Volume 64, Issue 1 - Special Issue: Second language fluency across contexts; Guest Editors: Pauliina Peltonen and Clare Wright

Second language (L2) speaking research has highlighted intra-speaker variability of fluency performance across tasks. To better understand such task effects on fluency, the framework of speech processing demands has been proposed as a systematic approach to relating task characteristics to L2 speech production mechanisms and the limited capacity of attentional resources (Skehan 2009. Modelling second language performance: Integrating complexity, accuracy, fluency, and lexis. Applied Linguistics 30(4). 510–532, 2014. Limited attentional capacity, second language performance, and task-based pedagogy. In Peter Skehan (ed.), Processing perspectives on task performance, 211–260. Amsterdam: John Benjamins). However, the framework has been tested on a limited range of task types, using carefully designed experimental tasks. For the sake of the ecological validity of findings, the current study thus further explores how L2 learners’ fluency varies across four spontaneous speaking tasks differing in their processing demands. A total of 128 Japanese learners of English completed four speaking tasks: Argumentative task, Picture narrative task, Reading-to-Speaking task, and Reading-while-listening-to-speaking task. Their speech was analysed in terms of speed, breakdown, and repair fluency and was compared across tasks. The results of Generalised Linear Mixed-effects Modelling showed that conceptualising demands were reflected in the frequency of filled pauses, while formulation demands were associated with the articulation rate, mid-clause pause ratio, and mid-clause pause duration. These findings unveil the interrelationship between task characteristics, fluency measures, and how learners approach tasks.

This study examines the fluency of L1 Arabic learners of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) across two proficiency levels – elementary and intermediate, corresponding to A2 and B1 of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) – and explores the relationships between fluency aspects within each group. Sixty EFL learners participated by narrating two picture stories, and their oral performances were coded for measures of breakdown, speed, and repair fluency using PRAAT software. Results from MANOVA revealed significant proficiency-related effects on breakdown fluency, particularly on the frequency of filled pauses and between-clause pauses, as well as on articulation rate. Follow-up one-way ANOVA indicated that the intermediate learners made significantly fewer filled pauses, a greater number of between-clause pauses, and had a faster articulation rate than the elementary learners. Correlation analyses revealed that fluency aspects interact differently in the speech of elementary and intermediate learners, suggesting that the transition from elementary (A2) to intermediate (B1) proficiency may involve certain changes in the underlying speech processes. These findings help to better understand fluency in the speech of L1 Arabic learners of EFL at elementary and intermediate proficiency levels.

L2 oral fluency is a core aspect of general oral proficiency. However, it represents a distinct challenge for L2 speakers as it requires a real-time efficient allocation of cognitive resources. Specifically, working memory (WM) plays a crucial role in speech production. These cognitive resources are limited and vary from one speaker to another. Additionally, they have long been shown to interact with foreign language anxiety and foreign language enjoyment, which interact with various aspects of L2 oral production. To our knowledge, no previous studies have investigated the relationship that might exist between perceived L2 oral fluency ; i.e. listeners’ judgments about L2 speakers’ fluency, WM, foreign language anxiety and foreign language enjoyment. To fill this gap, 78 ESL French-speaking adults were subjected to a picture-based narration task. A flowchart scheme was used to measure perceived L2 oral fluency. WM was measured using a numerical span test, and foreign language anxiety and foreign language enjoyment were measured through a questionnaire. Results show a distinct pattern of interaction between the variables. More specifically, foreign language anxiety significantly predicted perceived L2 oral fluency among participants with a weaker WM, whereas foreign language enjoyment significantly predicted L2 oral fluency among participants with a stronger WM capacity.

Willingness to communicate in a second language (L2 WTC) refers to the readiness to initiate speech and is influenced by psychological, linguistic, and contextual factors contributing to both stable and dynamic states in L2 WTC. The present study investigates the relationship between L2 utterance fluency and trait-like L2 WTC with its selected antecedents: international posture (IP) and language anxiety (LA). L2 speech samples ( n  = 102) were examined for speech rate (SR), articulation rate (AR), frequency of silent and filled pauses and repetitions. Trait-like L2 WTC and IP were determined using the Willingness to Communicate Inventory (Mystkowska-Wiertelak, Anna & Mirosław Pawlak. 2017. Willingness to communicate in instructed second language acquisition: Combining a macro- and micro-perspective . Bristol: Multilingual Matters), whereas LA was measured with the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (Horwitz, Elaine K., Michael B. Horwitz & Joann Cope. 1986. Foreign language classroom anxiety. The Modern Language Journal 70(2). 125–132). Correlational analyses were conducted between the fluency measures, unplanned in-class L2 WTC, planned in-class L2 WTC, L2 WTC outside the classroom and practice-seeking L2 WTC, as well as IP-openness to experience, IP-interest in international affairs and LA. The study revealed positive correlations between SR, AR and practice-seeking L2 WTC, as well as AR and L2 WTC outside the classroom. Negative relationships were found between SR, AR and LA. Higher levels of LA were linked to an increased use of filled pauses.

The present study aims to examine individual differences in the connections between first (L1), second (L2), and third language (L3) utterance fluency and to investigate the potential of eye-tracking for multilingual cognitive fluency research, extending previous, mainly quantitative, research on the connections between L1 and L2/L3 fluency. Six Finnish multilingual speakers with differing L1 profiles and proficiency levels in the L2/L3 were selected from a larger dataset, and their speech and eye-movement data from picture description tasks in Finnish (L1), English (L2), and Swedish (L1/L3) were analyzed qualitatively, focusing on fluency measures and the relationship between eye movements and fluency features in the three languages. While the results indicated that some fluency measures were connected across all three languages, the results also demonstrated individual variation in the connections between L1, L2, and L3, particularly in the use of stalling mechanisms. The eye-movement data analysis showed that speakers’ eye movements can provide valuable insights into the cognitive processes underlying fluency features during complex, multi-utterance descriptions in different languages. The findings have methodological implications for fluency research, indicating the need for further fluency studies involving multilingual speakers and eye-tracking, and wider implications for fluency teaching and assessment.

The article presents an exploratory cross-modal analysis of fluency profiles in spoken and written first (L1, Finnish) and second (L2, English) language production of the same language users. Our data come from two research projects, from which we identified 11 university students participating in both. The spoken tasks consisted of monologue picture description (analysed with Praat), and the written tasks were short argumentative essays (collected and analysed with keystroke logging software GGXLog). Based on commonly used measures to capture different aspects of spoken and written fluency, we used a set of 14 measures (seven for speech fluency, seven for writing fluency) to examine fluency across modes comprehensively. Four profiles were identified from the data: (1) fast and productive, (2) fast, (3) slow and productive, and (4) slow and reflective. Six speakers had the same profile in the L1 and L2, and seven writers had the same profile in the L1 and L2. Only one participant had the same profile in the L1 and L2 speaking and writing. The results suggest that the cross-modal differences are greater than the differences between languages. The modalities are inherently different, which is also reflected in individual variation between the modalities.

The goal of second language (L2) learning is spontaneous, unreflective L2 use, relying primarily on implicit L2 knowledge. While most research has compared the methods and effects of explicit and implicit instruction, less attention has been given to individual differences (IDs) and their impact on implicit L2 knowledge. A sparse body of research has addressed the relationship between IDs and implicit L2 knowledge considering age effects and age-related language analytic ability, with conative and affective factors receiving scant attention. This paper, grounded in the control-value theory, advocates a holistic view to comprehensively investigate how language analytic ability, language learning motivation, learner beliefs, and foreign language anxiety can contribute to implicit L2 knowledge among Chinese postgraduate students. The findings indicate that cognitive, conative, and affective factors have direct or indirect effects on implicit L2 knowledge. Implications for L2 teaching and research are discussed in detail.

The present study examined self-efficacy, working memory, and English proficiency in a multimedia writing environment. The research design included a survey to assess self-efficacy and a writing assessment within a multimedia environment, while controlling for working memory capacity and levels of English proficiency. Data collection methods comprised a survey on self-efficacy beliefs in multimedia writing, a working memory task, and the standardized College English Test Band 4 in China. The participants were a total of 406 Chinese university students. The results support the reliability of the self-efficacy questionnaire, with five dimensions: linguistic knowledge, planning, monitoring, evaluation, and performance. These five factors were positively correlated with the students’ writing performance in a multimedia environment. The structural equation modeling findings suggest that working memory and English language proficiency moderate learners’ self-efficacy in EFL multimedia writing. Relevant implications based on the findings were discussed.

This mixed-methods study explores the interconnected influence of growth mindset, mindfulness, and second language (L2) self-efficacy on language achievement in intermediate English as a foreign language (EFL) learners. Quantitative data ( n  = 411) analyzed through Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) and qualitative insights from semi-structured interviews ( n  = 19) reveal significant positive associations between all three factors and L2 achievement. SEM further clarifies the direct and indirect pathways through which these psychological elements impact learning outcomes. Qualitative findings enrich this understanding by showcasing learners’ lived experiences and the transformative power of these variables in fostering a supportive learning environment. Collectively, the results emphasize the importance of integrating growth-oriented beliefs, nurturing self-efficacy, and employing mindfulness practices in language education to optimize learning. This research offers notable insights for second language acquisition and educational psychology, informing educators, policymakers, and practitioners about effective strategies for promoting successful language learning journeys.

Stance-taking in academic writing is now a well-established topic of interest in English language research, with explorations across a range of theoretical frameworks including metadiscourse and systemic functional linguistics (SFL). This includes studies investigating second language (L2) stance-taking, particularly those comparing stance features deployed by L1 and L2 English writers. However, studies investigating stance-taking using the APPRAISAL framework for evaluative discursive language across L1 and L2 production are relatively rare. Incorporating the APPRAISAL framework into research on stance-taking enhances our comprehension of evaluative language in academic writing, especially when it comes to cross-linguistic contexts. It also provides useful advantages for language assessment and instruction. In this learner corpus-assisted discourse study, APPRAISAL was used to determine how L1 English speakers and L2 English learners from L1 Vietnamese backgrounds expressed attitudes through their written texts. We also investigate the relationship between use of APPRAISAL resources and expert raters’ perceptions of written stance via a stance rubric. Findings show L2 English students are more explicit in argumentative writing than L1 English writers, despite fewer APPRAISAL choices in L2 texts. Besides, while high-rated texts were associated with more judgemental evaluation and invocation, more personal feelings were expressed in low-rated texts. These findings have implications for the instruction of L2 writers in conveying attitudinal meanings in text, as well as for raters tasked with assessing L2 academic essays for stance.

This study investigated 48 Hong Kong English as a second language (ESL) learners’ engagement in three types of interactive tasks conducted via video chat or text chat. The learners, paired with their university friends, completed a descriptive task, a narrative task, and a decision-making task. They were randomly assigned to either the video-chat or text-chat group and were interviewed about their emotional engagement in each task immediately after task performance. The findings revealed that both groups of learners were behaviourally the least engaged but cognitively the most engaged in the decision-making task. They experienced positive emotions during the descriptive task, but fewer reported positive emotions in the other two tasks. The text-chat group was the most socially engaged in the decision-making task. Furthermore, the video-chat group was behaviourally and emotionally more engaged than the text-chat group. These findings have implications for task design and selection in computer-mediated communication.

A great wealth of investigation has inspected the psycho-emotional aspects of second/foreign language (L2) learning in the past decades. It has been contended that L2 students need capacities to self-regulate and direct their language-learning journey. To do so, they require different strategies to get involved in their own learning process. A group of such crucial strategies concerns self-regulated learning (SRL), which has been increasingly reported to influence classroom learning and engagement. However, the way SRL strategies correlate and predict task engagement in L2 contexts has remained under-explored. To fill this gap, this study administered two online questionnaires to a sample of 384 English learners to disclose the relationship and predictive power of different components of SRL and task engagement. The results of structural equation modeling (SEM) pointed to positive associations between behavioral engagement and meta-cognitive and meta-affective strategies; emotional engagement and meta-affective strategies; cognitive engagement and meta-cognitive and cognitive strategies; agentic engagement and meta-affective strategies; and social engagement and sociocultural-interactive and meta-sociocultural-interactive strategies. Practical implications for L2 teachers and suggestions for further research are also discussed.

Despite its popularity as a recommended practice in the literature of writing instruction, peer review training seems to be more of an idea promoted than a common practice in the classroom. The reason is obvious: review training often requires considerable time and effort from the instructor and students. This study seeks to examine whether and to what extent a review training intervention as brief as two hours promotes student feedback literacy, specifically in relation to feedback provision. A quasi-experiment was conducted with two groups of Chinese undergraduate students with a follow-up interview. Results showed a positive effect on the provision of global feedback comments and an increasing focus on elaborate, constructive feedback after the training. Findings from the interview revealed students’ positive perceptions of training activities. The present study makes an empirical contribution to the literature and advances conversation in the area of peer review training and student feedback literacy.

The ability to produce a well-written text in English using multiple material resources, such as integrated writing (IW), is widely recognised as a crucial literacy skill for tertiary students. While previous researchers have extensively examined the factors contributing to second language (L2) English integrated writing, the impact of students’ first-language (L1) Chinese writing strategic knowledge and skills on L2 writing performance has received limited empirical attention. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the simultaneous relationship between L1 and L2 writing strategy use, L1 writing skills, and L2 IW performance among 239 Chinese university students. Results from structural equation modelling revealed that L1 IW strategy use could predict L2 IW strategy use. Furthermore, the use of L1 IW strategies indirectly predicted L2 IW performance through the use of L2 IW strategies. This study contributes to the existing literature by extending research on cross-language effects in the IW context. Additionally, based on the findings, pedagogical implications for teaching IW across two languages are proposed.

Recently, a new construct referred to as autonomous single language interest (ASLI) has been introduced in the educational psychology field. ASLI postulates that second language (L2) students who have one autonomously oriented goal for studying the L2 during their learning setting (e.g., during university study) are likely to make greater L2 achievements than those with low ASLI. However, it remains unclear how ASLI predicts later L2 vocabulary achievement and whether its stability or fluctuation that predicts the achievement. A total of 161 Saudi undergraduate students of English as an L2 enrolled in the Department of English were followed up three times over 17 weeks. We used the latent growth curve model (LGCM) to assess the stability and fluctuation of ASLI, and to see which one stability or fluctuation predicts later L2 vocabulary knowledge. The results of the LGCM suggest that initial high levels of the ASLI (i.e. its stability), but not its fluctuation, predicted a significant increase in L2 vocabulary achievement. In other words, students who started their L2 course with an autonomous single language interest and who maintained this sole interest/goal appeared to have higher L2 vocabulary achievement over time. Methodological and pedagogical implications are discussed.

The contrasting differences that exist in the English and Cantonese phonological systems result in divergent articulatory production between them. This article aims to investigate the negative transfer of Cantonese EFL learners in acquiring English consonant clusters and the constraint rankings of Cantonese and English syllable systems by comparing syllable structures and analyzing experimental statistics. The objective is to elucidate the reasons behind their negative transfer in English syllable acquisition. The research results demonstrated that Cantonese EFL learners found it easier to acquire consonant clusters in the onset position compared to the coda position. Additionally, an increase in consonants in the coda position posed greater difficulties for Cantonese EFL learners. The results also indicated that participants encountered the most problems with deletion, followed by substitution and epenthesis. The OT analysis reveals that the different rankings of faithfulness and markedness constraints in Cantonese and English led to transfer errors.

English language teaching has had a chequered history in China, reflecting an increasing desire to modernise and participate on the world stage combined with a watchful caution against importing unwanted cultural elements. Change, however, has proceeded rapidly in the last 35 years, and China now provides around 700,000 postgraduate students annually to Western universities. Given this importance to western universities and the concerns surrounding the nature and perceived purposes of English-medium instruction, we believe a better understanding of Chinese ELT is crucial. This article tracks the changing role and importance of English in China through its language policy for university non-English majors. We do this using a corpus approach to analyse the keywords in the 1986, 1999, 2007 and 2020 iterations of the national curriculum documents. Our results show a focus on language skills has been replaced by employer-friendly communicative requirements, followed by greater student awareness of learning strategies, and most recently, a more culturally sensitive and critical orientation. We offer a study of an EFL curriculum development outside a more familiar Western context, suggesting the value of discourse analyses to understanding key changes in curricula, and revealing that choices regarding language instruction are rarely ‘neutral’ pedagogical decisions.

Research examining teachers’ cognition of lexical items has flourished in the past few years. However, most of these studies focused on individual words rather than formulaic sequences. The present study aims to fill this gap through eliciting teachers’ evaluation of one type of formulaic sequences: phrasal verbs (PVs). The aim is to examine factors (frequency, opacity, and learners’ receptive and productive knowledge) that might predict teachers’ evaluation of the difficulty and usefulness of 100 PV senses. For that purpose, a survey was administered to 174 teachers. Results of generalized mixed-effects modelling showed that teachers’ assessment of both the usefulness and difficulty of PVs was predicted by sense-specific corpus frequency and receptive knowledge of these PV senses. Moreover, difficulty ratings were additionally affected by opacity and productive knowledge of PVs. We discuss these findings in relation to previous research on L2 PV knowledge and implications for L2 teaching practice.

This study explores the influence of first language (L1) on the acquisition of second language (L2) English, specifically examining the use of copula be as a topic marker. Although prior research suggests that L1 transfer may impact L2 acquisition of copula be , the evidence remains inconclusive. To address this issue, the study analyzes the use of be in L2 English spoken by learners with topic-prominent L1s (viz., Mandarin Chinese, Japanese, Korean) and those with non-topic-prominent L1s (viz., Filipino). Using the ICNALE corpus, the study investigates whether L1 topic-prominence affects the use of be in L2 English. The findings reveal that L2-English learners with topic-prominent L1s use copula be more often with definite NPs than those with non-topic-prominent L1s, indicating the influence of L1 topic-prominence properties on the use of copula be . Additionally, learners from topic-prominent L1s more frequently produce nontargetlike topic-comment structures using be verb (e.g.,  restaurant is many people eat their foods ). Based on these findings, the study discusses the implication of L1 transfer effects in L2 acquisition and emphasizes the importance of a more global and refined understanding of language variation in L2 teaching and learning.

The present study provides an overview of syntactic complexity (SC) in second language (L2) writing research, employing the Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) topic modeling approach. Analyzing 470 abstracts sourced from the WoS Core Collection (2005–2023) and Scopus (1978–2023), this investigation explores the broad spectrum of research themes in SC in L2 writing. By employing perplexity and coherence tests, the study identifies the optimal number of topics in the model as five: writing quality, proficiency, genres, SC development, and task-based conditions. The finding reveals that: (1) In cross-sectional studies, the interplay among writing quality, proficiency levels, and genres often involves studying one variable as reliant on the others. Additionally, there is a growing inclination toward regarding phrasal structures as more dependable complexity indicators. (2) Longitudinal investigations predominantly emphasize the evolution of SC, yet there’s a scarcity of exploration in continuation writing tasks. (3) Regarding measurement metrics, a transition from broader SC evaluations to more intricate assessments is evident, though several studies lack thorough examinations, particularly in continuation tasks.