Perceived attributes driving the adoption of system of rice intensification: The Indonesian farmers’ view

3.1 Compatibility

Despite several years of experience, previous rice farming experience and local culture still constrained their SRI practises. This remains, therefore, a major concern. Application of the SRI principles requires the modification of existing farming practices. Adopters from the Purbalingga regency remained uncomfortable with planting seeds in a tray, shallow planting, and the land preparation methods, all of which are promoted under SRI. Similar concerns were also expressed by adopters from the Tabanan regency, specifically concerning the discipline required to grow seed for less than 10 days before transplanting and then transplant the seed at a rate of one seed per hole.

“Although SRI techniques are well-intended to boost seedling survival rate and vegetation, it is difficult to change the mindset of farmworkers who are used to conventional methods.”

Dis-adopter from Tabanan, two years of SRI experience.

Resistance to change in technical aspect was commonly mentioned as partial reasoning contributing to dis-adoption. Those who chose to observe from the sidelines remained sceptical, preferring to wait to see how SRI techniques would affect farm productivity. The same observation is shared by Sato et al. [9] and Handono [26]. Other researchers also reported that some farmers are lazy to learn and adopt new technology [27].

The implementation of sustainable weed and pest management is labour intensive [28]. Participants typically observed rapid growth of weeds and snails as a result of the SRI because it involves cultivating rice with wide spacing between plants, the use of organic fertilisers, and less water. Snail invasion was said to be particularly prevalent soon after the transplanting cycle.

3.2 Complexity

As SRI principles encourage organic fertiliser use, adopters have to grapple with a degree of complexity in judging the farm’s nutrient needs and applying the appropriate organic fertiliser according to their farm’s spatial requirements. The knowledge of integrated nutrient management is crucial for sustaining high yield of SRI [29]. In our study areas, composts are promoted as suitable organic fertilisers that restore organic matter and enhance soil properties. Subsidised by local Government, such organic fertiliser is sold at affordable prices. Given its affordability, high local demand is often unsatisfied because of supply shortages. Consequently, participants in the SRI program are often forced to do the extra task of making their own compost. Although most of them received training in both composting and application techniques, production and application processes in respect to composts are not always straightforward. Therefore, it is recommended that there is an unmet need to educate participants to become competent to troubleshoot composting problems (e.g. anaerobic fermentation or incorrect N:P:K balance) and determine the resultant quality of compost. This is in line with ref. 27 that increasing training access is useful to prepare farmers to practise SRI.

3.3 Relative advantages

Yield: Nearly all participants of the FGDs agreed that the SRI promises high productivity. Notwithstanding this, it must be noted that, in fact, productivity levels varied between enterprises.

However, the participants believed that the productivity of the SRI depends mainly on the adherence to its principles: use 5 tons/ha of compost, plant a single seedling in each hole with wide spacing between clumps, apply local microorganisms and at least four times, and conduct four periods of weeding each season. Liquid fermentation contains local microorganism derived from base material such as cow rumen or rabbit urine provided a useful decomposition tool for making nutrient available to plant. Then, the organism will reproduce with natural ingredients containing carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, and minerals. Indeed, following these practices, adopters from Purbalingga and Tasikmalaya regencies produced approximately 7–8 ton/ha of milled rice in comparison to the yield of conventional methods. Similar findings are also recorded by [30], who reported that Bangladesh farmers who implement water-saving technology (WST) of rice agriculture recorded higher productivity than farmers who were practising the conventional irrigation method. The farmers’ income also increased by 24.6% when using the WST method.

SRI’s superior yield was said to be a key factor contributing to the inclination to adopt and continue using the SRI principles.

“Most SRI farmers in my area do not strictly follow the recommendations. We applied 3 ton/ha of compost, sole cropping systems, one time of local microorganisms, and 2–3 times of weeding in a season. We only produced about 7–8 ton/ha of milled rice on average. Nevertheless, the yield is still considered high compared to the 5 ton/ha of milled rice produced through conventional farming in the local area. Although we do not entirely follow the SRI, we are more directed to organic farming. Collectively, nearly 70% of land in Manonjaya sub-district is planted using organic methods, and the certified organic farmland is about 37 hectares.”

Adopter from Tasikmalaya, 10 years of SRI experience.

Production costs: Among participants of the FGDs, who have had experience with SRI techniques, there were mixed opinions with regard to production costs of SRI. Such findings were related to variations in the cost of seed, labour input, and organic fertilisers. Rice cultivated under the SRI generally uses less seed than conventional systems. Adopters from the Tabanan regency indicated that the cost of seeds was reduced as much as 65% and this had led them to save more money.

As previously mentioned, extra labour hours were necessarily allocated for planting, weeding, fertilisation, and irrigation activities. The greater demand for human input further squeezed the already scarce farm labour, which has increasingly shifted to other industries. The availability of farm labour thus becomes a critical issue in some local contexts. For example, access to labour has been identified as a key factor determining the continuity of SRI in the Jeneponto district of the South Sulawesi province [8] and Madagascar [27]. Farmers who have an opportunity to more labour resources have increased their capability to adopt SRI [27].

As demonstrated above, any calculation of production costs is not straightforward. The application of SRI techniques could save nearly 20% production cost [31] and decrease production cost with the benefit–cost ratio of 1.49 [30]. However, FGD participants relied on their subjective evaluation rather than an objective one when weighing the cost and benefit for their decision-making.

“We support the government program aiming at achieving 10 ton/ha of milled rice. Through SRI techniques, I used to produce around 8 ton/ha of milled rice, but its production cost was high. In opposite, the Jajar Legowo technique, a planting rice method with the pattern of multiple rows of rice plant interspersed with an empty row, is simpler in terms of planting and crop maintenance. Although I achieved slightly lower yield (7–7.7 ton/ha) using the traditional method, the associated cost was significantly lower.”

Dis-adopter from the Tabanan regency, 6 years of SRI experience.

Price of SRI rice: The price of SRI rice was suggested to be the most important factor driving farmer decisions in relation to adoption and dis-adoption. Rice produced using the SRI principles, especially organic rice, is considered to be of higher quality and to have health benefits. Consequently, it should follow that SRI farmers should reap higher prices. However, two divisions were noted among our focus group participants. Organic SRI rice in the Purbalingga regency typically commands a price premium of about 50% above the standard market price. At the time of study, the SRI rice was sold for around 12,000–13,000 IDR/kg, and undifferentiated rice was priced at approximately 8,000 IDR/kg. This pricing outcome was due to the collective bargaining power of group action. Local organic farmers were engaged and organised through the Pamorbangga Farmer Association. The farmer association worked as a marketing agent, distributing local organic rice to Jakarta – the capital city of Indonesia – and selling directly to consumers. Without going through any middlemen, the farmer association recorded a higher profit margin and returned greater profits to its members.

“Price of the organic rice that sold through the Pamorbangga Farmer Association is lucrative. However, this farmer association only covers a sub-district, and there are many organic farmers out there. We hope the local Government will help and support us to extend the outreach of the farmer association.”

Adopter from Purbalingga, 5 years of SRI experience.

In contrast, participants from the Tasikmalaya and Tabanan regencies had significantly less bargaining power on an individual basis. The price achieved for rice grown using SRI principles was only marginally higher than the price of conventional rice. Such pricing was already generally lower (8,000–9,000 IDR/kg) than the returns in the Purbalingga regency. This occurred because SRI rice was sold directly to a farmers’ group (gapoktan) in the Tasikmalaya regency. With little premium gained for the extra effort involved, participants were demotivated and expressed an intention to quit the SRI.

“Healthy rice is what we called for rice produced using SRI methods. However, its demand is still low. That leads to the low prices of SRI rice.”

Dis-adopter from Tabanan, 1 year of SRI experience.

Agronomic benefits: Through the integrated pest management that is promoted under the SRI, participants of our FGDs believed that they are likely to strike a natural balance in which pests and diseases are well controlled. Anecdotal evidence was provided by an adopter from Purbalingga that his rice plants cultivated using SRI techniques were more pest and disease resistant. The use of SRI is also believed to improve environmental quality such as improved soil aeration. Plants were also more resistant to diseases and pests [30]. Adopters of SRI observed that their soil conditions differed from non-users of SRI techniques.

Water-saving derived from the irrigation management that is promoted under the SRI was another significant impact that is valued by participants of the FGDs. Under controlled environment, water usage of SRI can be reduced up to 86% [4,30]. This translates into a significant improvement in water productivity [30]. Such benefit was said to be particularly critical during dry seasons.

Immediacy of results: Participants in our FGDs emphasised that they cannot afford to wait for long periods before they benefit from adopting SRI. Adopters have invested significant effort to learn and master SRI techniques to produce more satisfactory yields. In other words, there is a significant time gap between learning SRI methods and optimising returns from its use. Such lead times have led dis-adopters to believe that the SRI does not promise lucrative benefits in the short-term. This concern was particularly highlighted by participants who worked on leased lands under time-limited tenancies across all three study areas. As a result, such farmers had the minimal motivation to invest in the SRI.

Arsil et al. [32] who conducted a study regarding perceived importance and performance of SRI attributes between adopters and dis-adopters reported that “profit,” “risk,” and “effort” are three critical attributes for rice farmers. The performance of those attributes was reported below the average. In this study, profit is related to rice yield, production cost, and price. As other business-like attributes, the benefit is an important attribute by farmers. Therefore, the promotion of SRI should involve any effort related to increasing the SRI price. The risk was identified as a second essential attribute for both adopters and dis-adopters. Crop failure due to the complexity of mastering the SRI technique such as organic fertiliser application, farm nutrient needs according to their spatial requirement, land preparation, and planting the seed in trays are identified as barriers to adopt SRI for farmers. Applying the SRI technique is sometimes thought to be a waste of time and effort for farmers.

This study highlights that it is a subjective evaluation of SRI attributes that drives its adoption. While learning through experience, adopters remain objective. For example, SRI users expect their organic rice to command higher prices both in view of higher production costs and to achieve acceptable profit levels. Failure to meet their objectives is likely to result in discontinuation of SRI. The adoption process varied slightly between farmers and regions during the application of fertiliser and pest control method. Bali and Tasikmalaya farmers seem to use more organic fertiliser and pest control during the adoption of SRI. The heterogeneity of adoption might be affected by psychological, behavioural, economic, and technological factors [33].