – were formed. They received 12 h of pragmatics strategy instruction over one month, during which they were taught several cognitive and metacognitive strategies related to learning pragmatics. Learners’ pragmatic performance was assessed through an electronic discourse completion test. Results from the post-test and delayed post-test indicated that both groups showed significant and sustained pragmatic improvements, with their frequency and variety of internal and external modifiers significantly increased. However, the moderating role of motivation was not confirmed. This study adds strong support to the facilitative role of strategy instruction in developing learners’ email pragmatic competence and provides informed pedagogical implications for both L2 learners and L2 teachers.
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Shh…is silence really golden? A multivariate analysis of subjectivity in academic writings and translations

January 29, 2026

Jia Li, Zhen Guo

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Although subjectivity has been extensively examined in original academic writings, it remains comparatively underexplored in academic translations. For many non-native English-speaking scholars, academic texts are often initially composed in their first language and subsequently translated into English, either manually or with the assistance of AI-based technologies. Addressing this underexamined area, this study offers a comparative analysis of subjectivity in original, human-translated and ChatGPT-translated academic texts, combining factor analysis and random forest modelling. The results identify six latent dimensions underpinning the construct of subjectivity: authorial assertion, dialogic engagement, modalised stance, evidentiality-related evaluation, hypothetical reasoning and indeterminacy. Importantly, the study provides empirical evidence of a general loss of subjectivity in academic translations, a tendency more pronounced in human-translated texts across several dimensions. The key difference between human translations and original academic writings lies in their orientation towards the source text or the authorial presence, while the primary divergence between ChatGPT translations and original texts is found in the degree of academic modesty. These findings suggest that students who use AI tools to translate their first-language writings into academic English should be encouraged to adopt an active authorial stance and to engage in critical evaluation of the AI-generated outputs.
Open Access
Translanguaging On Country: trauma responsive pedagogy in Australian Aboriginal early childhood education

January 28, 2026

Sender Dovchin, Sophia Mung, Libby Lee-Hammond, Rhonda Oliver, Debra Hannagan, Chunhong Liu, Angel M. Y. Lin

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Intergenerational trauma, rooted in histories of colonization and systemic exclusion, continues to impact the educational and psychological well-being of Indigenous communities, including Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples of Australia. In response to the enduring impact of intergenerational trauma, this study explores how a trauma-responsive framework can be strengthened through a translanguaging On Country framework that integrates translanguaging pedagogy with Aboriginal children’s linguistic, communicative, cultural and identity repertoires. This ethnographic study was conducted at an Aboriginal school in Western Australia’s Kimberley region. Drawing on an “ On-Country Walk, ” this study reveals how Aboriginal children engaged in translanguaging to express themselves through full translingual repertories, including Gija, Kriol, Aboriginal English, Standard Australian English, and other semiotic resources, which promote a sense of belonging, strengthens cultural identities, and creates a sense of safety. Findings demonstrate that translanguaging On Country offers a harmonious and healing space for mutual learning where Aboriginal children confidently articulate their meaning-making practices while reclaiming their linguistic, cultural and epistemic agency.
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Bridging the function-form gap: a multidimensional move analysis of English research article introductions in applied linguistics by L1 English and L1 Chinese scholars

January 20, 2026

Yiqing Chi, Jinlin Jiang, Xiaofei Lu

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Combining move analysis with multidimensional analysis (MDA), this study investigates salient linguistic co-occurrence patterns (“dimensions”) as well as linguistic variations in the rhetorical moves of English research article introductions (RAIs) in applied linguistics written by L1 English and L1 Chinese scholars. Our MDA of a corpus of move segments of RAIs from thirteen applied linguistics journals identifies five functionally interpretable dimensions: grounded evaluation, criticism with caution, stated purposes, author-involved narration of current study versus existing knowledge, and research- versus non-research-related information density. A comparative analysis reveals systematic variation in the linguistic features of specific moves between the RAIs written by L1 English and L1 Chinese scholars. Our findings have useful implications for research and pedagogy of English for academic purposes.
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The effects of individual differences on adolescent L1 Chinese EFL learners’ incidental vocabulary acquisition through extensive reading

January 13, 2026

Chen Ding, Barry Lee Reynolds

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Research on incidental vocabulary acquisition through extensive reading has focused largely on textual features, with limited attention to individual differences, particularly in exam-oriented secondary school contexts. This study investigated the effects of individual differences on incidental vocabulary acquisition among Chinese EFL secondary school learners. Using a quasi-experimental design, pretests, immediate posttests, and delayed posttests measured five aspects of word knowledge: form recognition, meaning recognition, meaning recall, collocation recognition, and collocation recall. Over 6 weeks, the experimental group ( n = 99) read graded readers, while the control group ( n = 95) followed regular instruction. Participants’ L2 vocabulary size, L2 reading ability, and use of incidental vocabulary learning strategies were assessed through standardized tests and questionnaires. Findings indicated L2 reading ability as the strongest predictor of delayed posttest scores, while vocabulary size and strategy use correlated with, but did not directly predict, outcomes. Results underscore the need for strategic reading instruction to enhance extensive reading’s impact.
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Mapping oral collocational use by measuring collocational accuracy, complexity, and fluency across different proficiency levels

January 6, 2026

Masoomeh Estaji, Mohammad Reza Montazeri

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Speech production theories have underscored the significance of producing formulaic sequences, particularly collocations, in language. Yet, measuring collocational competence in second language (L2) speaking tests, especially in high-stakes assessments, is under-researched. Hence, this study aimed to measure Iranian test takers’ lexical and grammatical collocations in terms of three dimensions of accuracy, complexity, and fluency in the IELTS speaking test across various proficiency levels. To further explore the relationship between the dimensions of collocational competence, the study also investigated the association between IELTS test takers’ collocational complexity and their collocational accuracy and fluency. To achieve this, a corpus of 60 mock IELTS speaking tests with different proficiency levels (band scores of 6, 7, and 8) was collected, with 20 samples for each level, resulting in a total of 3,252 collocations. Results showed a positive correlation between collocation scores and higher band scores across accuracy, complexity (except for restrictedness), and fluency dimensions. Results from regression path analyses also showed no significant correlation between IELTS test takers’ collocational complexity and fluency, while a significant negative correlation was identified between their collocational complexity and accuracy. These findings highlight the significance of oral collocational competence as a key factor influencing overall oral proficiency, particularly in the context of preparation for high-stakes tests.
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Towards a model of self-regulation, self-efficacy, working memory, English proficiency, and writing performance in an EFL multimedia writing context

December 29, 2025

Mark Feng Teng, Xiaolei Shen, Weili Xing

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Writing performance is intricately shaped by cognitive factors such as self-regulation and working memory, and self-efficacy. However, prior research rarely synthesized these dimensions within learners’ English proficiency, particularly in multimedia writing contexts. To bridge this gap, the present study provides a comprehensive analysis of how self-regulation, self-efficacy, working memory, and English proficiency collectively predict English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ multimedia writing performance. A total of 406 Chinese university students participated, completing self-regulation and self-efficacy assessments, a working memory evaluation, and a multimedia writing task. The findings underscored the pivotal role of self-regulation and self-efficacy, with self-evaluation and monitoring self-efficacy emerging as particularly influential in multimedia writing. Also, working memory and English proficiency were significant predictors of writing proficiency in multimedia environments. By integrating cognitive and motivational constructs within a multimedia framework, this study advances theoretical discourse and provides pedagogical insights into fostering EFL learners’ writing competence in digital learning landscapes.
Open Access
Effects of task complexity and task condition on Chinese EFL learners’ word engagement and incidental vocabulary learning

December 26, 2025

Meiqiong Liang, Yuanhua Xie, Huafeng Wang

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Despite numerous studies on the effect of task complexity on language learning, little attention has been paid to incidental vocabulary learning (IVL). This study examined the combined effects of task complexity (i.e., simple vs. complex) and task condition (i.e., individual vs. collaborative) on Chinese EFL learners’ word engagement and IVL. Participants ( n = 84) were assigned to individual or collaborative groups to complete two decision-making tasks of varying complexity and then underwent immediate and delayed vocabulary post-tests. The collected data were analyzed and revealed the following results: 1) The complex task triggered learners’ word engagement and facilitated their immediate meaning recognition; 2) While types and frequency of word engagement varied between groups during task performance, collaboration consistently promoted IVL; and 3) notably, a significant interaction showed that collaboration improved learners’ immediate meaning recall in the complex task, with both groups performing similarly in the simple task. These findings provided new insights into IVL and suggested pedagogical implications.
Open Access
Personality as a catalyst for strategic self-regulation in language learning

December 16, 2025

Jakub Przybył, Mirosław Pawlak

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This study expands the scope of research on personality within the broader nomological network of foreign language learning (FLL). While recent studies have successfully identified personality as a predictor of willingness to communicate or emotions, our empirical investigation explores its impact on affective, behavioural, and cognitive aspects of language learners’ strategic self-regulation (S2R). We collected data from 711 L2 learners of English at Polish universities, who completed an adaptation of the NEO Personality Inventory and the S2R Inventory adapted from the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning. L2 attainment was assessed via placement tests. Structural equation modelling revealed that openness to experience was positively associated with functional S2R across multiple strategic categories, while extraversion and conscientiousness were positively related to fewer. By linking personality traits to distinct dimensions of S2R, this study provides novel evidence that personality-informed perspectives can meaningfully advance theory and practice in FLL.
Open Access
Gender assignment errors in adult L2 Spanish: incorrect assignment or unavailable assignment?

December 2, 2025

Patti Spinner

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Recent research suggests that second language learners’ difficulty with gender marking is largely a lexical problem (e.g., Alarcón. 2011. Spanish gender agreement under complete and incomplete acquisition: Early and late bilinguals’ linguistic behavior within the noun phrase. Bilingualism 14(3). 332–350; Grüter et al. 2012. Grammatical gender in L2: A production or a real-time processing problem? Second Language Research 28(2). 191–215; Hopp. 2013. Grammatical gender in adult L2 acquisition: Relations between lexical and syntactic variability. Second Language Research 29(1). 33–56, 2016 Learning (not) to predict: Grammatical gender processing in second language acquisition. Second Language Research 32(2). 277–307). However, relatively little research has addressed whether lexical gender errors are due to nouns being assigned inaccurate gender or due to gender assignment being unavailable because the assignment is absent, weak, or inaccessible. A related question is whether the type of assignment error might depend on the morphophonological cues on the noun. In this preliminary study, adult second language learners of Spanish produce noun phrases in three conditions, using the same nouns each time. They also label noun gender on a paper-and-pencil task. Results show that learners used mixed genders with nouns, rather than a stable but incorrect gender, except with feminine opaque nouns. Additionally, the gender labels that learners provided on the paper-and-pencil task did not always correspond to their actual gender use; rather, learners often used mixed genders with nouns even when they labeled them correctly. Together, these results suggest that assignment errors are not likely due to incorrect gender assignment, although morphophonological properties of the noun play a role.
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Exploring prompt iteration process through generative AI image creation in EFL vocabulary learning

November 18, 2025

Yohan Hwang, Jang Ho Lee, Dongkwang Shin

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Amid the growing use of GenAI in second language education and its emerging multimodality, this study investigated how Korean undergraduates studying EFL enacted prompt iteration with a text-to-image generator to support multimodal vocabulary learning. Participants read etymology-rich word stories, sketched visualizations, and iteratively refined prompts until the images aligned with their intentions. Data included AI-generated artworks, reflective papers documenting the process, and a vocabulary learning strategies survey. Overall, learners reported high use of strategies after the task. Analysis of artworks and reflections revealed a metacognitive–strategic cycle: learners monitored and evaluated outputs, then strategically varied contextual features to negotiate meaning and achieve nuanced imagery. Framed as both a prompt-engineering technique and a literacy practice involving planning, monitoring, and evaluation, prompt iteration emerged as central to GenAI-mediated vocabulary learning, highlighting learners’ agency in exploring word meanings.
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Effects of textual enhancement on L2 development: a meta-analysis

September 29, 2025

Ehsan Rassaei, Shadab Jabbarpoor

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This meta-analysis examines the effects of textual enhancement (TE) on second language (L2) development by synthesizing findings from 29 primary studies involving 1749 participants. These studies were selected based on carefully defined inclusion criteria and an evaluation of the homogeneity of the primary studies’ effect sizes. The results reveal an overall small to medium combined aggregate effect size ( g = 0.54) for between-subject comparisons, suggesting that TE has a modest impact on L2 learning. Moderator analyses indicate that TE has equal effects on the development of grammatical and lexical knowledge. Additionally, the findings show that employing multiple TE techniques does not significantly enhance its effectiveness compared to using a single technique, suggesting a ceiling effect in how much TE can contribute to the noticing of target features. The results indicated a smaller effect size for learners with lower proficiency compared to those with intermediate and advanced proficiency levels, although the difference was not statistically significant. Finally, the findings indicated that the effect of TE on L2 development is not moderated by the mode of delivery (i.e., paper-based vs. digital materials). Overall, these findings contribute to the ongoing debate on the role of noticing in L2 acquisition, suggesting that while TE facilitates language learning, its impact may be limited and should be interpreted with care.
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Understanding the moderating role of school achievement level between growth mindsets, engagement and achievement in students’ English learning

September 26, 2025

Honggang Liu, Xu Wang

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This study aims to understand the underlying mechanisms for the mixed effects of growth mindsets on language learning achievement and engagement by examining the moderating role of school achievement level. We investigated 423 high school English learners in China. The multiple regression results showed that growth mindsets positively predicted English achievement and engagement in English learning. However, moderation analysis indicated that the positive relationship between growth mindsets and English achievement was significant only among medium-achieving school students, but not their peers in high-achieving schools, suggesting a ceiling effect of growth mindsets on improving English achievement. Such ceiling effects did not exist in the mindset-engagement relationship. Conversely, moderation analysis suggested that the predictive powers of growth mindsets on engagement were stronger among high-achieving school students than among medium-achieving school students. Possible explanations and related implications are discussed.
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From Yi Language to Mandarin: translanguaging practices and identity construction between actual and ought-to L1 selves

September 23, 2025

Hengzhi Hu, Aixiang Mi, Jingwen Ou, Harwati Hashim

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In multilingual classrooms where heritage and dominant languages coexist unequally, translanguaging is often encouraged pedagogically, yet its identity-shaping potential remains underexplored. This case study, situated in a Mandarin-medium secondary classroom in China, investigates how translanguaging involving Yi Language, a heritage language and actual first language (L1) for students, mediates their identity construction in relation to Mandarin, the state-sanctioned ought-to L1. Drawing on classroom observations and student interviews, we identified teacher- and student-initiated translanguaging practices that fulfilled pedagogical, relational, epistemic, and identity-affirming functions. Despite shared instruction, students demonstrated three distinct identity profiles: resistant, emergent, and reflexive. These profiles reflected differing perceptions of heritage language legitimacy and varied responses to the linguistic hierarchy embedded in the classroom. The findings suggest that translanguaging should be understood not merely as a pragmatic teaching strategy but as an ideological and epistemic act that shapes learners’ identity trajectories within broader sociolinguistic structures.
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Are L2 listener verbal reports reactive? Insights from the learners

September 16, 2025

Michael Yeldham, Rainbow Tsai-Hung Chen

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This study examined L2 listener verbal reports (VRs) for reactivity, in terms of the VR possibly impacting participants’ listening comprehension. The research built on two prior studies. The first was a qualitative investigation, where the study’s three participants had each undertaken VRs using three different VR styles: two mediated (employing researcher question prompts), and one unmediated. In that study the participants perceived there was reactivity in various aspects of the VR. However, the second study, an experimental investigation, utilizing these same three VR styles, found no evidence of reactivity. The current study sought, in part, to address these conflicting findings, while finding out more about potential reactivity in L2 listener VRs. To accomplish this, we gathered data through immediate post-VR interviews with all 14 learners in the experimental group from the aforementioned experimental study, to explore their views on reactivity: (1) for the VRs, in general; (2) on the researcher regularly stopping the text for their report; (3) for mediated VRs, and (4) for the three VR styles. The study found the VRs largely did not appear to be reactive, although participants did perceive reactivity in each area investigated. Based on the results, we provide advice for L2 listener VRs.
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The impact of lexical clustering on beginner Chinese learners: a comparative study of semantic and thematic approaches

August 22, 2025

Rongyan Liu

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The impact of semantic and thematic clustering in beginner-level Chinese vocabulary instruction remains underexplored. This study conducted a nearly four-month classroom-based intervention with 44 Russian-speaking beginner-level Chinese learners. Quantitative data from standardized exams, contrastive translation tests, and vocabulary assessments were analyzed alongside qualitative data from text analysis, questionnaires, and interviews. Results indicated that both clustering methods enhanced vocabulary retention, contextual application, and lexical processing compared to traditional instruction. Thematic clustering, in particular, yielded superior outcomes in productive tasks, including sentence construction and dialogue completion. While semantic clustering facilitated systematic vocabulary organization, its efficacy was constrained by participants’ limited word capacity and underdeveloped morphological awareness. Both methods alleviated cognitive load and contributed to enhanced retention during the experimental period, with thematic clustering proving especially beneficial by embedding vocabulary in meaningful contexts. These findings offer theoretical and pedagogical insights for optimizing vocabulary instruction in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language (TCSL).
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AI versus teachers and peers: a comparative study on speaking performance, willingness to communicate, self-perceived communicative competence and foreign language anxiety

August 13, 2025

Chenghao Wang, Bin Zou

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While online language education is widely accepted for its convenience, it often leads to a relatively isolated learning experience. In response to positive psychology’s emphasis on learner engagement and well-being, this study investigated how an instructional AI chatbot and an AI-based speaking assessment system, introduced midway through the course, could enhance instruction and support speaking practice. Utilizing three-round speaking tests and questionnaires, supplemented by semi-structured interviews, this study examined how AI-supported language learning influenced learners’ speaking performance, along with key affective variables closely related to the speaking experience: Willingness to Communicate (WTC), Self-Perceived Communicative Competence (SCC), and Foreign Language Anxiety (FLA). A total of 103 Chinese EFL learners participated in the experiment. The quantitative results indicated that AI, compared to human teachers and peers, was more effective in enhancing learners’ speaking performance, WTC, and SCC. The qualitative data suggest that this may be attributed to learners feeling more comfortable and secure when producing English in AI-mediated online environments, which reduced social pressure and fostered greater self-expression. In addition to identifying the limitations of AI-supported speaking instruction, the study offers practical guidance for teachers seeking to incorporate diverse AI tools into online classroom activities to foster both linguistic development and positive emotional experiences.
Open Access
Cognitive fatigue induced by spaced and massed practice: effects on idiom accuracy across L2 proficiency levels

August 11, 2025

Kamal Heidari

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This study investigated the effects of spaced and massed practice on cognitive fatigue across L2 proficiency levels. 92 L2 learners completed idiom comprehension tasks under spaced and massed practice conditions and then the five dimensions of their cognitive fatigue (cognitive, emotional, physical, behavioral, and motivational) were measured in two ways: perceived cognitive fatigue through a self-report scale and performance-based cognitive fatigue via a free recall idiom accuracy test. Results revealed that spaced practice significantly reduced overall cognitive fatigue, with the effect being most pronounced among low-proficiency learners. Results also indicated significant interactions between practice type and proficiency level across all fatigue dimensions. Multiple regression further demonstrated that while cognitive engagement positively predicted idiom comprehension accuracy, physical fatigue emerged as the strongest negative predictor. These results have important implications for L2 pedagogy, highlighting the need for differentiated instruction that considers practice distribution and learners’ susceptibility to various dimensions of cognitive fatigue.
Open Access
Young learners’ receptive L2 English vocabulary knowledge in relation to extramural English exposure at the onset of formal instruction in Norway

August 1, 2025

Henrik Gyllstad, Pia Sundqvist, Elke Peters, Ulrikke Rindal, Gustaf B. Skar, Nasrin Ulfat

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Some young foreign/second language (L2) learners of English hardly know a single English word when starting school instruction. Others know many thanks to extensive English use outside of school, extramural English (EE). By investigating young L2 learners’ vocabulary knowledge at the onset of formal instruction, we can explore what roles EE may have for incidental learning prior to instruction. To date, research has shown that music, digital games, and TV are important EE sources and also indicated gender-related differences in EE use, but few studies have targeted very young learners. In this study, we collected data from 61 1st-grade learners (aged 5–6) in Norway. We used a shortened version of the Picture Vocabulary Size Test, a learner questionnaire, a parental questionnaire, a week-long language diary, and learner interviews ( n = 8). The participants had an average receptive meaning recognition vocabulary of approximately 850 word families, but individual variation was considerable. Gender significantly predicted vocabulary size (boys > girls). Time spent watching TV and total EE time correlated most strongly with vocabulary scores. Whereas EE activities reported in the learner questionnaire were not correlated with vocabulary scores, EE activities in the Parental questionnaire were. Interview data revealed that learners viewed English as a lingua franca, but many showed limited grasp of English as a language and concept.
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First-language use in English interlanguage: a multi-CEFR-level spoken learner corpus analysis of Taiwanese learners

July 25, 2025

Lan-fen Huang

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This study explores the phenomenon of Chinese-English code-switching in interviews with 116 Taiwanese learners across proficiency levels within the Common European Framework of Reference ( CEFR ; Council of Europe. 2020. Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment companion volume . Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing). The learner corpus data were extracted from the Taiwanese sub-corpus (Huang, Lan-fen. 2014. Constructing the Taiwanese component of the Louvain International Database of Spoken English Interlanguage (LINDSEI) . Taiwan Journal of TESOL 11(1). 31–74) of the Louvain International Database of Spoken English Interlanguage ( LINDSEI ; Gilquin, Gaëtanelle, de Cock Sylvie & Sylviane Granger (eds.). 2010. LINDSEI Louvain International Database of Spoken English Interlanguage . Handbook and CD-ROM . Louvain-la-Neuve: Presses universitaires de Louvain) and its expanded data (Huang, Lan-fen & Tomáš Gráf. 2021. Expanding LINDSEI to spoken learner English from several L1s across CEFR levels. Corpora 16(2). 271–285). The analysis of relative code-switching frequencies revealed a consistent decline from A1 to C1, indicating that as proficiency increased, L1 use declined. Kruskal-Wallis tests presented clear evidence of a difference between higher (B2 and above) and lower (B1 and below) levels. The functions of Chinese use were explored and interpreted on the basis of empirical evidence within their immediate context, following the taxonomy of linguistic functions proposed by Kaneko, Tomoko. 2009. Use of mother tongue in English-as-a-foreign-language speech by Japanese university students. Gakuen 822. 25–41. By analysing a CEFR -rated Taiwanese learner corpus, this study provides practical insights showing how L1 use evolves with proficiency. It also proposes alternatives: English expressions and appropriate communication strategies to address referential code-switching, which probably stems from learners’ limited proficiency. These findings yield practical suggestions and linguistic examples to support English language teachers working with Chinese-speaking learnerss.
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The development and initial validation of LexCombi 2: a research-oriented elicitation instrument for L2 learners’ productive collocation knowledge

July 17, 2025

Dale Brown

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Collocations are ubiquitous in language and important in successful second language (L2) use. Yet L2 learners’ knowledge of collocations, particularly their productive knowledge, is often considered inadequate. To further understanding of how learners’ productive collocation knowledge develops, effective methods of accessing and assessing this knowledge are necessary. To date, validated instruments for measuring productive collocation knowledge are lacking and ad hoc tools that appear to have undergone limited development prevalent. This paper therefore reports on the development of an instrument for measuring L2 learners’ productive collocation knowledge. Starting with an existing instrument that was considered promising, the paper sets out how a series of iterative trialling and development studies were undertaken to assess the instrument and enhance its validity. With revisions to its format, scoring and cues, a summative evaluation of the new form of the instrument, LexCombi 2, is described, and an initial evaluation of LexCombi 2’s validity given.
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Translation research and the space for translanguaging: a systematic review of translation literature in secondary and higher education EFL contexts

June 13, 2025

Gede Eka Putrawan, Marianne Turner, Minh Hue Nguyen

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This paper is a systematic review of the literature on translation in English as a foreign language (EFL) teaching in secondary and higher education settings. The review was conducted in order to explore translation-in-education research in relation to a translanguaging lens. The review follows the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. We used both inclusion and exclusion criteria to identify the literature collection in the Scopus database from 2014 to 2024, and a total of 44 publications out of 471 identified were included for review. All the studies under review, whether for experimental, teaching, or learning purposes, showed that translation played various roles in EFL teaching and learning, and machine technology (MT) was a particular focus. Translation was found to provide a number of advantages for language learners of varying proficiency levels, especially those with lower English proficiency, and attitudes towards translation were mostly positive. The main focus of the majority of the studies, however, was on understanding aspects of language, such as specific vocabulary and grammar, rather than on the act – or process – of translating. Suggestions for creating space for empirical research on translanguaging in translation scholarship are discussed.
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Effects of repeated practice on fluency and accuracy in picture description activity: implicit learning by frequency

June 9, 2025

Koichi Yamaoka, Osamu Takeuchi

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Implicit knowledge is one of the major goals of second language learning. Implicit knowledge is useful because of its automatic nature. There is a possibility that task repetition provides an opportunity to obtain implicit knowledge of chunks through frequent encounters to the same patterns during the repetition. If this frequency is enhanced by practice, learning of implicit knowledge of chunks is expected to be facilitated. The present study adopted oral repetition of chunk combinations as chunk practice to realize high-frequency encounters with patterns of chunks. This chunk practice, combined with picture description activities, was administered to the treatment group of beginner-level learners of English, while the control group engaged in the activities without the chunk practice. The treatment group outperformed the control group in the outcome of accuracy of article. However, statistically significant differences were not confirmed between the groups in fluency and accuracy of verbs and prepositions. The effect on accuracy of article endured for at least one week in the delayed performance. Transfer was not confirmed because both groups reached similar levels of unrehearsed performance.
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What watching subtitled movies does to the learner: the impact of subtitles and modality on cognitive load and vocabulary learning

June 9, 2025

Karolina Baranowska

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Given that many foreign language learners these days systematically watch foreign language movies outside the classroom via streaming services, the effects of exposure to foreign language audiovisual materials on various aspects of language learning are frequently addressed in recent research. The present study aimed to investigate the impact of exposure to subtitled videos and the impact of modality on vocabulary learning and cognitive load. 196 Polish upper-intermediate learners of English were divided into nine experimental groups based on different modality (video, audio, audiovisual) and subtitling (interlingual, intralingual, no subtitles) conditions. Each group watched a video clip in the assigned condition and their gains in vocabulary learning were measured by a pre test and two post-tests. Additionally, cognitive load was measured by means of dual task methodology, and a subjective measurement in the form of a self-reported questionnaire. Results reveal that watching subtitled videos facilitates vocabulary learning without causing cognitive overload.
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Perceptual errors in English connected speech: the case of Japanese learners of English

May 29, 2025

Yo Hamada, Kazuya Kito

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There has been a recent increase in research on aural decoding and listening comprehension. It shows that English learners exhibit difficulty in aural decoding, especially in recognizing connected speech. This study examined English learners’ aural decoding in connected speech based on the framework of Wong et al. (2021. Chinese ESL learners’ perceptual errors of English connected speech: Insights into listening comprehension. System 98. 102480) with 81 intermediate-level Japanese L2 learners who listened to and transcribed 33 sentences. Errors were analyzed from two perspectives: phonetic and lexical/syntactic. Both phonetic and lexical/syntactic sets were further classified into five categories. The result showed that Japanese English learners struggle with connected speech features at the perceptual level of their bottom-up listening skills, which corroborates with Wong et al. (2021). The results also show errors distinct to Japanese English learners, such as boundary errors. Additionally, the study shows a clear procedure for analyzing perceptual errors.
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Exploring the mediating role of boredom in the relationship between ideal L2 self and engagement in Chinese as a foreign language learning

May 22, 2025

Xiao Xie, Lawrence Jun Zhang, Yunyun Xuan, Zhaoyu Chen

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Boredom, as an inhibitory negative emotion, is prevalent in foreign language learning but its effects on learning are often underestimated. Within the context of Chinese as a foreign language (CFL), few studies have examined the dynamic relationship of boredom with motivational sources and learning engagement. To address this research gap, we probed the relationship between the ideal L2 self and affective, behavioural, and cognitive engagement, specifically focusing on the mediating role of boredom. Data via an online questionnaire from 791 CFL learners at a Thai senior high school were collected to gauge their ideal L2 self, boredom, and engagement. Results of PLS-SEM analysis indicated that the ideal L2 self positively impacted affective engagement and behavioural engagement, with boredom acting as a mediator in these relationships, highlighting the distinctiveness of cognitive engagement. These findings offer pedagogical implications for reducing boredom in foreign language learning and optimising affective, behavioural, and cognitive engagement.
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The effects of pre-task explicit instruction, input modality of task types, and working memory on L2 oral production

May 22, 2025

Michael Sadeghi, Reza Yadollahpour, Mostafa Pourhaji

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The present study investigated the effects of pre-task explicit instruction, input modality of task types, and working memory (WM) on the oral production of second language (L2) learners. It employed a 2 × 2 factorial design, randomly assigning 83 high school students to four groups based on instructional treatment (with or without pre-task explicit instruction) and task type (picture story-retelling vs. dictogloss task). Analysing the complexity, accuracy, and fluency of oral productions revealed that explicit instruction positively influenced the rate and accuracy of producing the target structure, but led to less complex and fluent output. The effects of task types were evident, with picture story-retelling being superior to dictogloss in various areas, suggesting the significance of the input modality of tasks in oral performance. Finally, WM positively affected accuracy and fluency, highlighting its role in input processing and L2 oral production. The findings help reconcile mixed results in the literature by unravelling a more nuanced relationship among pre-task explicit instruction, input configurations of task types, and WM in L2 oral performance. Therefore, they offer valuable insights for educators, researchers, and curriculum designers seeking to enhance language learning outcomes using tasks.
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Exploring the dynamic metaphor patterns in describing English public speaking anxiety among Chinese learners

May 22, 2025

Fei Gao

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This study aims to explore the dynamic metaphor patterns in describing English public speaking (EPS) anxiety among Chinese learners. Metaphor is frequently used to describe complex emotional states, mental processes, and difficult experiences (Kövecses, Zoltán. 2003. Metaphor and emotion: Language, culture, and body in human feeling . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). This investigation is based on the discourse dynamics approach (Cameron, Lynne & Robert Maslen (eds.). 2010. Metaphor analysis: Research practice in applied linguistics, social sciences and the humanities . Toronto: University of Toronto Press). Fifteen Chinese learners were interviewed to present their EPS anxiety experiences in three speech types. A blended approach (combining naturalistic and elicited metaphors) was employed in the interviews. A total of 2006 metaphor vehicle terms were identified from the transcripts of interviews. The fitted log-linear model did not retain the highest level of the three-way interaction between VEHICLE GROUPING, TOPIC TERM and SPEECH TYPE. However, two possible bivariate associations (i.e., VEHICLE GROUPING * TOPIC TERM, and SPEECH TYPE * TOPIC TERM) were retained and discussed as metaphor patterns. In terms of the topics, metaphors of ANXIETY and OTHER (classroom environment, task demands, teacher feedback, peer pressure, emotional states of other people) were used more to describe EPS anxiety in the first informative speech but less in the third persuasive speech.
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Scale validation and latent profile identification of GenAI competence for pre-service second language teachers

May 22, 2025

Hanwei Wu, Yongliang Wang, Gurpinder Singh Lalli

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Pre-service second language (L2) teachers can benefit from Generative Artificial Intelligence (GenAI), yet there is a lack of reliable instrument to evaluate their GenAI competence. To fill this void, two studies were conducted. Study 1 aimed to create a GenAI Competence Scale for Chinese Pre-service L2 Teachers. Based on exploratory factor analysis of 350 samples, a 21-item scale was developed with a three-factor structure: Awareness and Willingness, Knowledge and Application, and Social Responsibility. Confirmatory factor analysis of 358 samples verified the scale’s ideal model fit, along with its high validity (convergent, discriminant, and criterion-related), reliability, and cross-gender invariance. Study 2 utilized Latent Profile Analysis to identify three distinct profiles among 708 Chinese pre-service L2 teachers’ GenAI competence: (i) moderate levels of Awareness and Willingness, relatively low Knowledge and Application, and moderate Social Responsibility (C1: 22.74 %), (ii) moderately high levels of Awareness and Willingness, relatively low Knowledge and Application, and moderately high Social Responsibility (C2: 65.82 %), and (iii) high levels of Awareness and Willingness, moderate Knowledge and Application, and high Social Responsibility (C3: 11.44 %). We anticipate that future scholars will adopt this scale across diverse L2 education settings, conducting some in-depth explorations to enhance the generalizability of findings, deepen the understanding of GenAI competence among pre-service educators, and contribute to the advancement of relevant theoretical frameworks and practical applications.
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Investigating the effect of task modality on the written and oral production of young EFL learners

May 1, 2025

M. Juncal Gutierrez-Mangado, María Basterrechea

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Research on task-based interaction examines learner-initiated attention to formal aspects of language (i.e., language-related episodes or LREs) and how task modality (oral or written) impacts on their incidence, nature (meaning- or form- focused), and resolution. In the light of studies attesting a relationship between LREs and L2 development (LaPierre 1994. Language output in a cooperative learning setting: Determining its effects on second language learning (Unpublished master’s thesis). University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Swain and Lapkin 1998. Interaction and second language learning: Two adolescent French immersion students working together. Modern Language Journal 82(3). 320–337; Williams 2001. The effectiveness of spontaneous attention to form. System 29. 325–340), it has been claimed that LREs represent second language learning in progress (Gass and Mackey 2007. Input, interaction and output in second language acquisition. In Bill VanPatten & Jessica Williams (eds.), Theories in second language acquisition: An introduction , 175–199. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum). This study compared the incidence, nature, resolution and reflection of LREs produced by 59 child learners of L3 English aged 10–12, where students in the written and oral tasks were instructed to focus on accuracy and were given the chance to edit their final production. The study also examined the correspondence between the resolution of each LRE and its occurrence on the written and oral tasks. The main results showed that while the incidence of form- and meaning-focused LREs was indeed higher in the written task, it was also the case that in the written task more non-target-like resolved LREs were reflected in the written final output than in the oral final output. This finding leads us to caution researchers and teachers in promoting the use of written collaborative tasks over oral tasks until we are in a better position to understand the effect that the reflection of non-target-like LREs in the final output may have for second-language (L2) development.
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Non-finite clause use in disciplinary research writing: a formulaic sequence-based functional comparison between expert and student writers

April 29, 2025

Xixin Qiu, J. Elliott Casal

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Non-finite clauses (NFCs), despite their increasingly recognized role in second language (L2) acquisition and academic writing as part of a multidimensional conceptualization of syntactic complexity, have not been analyzed in functional and discipline-specific perspectives. This study addresses this gap by providing a linguistic-descriptive account of NFC use in expert and advanced student English research writing. Using a 2.26-million-word corpus of published research articles and student manuscripts in Agricultural Science, this study profiles the distribution of NFC subtypes and identifies frequent discoursal functions realized by non-finite verb-centered formulaic sequences. The findings reveal significant differences in NFC use across writer groups, with student writers utilizing NFCs less overall and in the majority of structural subtypes. Functional analyses further demonstrate that advanced student writers employed a narrower range of formulaic frames for a narrower range of discoursal functions, highlighting both a reduced lexical repertoire and a rhetorically less sophisticated style, in regard to NFCs. Findings underscore the importance of considering a full range of lexical/phraseological and discourse-functional patterns of clause-level linguistic features, such as NFCs, in order to gain a more pedagogically interpretable understanding of syntactic complexity in L2 and academic writing.
Open Access
Relationships between formal and informal input, listening motivation, and listening proficiency among young EFL learners in Hong Kong

April 2, 2025

Art Tsang

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Increasing attention has recently been given to extramural exposure in foreign language (FL) learning. The study examined the relationships between input (extramural informal; instructional formal), listening motivation, and listening proficiency (test scores; self-rated scores) among 94 Grade-5 English-as-a-foreign-language learners in Hong Kong. Formal input was not found to be related to any of the variables investigated while informal input positively correlated with proficiency, but not motivation. Motivation was only found to be positively related to proficiency. Using hierarchical regression, informal exposure was found to significantly predict both test and self-rated listening scores. However, abundant informal (and also formal) target language input over a one-year period did not show a significant association with higher intrinsic motivation to listen to the language. Overall, these findings underscore the importance of capitalizing on extramural informal input for developing listening competence. Empirically and theoretically, the antecedents and effects of listening motivation warrant further investigation.
Open Access
English language teachers’ social media branding: mapping the construction and perception of brand identities on Instagram

March 27, 2025

Hassan Nejadghanbar, Mahsa Fotouhi

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Despite the popularity of social media branding, research on how English teachers utilize these platforms to build their personal brands is limited. This study aims to explore how teachers establish their brand identities on Instagram and how their followers perceive them. The research used narrative frames (NFs) and in-depth semi-structured interviews with six English teachers and three of their followers each. The NFs explored brand identity construction and motivations, while the interviews delved into teachers’ experiences and aspirations regarding their brand identities. The same procedure was used to gather data from followers, examining their perceptions of the teachers’ identities. Thematic analysis revealed three main brand identities that teachers aim to establish on Instagram: role model self, professional self, and influencer self. These themes also emerged from the followers’ data. The findings have important implications for language teacher education and research, highlighting the intersection of social media and teacher identity.
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A meta-analysis examining AI-assisted L2 learning

March 18, 2025

Guanyao Xu, Aiqing Yu, Lin Liu

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Numerous quantitative studies have investigated how artificial intelligence (AI) impacts the development of second language (L2). While individual studies delve into the effects of AI interventions on L2 learning, a meta-analysis provides a comprehensive evaluation of AI’s effectiveness in second language acquisition (SLA). Despite the growing body of meta-analytical research in AI-assisted language learning, several potential moderators have not been thoroughly investigated in previous meta-analyses. This meta-analysis examines the effectiveness of AI-assisted L2 learning and analyzes factors that can influence the effectiveness. The analysis included 15 studies that involved a total of 2,156 participants and generated 53 effect sizes. After correcting for measurement and sampling error, AI-assisted L2 learning demonstrated a positive large effect with d = 1.167. The Q statistic suggested that the true effect sizes varied significantly across studies, which warranted conducting a theory-based moderator analysis. The results of the moderator analysis revealed that type of AI-assisted interactions was not a significant moderator affecting the effectiveness of AI-assisted L2 learning; AI-assisted L2 learning was more beneficial in developing receptive skills than productive skills; AI technologies excelled at building learners’ vocabulary skills compared to other language skills; the effectiveness of AI-assisted L2 learning was higher in an in-class context than in an out-of-class context; IMALL was more impactful for L2 learning than ICALL; and there was no significant difference in the effectiveness of AI technology intervention for L2 learning between K-12 and college learners.
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Phrasal complexity in EFL learners’ oral performance: The role of task type and proficiency

March 18, 2025

Gui Bao

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Phrasal complexity in L2 production has highlighted overall noun phrase use, with its categorization rarely considered. To this end, this study explores how task type (story retelling and topic-based monologue) and EFL proficiency (low, middle, high) affect 101 intermediate EFL learners’ phrasal complexity in oral performance. Phrases were categorized into five types (noun, verb, adjective, prepositional, and adverb phrases), measured by frequency, length, and embedding. Results indicate independent but non-interactive effects of task type and EFL proficiency on each measure of phrasal complexity. Regarding frequency- and embedding-based measures, task type impacted all categories of phrase use except for noun phrase use. For length-based measures, however, task type influenced noun, verb and adverb phrase uses. EFL proficiency affected frequency- and embedding-based measures for verb and prepositional phrase uses, as well as length-based measures for adverb phrase use. Both frequency- and length-based measures are recommended to fully understand phrasal complexity in L2 production and their implications for L2 learning and development.
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Impact of methodological differences in task sequencing on second language learning: a multi-level meta-analysis

March 13, 2025

Mahmoud Abdi Tabari, Hansol Lee, Mahsa Farahanynia

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Drawing on the SSARC model, TBLT research has investigated the role of task sequencing in L2 production, yielding mixed results. This study conducts a multi-level meta-analysis of methodological practices in task sequencing to provide more transparency. Sixteen studies published up to May 2024 were selected based on inclusion criteria, and each study was coded for analyzed features and contextual variables. Methodological aspects, including study designs, sampling procedures, analyses, and reporting practices, were also coded. Significant methodological variations were identified across studies, including differences in L2 proficiency, learning contexts, task modalities, types, complexities, delivery methods, and constructs. Task complexity emerged as a significant factor influencing L2 performance, with more complex tasks yielding larger effect sizes. Additionally, simple and complex sequencing tasks exhibited a medium effect size in enhancing accuracy, particularly in between-group studies. These findings highlight the importance of balanced learner representation and standardized research practices to improve L2 learning outcomes.
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Effects of guided concept mapping on L2 learners’ listening ability and cognitive load

March 12, 2025

Xin Yuan, Xuan Tang

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Concept mapping is a frequently-employed learning strategy, yet its effectiveness in the context of L2 learning, with L2 listening in particular, is limited. To fill this gap, the present study examined the effects of guided concept mapping for second language (L2) listening comprehension. The cognitive load induced by guided concept mapping was also explored. A total of 84 intermediate Chinese college learners of English were equally assigned to either an experimental or a control group. Both groups of learners went through six treatment sessions. In each session, the experimental group listened to a text twice and then finished a partially-filled guided concept map; the control group listened to the same text twice and answered attached comprehension questions focusing on the text’s main idea without drawing any concept maps. Listening comprehension pre- and post-test and a cognitive load questionnaire were used to collect data. The mixed analysis of variance (ANOVA) suggested that learners in the guided concept mapping condition significantly outperformed those in the control condition in terms of listening development. An independent sample t -test revealed that the guided concept mapping group experienced statistically significant lower cognitive load than the control group. Possible reasons behind the results and implications of the study were also discussed.
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Exploring the hierarchical antecedents of willingness to communicate and its relationship with utterance fluency in learning Chinese as a foreign language

February 25, 2025

Peijian Paul Sun

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Informed by the willingness to communicate (WTC) model, this study investigated the hierarchical antecedents of WTC and its relationship with utterance fluency in the context of learning Chinese as a foreign language (L2 Chinese). Data were collected from 236 L2 Chinese learners who completed a questionnaire and an L2 Chinese speech competence test. Of these participants, 94 also completed an L2 Chinese speech performance test. The results revealed that L2 Chinese WTC could be hierarchically subject to linguistic (i.e., speech competence), psychological (i.e., speaking anxiety, speaking motivation, and speaking self-efficacy), and sociocultural (i.e., attitudes toward the target language’s society, culture, and classroom instruction) factors as its high-evidence antecedents. The study also found that L2 Chinese WTC did not significantly contribute to any of the four fine-grained measures of utterance fluency (i.e., speech rate, pruned speech rate, articulation rate, and pruned articulation rate). The study concludes with pedagogical insights for teachers.
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Emotion profiles of Chinese secondary EFL learners: link with subjective well-being, English achievement, and demographics

February 4, 2025

Lihong Ma, Kit-Tai Hau, Lixueqing Liu, Jian Liu

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This study employed latent profile analysis (LPA) to identify emotion profiles among foreign language (FL) learners and explored their relationship with FL achievement and subjective well-being, drawing on control-value theory. The participants included 4,109 Chinese secondary students who completed an English achievement test and online questionnaires focusing on subjective well-being and FL enjoyment, anxiety, and burnout. The LPA results indicated a four-profile model, categorized as “low enjoyment, anxiety, and burnout”, “low enjoyment with moderate anxiety and burnout”, “moderate enjoyment with low anxiety and burnout”, and “high enjoyment, anxiety, and burnout”. Four profiles showed significant differences in subjective well-being and English achievement. Notably, the group characterized by “moderate enjoyment with low anxiety and burnout” demonstrated the highest levels of subjective well-being and English achievement. In contrast, the group with “low enjoyment, anxiety, and burnout” exhibited the lowest outcomes in these areas. Additionally, the group characterized by “low enjoyment with moderate anxiety and burnout” outperformed the “high enjoyment, anxiety, and burnout” group in English achievement, despite experiencing lower subjective well-being. Significant differences in FL emotion profiles were also observed across gender, socioeconomic status, and boarding status. These findings provide valuable insights into FL instruction.
Open Access
Learner beliefs about vocabulary teaching in secondary ESL classrooms: a proficiency and grade-level analysis

January 23, 2025

Edsoulla Chung, Daniel Fung, Aaron Wan

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Learner beliefs are widely acknowledged as key to the success of second language learning and teaching. Despite extensive research on English as a second language (ESL) learners’ beliefs, few studies have focused on vocabulary teaching. Our study addresses this gap by surveying 556 secondary school students in Hong Kong to explore their beliefs about various instructional practices and activities in vocabulary teaching, and how these beliefs vary with English proficiency and grade levels. The findings reveal that students valued diverse instructional methods, including specific strategies and engaging activities like games. However, they generally lacked autonomy in learning vocabulary, showing a tendency to rely on teacher instruction. The analysis also suggests that the students’ beliefs varied according to their English proficiency and grade levels. More proficient learners preferred strategy-focused instruction, while senior secondary students favoured more explicit instruction from teachers. Open-ended responses underscored the multifaceted and nuanced nature of students’ beliefs about vocabulary teaching. The study highlights the importance of promoting autonomous vocabulary learning, balancing engaging and conventional activities, and tailoring instruction to accommodate diverse needs across different proficiency and grade levels. We also provide insights for future studies on learner beliefs about vocabulary teaching.
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More human than human? Differences in lexis and collocation within academic essays produced by ChatGPT-3.5 and human L2 writers

January 23, 2025

Mengxuan Zhang, Peter Crosthwaite

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ChatGPT and similar generative AI models are increasingly being integrated into educational practice, including second language (L2) writing. However, AI-generated writing may significantly differ from that of developing L2 writers, raising potential issues over academic integrity. With AI detectors still underused in many contexts due to accuracy concerns, it is essential to determine if and how AI-generated texts are similar or different to those of L2 writers. This study compares lexical and collocation choices between essays on the same topic generated by ChatGPT (version 3.5) and human L2 writers using corpus analytic techniques. R statistical software was used for analysis and comparison. Results suggest that when tasked with producing academic essays under the same topic, ChatGPT-3.5 excels in generating texts with formal and complex vocabulary suited for academic and technical themes, while human L2 writers tend to focus on personal and social issues, using more varied and context-rich vocabulary. Accordingly, educators seeking to detect AI use should recognise the distinct linguistic and cultural experiences L2 writers bring to their writing, while students using AI need to understand the nature of the machine-like clarity and directness of expression as produced by ChatGPT as compared with their own typical production.
Open Access
An accident was happened? Conceptual and input biases in the overpassivization of English unaccusative verbs

January 21, 2025

Jieun Kim, Shinshil Han, Sang-Ki Lee

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The overpassivization of unaccusative verbs (e.g., An accident was happened ) has been widely observed among second language (L2) learners, regardless of their first languages. In an attempt to determine the effects of cognitive factors on overpassivization, the present study investigated how input frequency, types of alternation (i.e., unaccusatives with and without transitive counterparts), types of causation (i.e., externally and internally caused events), and the interactions among these factors affect L2 learners’ judgments of English unaccusativity. A forced-choice acceptability judgment task (AJT) was administered to 97 Korean EFL learners, utilizing 52 items based on the three factors. According to a multilevel regression model, all those factors and the three-way interaction among them significantly predicted learners’ AJT scores. Specifically, in externally caused event construals, learners demonstrated greater accuracy when exposed to high frequency and non-alternating verbs. Additionally, accurate judgments on alternating unaccusatives were associated with discourse contexts interpreted as internally caused rather than externally caused. These findings highlight the importance of considering the statistical nature of language learning, learners’ learning histories, and potential conceptual biases in explaining L2 English unaccusativity. Overall, the study sheds light on the complex interplay between linguistic input and cognitive factors in L2 acquisition processes.
Open Access
Grit and foreign language achievement among Chinese university EFL students: a mixed-methods approach

January 10, 2025

Feng Ding, Yanting Wu, Ming Chen

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Studies examining the relationship between grit and foreign language (FL) achievement have yielded inconsistent results. Furthermore, research on factors influencing grit is limited and primarily employs quantitative methodologies. To address these gaps, this study aims to reevaluate the link between grit and FL achievement among Chinese university students and identify factors influencing their grit by using a mixed-methods approach. In this study, 260 third- and fourth-year English major students participated in a questionnaire survey, and 35 of them also underwent semi-structured interviews. Through multiple regression analysis of the questionnaires, it was found that grit and FL achievement significantly and positively correlated with each other and grit significantly predicted FL achievement. The interview results showed that four major factors, namely individual-related factors, significant others, achievement-related experiences, and important external factors, affected grit. These results corroborate the positive role of grit in second language acquisition (SLA) and offer valuable pedagogical insights for L2 educators.
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Students’ L2 grit, foreign language anxiety and language learning achievement: a latent profile and mediation analysis

January 7, 2025

Honggang Liu, Xiaoxue Li, Gongwei Guo

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L2 (second language) grit, an essential personal resource involving perseverance of effort and consistency of interest, has been well documented via a variable-centred method. The current study employed latent profile analysis (LPA), a person-centred approach, to identify the potential profiles of L2 grit, moving beyond previous studies by recognizing student heterogeneity. Drawing on the conservation of resources (COR) theory, this study also examined the relationship between L2 grit, foreign language anxiety, and achievement within the identified profiles of L2 grit. Three profiles of L2 grit were disclosed, namely, “medium effort and interest”, “great effort but weak interest”, and “great effort and interest”. The facilitative function of foreign language anxiety on achievement was realised only for those within the “great effort and interest” profile, which was interpreted as the optimal configuration of personal resources from the lens of COR theory. This study generated insights for future studies on this topic.
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Task modality and working memory: oral production improvement through a text-reconstruction task across various proficiency levels in L2

December 23, 2024

Natalia Sletova

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This study investigates the potential of written tasks to enhance L2 oral production across various levels of proficiency and examines relationships between individual Working Memory (WM) capacity, measured in both native and target languages, and learners’ performance in written and spoken tasks. Sixty-four university L2 learners of Russian (Beginning, Intermediate, and Advanced) participated in the study. They were tasked with reconstructing a text and completing a ‘notice the gap’ activity in writing and orally. Novice and Intermediate learners exhibited enhanced speaking accuracy only when engaging with texts through writing. Russian (L2) WM showed correlations with lexical diversity in both written and spoken tasks. However, syntactic complexity displayed a significant correlation with L2 WM solely in spoken tasks, while semantic accuracy suggested a relationship with L2 WM only in the written form of recall. Based on these findings, explanations and suggestions for future research are offered.
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Measuring learners’ writing development in a Chinese as a foreign language (CFL) context

December 5, 2024

Li Yang, Jia Lin

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This study measured the development of multiple dimensions of textual features in L2 Chinese writing by recruiting 120 writers in a Chinese as a foreign language (CFL) program at four instructional levels. Their handwritten writing samples were manually coded for 14 indices at character, word, sentence, and organization dimensions and compared across instructional levels. The results of statistical tests showed a general trend in the development of multiple textual features from lower to higher levels; specifically, higher-proficiency CFL writers were observed to commit fewer errors in character handwriting, utilize a greater variety of words and produce longer sentences in texts, incorporate more subordinating conjunctions and a higher frequency of complex sentences, in addition to achieving better textual organization. Based on the findings, recommendations on how to enhance writing and promote learners’ writing development in CFL classrooms were proposed.
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Diagnosing EFL writers’ development of discourse competence in disciplinary writing: an ecological approach

December 4, 2024

Yumin Wang, Qin Xie

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This study employed a multiple-case study design to investigate nine English-as-a-foreign-language undergraduates’ disciplinary writing experiences in a bilingual teaching and learning context. Drawing on writing samples, writer’s logs, and semi-structured interviews, the study identified weaknesses in their discourse features and explored their relationships to the composing processes, immediate personal traits, and larger environmental factors. Overall, the students demonstrated a basic level of discourse competence (i.e., they could write an essay on the topic and use complex connectives accurately). However, they tended to ignore other discourse features (e.g., composing a statement to control ideas in the introduction, closing the essay with an effective conclusion, and maintaining appropriate reader-writer interactions). The data revealed a positive association between English proficiency and discourse features. Typically, those with low novice and intermediate novice proficiency levels relied on text-recognition technology to translate English materials into their L1s, thus enabling source processing. They also depended on automatic translation applications to translate their essays into English, which were written in their L1s first. Based on these findings, this study suggests the integration of adequate genre knowledge, academic reading skills, and discipline-relevant task design into L2 writing instruction and assessment practice in undergraduate study.

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Special Issue: Second language fluency across contexts; Guest Editors: Pauliina Peltonen and Clare Wright

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Special Issue: Young L2 Learners in Diverse Instructional Contexts; Guest Editors: María del Pilar García Mayo and Masatoshi Sato

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Special Issue: Broadening the Appliability of Systemic Functional Linguistics in Language Education; Issue Editors: Winfred Wenhui Xuan, Christian M.I.M. Matthiessen and Jorge Arús Hita

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Special Issue: Second Language Teacher Emotion Labor; Guest Editors: Peter I. De Costa and Mostafa Nazari

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Special Issue: Textual Analysis to Inform Language Learning and Teaching; Issue Editors: Wenjuan Qin and Paola Uccelli

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Special Issue: Applied Cognitive Linguistics to L2 acquisition and learning: research and convergence Guest Editors: Reyes Llopis-García and Alberto Hijazo-GascÓn

Special Issue: Interlanguage 45 years on: New Directions, Guest Editors: Leah Roberts and Norbert Vanek

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Special Issue: Tense, Aspect, and Modality in L2 (TAML2), Guest Editors: Kevin McManus, Norbert Vanek, Pascale Leclercq and Leah Roberts

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Special Issue: Contemporary issues in research on multilingualism, Guest Editors: Christina Lindqvist, Ylva Falk and Josefin Lindgren Dedicated to Håkan Ringbom

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Special Issue: New Directions in L2 Speech Fluency, Editors: Clare Wright and Parvaneh Tavakoli

Special Issue: Processing instruction: New insights after twenty years of theory, research and application

Special Issue: English-medium education in the global society

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International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching publishes special and thematic issues focussed on important and emerging topics in the field of study. The journal has established a rigorous process to ensure that any special issue manuscripts follow the same high-quality standards and peer review processes as regular manuscripts. For further information on the journal’s peer review policy please see the "Instructions for Authors".

Call for Papers

Submit Manuscript

Recent Special Issues

Journal Impact Factor	2.2	2024, Journal Citation Reports (Clarivate, 2025)
5-year Journal Impact Factor	2.1	2024, Journal Citation Reports (Clarivate, 2025)
Journal Citation Indicator	1.5	2024, Journal Citation Reports (Clarivate, 2025)
CiteScore	4.3	2024, Scopus (Elsevier B.V., 2025)
SCImago Journal Rank	0.991	2024, SJR (Scimago Lab, 2025; Data Source: Scopus)
Source Normalized Impact per Paper	1.413	2024, CWTS Journal Indicators (CWTS B.V., 2025; Data Source: Scopus)
European Reference Index for the Humanities	0

More information about journal rankings

1. Submitting an article for publication
Please submit your manuscript online to: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/iral.

Please consult Instructions for Authors before submitting.

2. Peer review
The journal operates a double-blind peer review that usually takes four months. Submissions are sent to 2 or 3 reviewers.

3. Formatting and style
Once accepted for publication, the author(s) will be required to submit the final version conforming to journal style. Please see the De Gruyter Mouton journal style sheet for details regarding journal style. Any special characters used should be labeled and clearly identified at their first occurrence. The Editor reserves the right to reject any articles that do not conform to the requirements.

4. Permissions
Copies of any letters granting permission to reproduce illustrations or tables from other sources, or lengthy quoted passages, must be supplied with the manuscript.

5. Proofs
Authors are asked to check their manuscripts very carefully before submitting them in order to prevent delays and extra costs at proofing. Authors will receive PDF proofs for correction which must be returned by dates given in the publication schedule.

6. Offprints
Upon publication, authors will receive electronic offprints (in PDF format) of their contribution. Guest editors of special issues will receive complimentary print copies of the issue.

Please note

Before submitting your article please have a look at our Publication Ethics Statement and our copyright agreement
Once your article is accepted you have the option to publish it open access.
Our repository policy allows you to distribute 30 PDF copies of your published article to colleagues (the PDF has to include the information that it is an author's copy). Please also feel free to distribute the link to the online abstract
If you have any general questions please visit our FAQ page for journal authors

We look forward to receiving your manuscript!

Hybrid Open Access

Authors have the option to publish their article under an open access license. The standard article processing charge for a hybrid open access article is 2,400 Euro (plus VAT if applicable). Please note that corresponding authors from institutions with which we have a transformative agreement, can publish open access without paying the fee. More information on the eligible institutions and articles can be found here.

Editors
Mairin Hennebry-Leung, University of Melbourne, Australia
Yuenyi Lo, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR
iral@degruyterbrill.com

Editor Emeritus
Xuesong (Andy) Gao, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
Peter Jordens, VU Amsterdam University, Netherlands

Editorial Assistant
Jiao Li, Tongji University, Shanghai, China

Board of Consulting Editors
Zsuzsanna Abrams, University of California Santa Cruz, United States
Ali H. Al-Hoorie, Royal Commission for Jubail and Yanbu, Saudi Arabia
Kathleen Bailey, Middlebury Institute of International Studies, United States
Inge Bartning, Stockholm University, Sweden
Yves Bestgen, UCLouvain, Belgium
Theo Bongaerts, Radboud University, Netherlands
Mirjam Broersma, Radboud University, Netherlands
Susanne Carroll, University of Calgary, Canada
Aoju Chen, Utrecht University, Netherlands
Graham Crookes, University of Hawai‘i, United States
Peter Crosthwaite, University of Queensland, Australia
Annick De Houwer, Erfurt University, Germany
Christine Dimroth, University of Münster, Germany
Tess Fitzpatrick, Swansea University, United Kingdom
Aline Godfroid, Michigan State University, United States
Nicholas Groom, University of Birmingham, United Kingdom
Marianne Gullberg, Lund University, Sweden
Ye Han, Shenzhen University, China
Pieter de Haan, Radboud University, Netherlands
Henriette Hendriks, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom
Alex Housen, Free University of Brussels, Belgium
Allan James, Alpen Adria University, Austria
Eric Kellerman, Radboud University, Netherlands
Sima Khezrlou, University of Vienna, Austria
Keiko Koda, Carnegie Mellon University, United States
Patsy Martin Lightbown, Concordia University, Canada
Sarah Ann Liszka, University of Greenwich, United Kingdom
Emma Marsden, University of York, U nited Kingdom
Joshua Matthews, University of New England, Australia
Paul Meara, Swansea University, United Kingdom
Alejandra Meneses, Pontifical Catholic University of Chile
Carmen Muñoz, University of Barcelona, Spain
Rebecca Oxford, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, United States
Wenjuan Qin, Fudan University, China
Leah Roberts, University of York, United Kingdom
Peter Robinson, Japan Women's University, Japan
John Rogers, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong SAR, China
Sarah Schimke, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Germany
Yasuhiro Shirai, Case Western Reserve University, United States
Suhad Sonbul, Umm Al-Qura University, Saudi Arabia
Danijela Trenkic, University of York, United Kingdom
Wen-ta Tseng, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, ROC
Johannes Wagner, University of Southern Denmark, Denmark
Danping Wang, University of Auckland, New Zealand
Keiko Yoshioka, Leiden University, Netherlands
Martha Young-Scho lten, Newcastle University, United Kingdom
Boping Yuan, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom

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Linguistics and Semiotics Applied Linguistics Language Teaching and Learning

Online Submission of Manuscripts

Journal information

Additional information

eISSN:

1613-4141

ISSN:

0019-042X

Language:

English

Publisher:

De Gruyter Mouton

Additional information

First published:

January 1, 1963

Publication Frequency:

4 issues per year

eISSN: 1613-4141

ISSN: 0019-042X

Safety & product resources

Manufacturer information:
Walter de Gruyter GmbH
Genthiner Straße 13
10785 Berlin
productsafety@degruyterbrill.com

International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching

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Call for Papers

Supplementary Materials

Supplementary Materials

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International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching

Overview

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Call for Papers

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Supplementary Materials

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