Startseite Eco-friendly mechanical performance of date palm Khestawi-type fiber-reinforced polypropylene composites
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Eco-friendly mechanical performance of date palm Khestawi-type fiber-reinforced polypropylene composites

  • Raghad U. Abass EMAIL logo , Mohammed Ausama Al-Sarraf , Dandi Bachtiar und Mohd Ruzaimi Bin Mat Rejab
Veröffentlicht/Copyright: 15. November 2024
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Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Materials
Aus der Zeitschrift Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Materials Band 33 Heft 1

Abstract

Natural sources used in industry, such as environmental waste fibers for plants, waste paper, and others, can lessen waste-throwing problems and reduce environmental pollution to save lives on the earth’s crust. The natural composites of natural fiber-reinforced thermoplastic are undoubtedly to be sustainable and eco-friendly. Therefore, the current work was conducted to study the addition of natural fiber date palm Khestawi-type fiber (DPKF) with different loadings (5, 10, and 15%) into the polypropylene (PP) matrix to prepare DPKF/PP composites. The specimens were prepared by using the lamination method. In addition, the mechanical properties of these composite material specimens were studied by following ASTM, which included tensile, flexural, and impact tests. A scanning electron microscope (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) were employed to analyze the morphology and the structure crystallite studied of the DPKF/PP composites. The results show that the DPKF/PP composite with 15% fiber content recorded the best tensile strength, tensile modulus, and low tensile strain performance. Moreover, XRD and SEM analysis confirmed the mechanical properties and crystalline nature of the DPKF/PP composites. Finally, the values of the flexural and impact properties increased with increasing fiber loading.

Keywords: date palm Khestawi-type fiber; polypropylene matrix; mechanical properties; lamination; materials characterizations

1 Introduction

Each engineering application or engineering design has a set of crucial factors that need to be achieved to get proper design successfully [1,2,3,4,5]. Global and governmental trends have commanded that subrogated industrial materials by sustainable and environmentally friendly materials [6,7,8,9]. Therefore, the process of selecting sustainable materials and the method of manufacturing are considered crucial factors in achieving the sustainable development goals of the “British Times Organization” [10,11,12,13,14,15]. For engineering applications, the right balance between the material’s performance, recyclability, and functionality became crucial. Furthermore, discovering new materials with appealing, unique properties might open up new avenues for design [16,17,18,19]. However, lots of requirements and restrictions often affect the use of a particular type of material in a specific application [20,21,22]. As a result, choosing the right material type for a given application is a multi-criteria problem where appropriate judgments must be made for each design based on several special factors [23].

The use of natural resources has been strongly encouraged recently due to the enormous need for awareness of environmental impact [24]. This has pushed the government’s emphasis on new regulations regarding environmental impact issues and sustainability concepts, as well as growing social, economic, and ecological awareness [25,26,27]. As a result, natural fiber composites, also known as natural fiber reinforced polymer composites or NFRPCs, emerged as a useful substitute material type for a variety of applications [28]. Traditionally, constructed fibers have been employed as reinforcing components in composite materials [29]. Meanwhile, there is currently interest in replacing them with natural fibers [30,31,32,33,34,35]. As fillers or reinforcing elements for polymer-based matrices, natural fiber composites, including jute [36], date palm fiber [37], hemp [38], sisal [39], oil palm fiber [40], kenaf [41], sugar palm fiber [42], and flax [43] are used. Using natural fibers in this method reduces waste disposal issues and environmental degradation, and the sustainable goal can be achieved [44].

NFCs have several advantages over synthetic composites, like low costs and density and acceptable specific strength and modulus, which can lead to low-weight products [45,46]. Since they are generated from a renewable resource, their production requires less energy, and unlike glass fibers, they may be simply disposed of at the end of their useful life by composting or by recovering their calorific value in a furnace [47]. Furthermore, natural fibers are superior to conventional glass fibers in several ways, including availability, sequestration of CO2, improved energy recovery, less tool wear during machining, and decreased irritation of the skin and respiratory system [48–51].

Except for the northern region, Iraq may be regarded as a date palm country because date palm trees are found throughout the place. Iraq has a wide variety of date palm tree species [48]. Zahidi, Khastawi, Barhi, Berban, Khadrawi, etc., are among them. Date palms of the Khestawi kind are conveyed to be the best because their fruits have a sweet flavor taste [52]. Owing to the abundance of these trees, a significant amount of fiber could be obtained [53–55].

There are several processes used for manufacturing composite materials based on thermoplastics, such as extrusion, injection molding, internal mixing, heat pressing, lamination, etc. [56]. Choosing one of these methods is considered a great challenge, given that each of these methods has advantages and disadvantages [57]. Extrusion in the manufacture of plastics is beset by issues with quality control, limited materials, and expensive setup expenses at first [58]. Enhancing process effectiveness and efficiency requires reducing waste and achieving consistent product quality [59–61]. Moreover, innovative solutions are needed to enhance process efficiency and product quality since internal mixers have drawbacks such as high-energy consumption, equipment wear, and difficulties establishing uniform mixing. These issues also impede scaling and raise operational expenses [62–65].

Conversely, the lamination process offers substantial advantages in terms of barrier qualities, customization, strength, aesthetic appeal, adaptability, material efficiency, and better functionality, whereas internal mixers and extruders encounter unique obstacles in the manufacturing of plastics. Thus, the lamination process has a positive effect on the mechanical properties of date palm Khestawi type fiber (DPKF)/polypropylene (PP) composites as it reduces the effect of heat and thereby holds the internal structure of the fibers and the polymer together, improving the mechanical performance compared to other manufacturing techniques such as extrusion the composite is subjected to repeated heat.

Therefore, in this study, a lamination technique was utilized to prepare all dosages of DPKF/PP composites. After that, their performance was evaluated by testing their tensile, flexural, and impact properties, which were then characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). This composite material can be applied in several industries, such as automotive, packaging, and others.

2 Experimental procedure

2.1 Materials

The materials used in this study were PP and DPKF. The matrix PP was purchased from Malaysia SDN BHD/Petronas Co. Ltd, with properties shown in Table 1. Date palm Khestawi-type fiber was obtained locally.

Table 1

PP properties [26]

Product properties Test method Units Value
Melt flow rate (230°C/2.16 kg) ISO 1133 g/10 min 12
Flexural modulus ISO 178 MPa 1,300
Tensile stress at yield ISO 527 MPa 32
Specific gravity ISO 1183 g/cm3 0.855
Melting temperature ISO 11357-3 °C 160
Izod notched at 23°C min* ISO 180/1A kJ/m2 2.5

*Injection molding procedure for a specimen as per ISO 180/1A.

2.2 Preparation of fiber

The fiber was washed in tap water to remove impurities and dust and then dried for 2 days at atmosphere pressure and room temperature. Afterwards, the fiber was put in the oven at 80°C for 24 h to complete the drying process and remove the moisture.

2.3 Preparation of DPKF/PP composites

The lamination method was carried out by producing sheets of thermoplastic PP with dimensions of 20 cm × 20 cm and a thickness of 1 mm for subsequent preparation for various DPKF/PP composites using a hot press machine model ILLIG RD 53C, 10 tons (Figure 1). The first stage was produced sheets with a thickness of 1 mm. Two molds with the same dimensions were used of different thicknesses. The molds were made of stainless steel with dimensions of 20 cm × 20 cm, 1-mm-thick (the initial mold for producing the sheets), and the other 3 mm thick (the final mold for composites) with a top and bottom cover. The number of layers was fixed at three for all the DPKF/PP composites studied, and fibers were added between them. The heating process with a hot press was carried out by placing the mold inside the hot press machine after the required amount of polymer or polymer sheets and fibers. To produce the composites DPKF/PP, a layer of sheets was added to the bottom of the mold, half the amount of DPKF reinforcement was added, and another layer of sheets was added, after which the final amount of fibers, subsequently the last layer. The mold was closed with the upper cover and then inserted into the hot pressing machine to apply a mechanical load of 4 tons and a constant thermal load for all operations of 165°C. The mold was placed in a hot press machine for 12 min before the heating stopped. Then cooling began at 10°C/min until around 30°C, before the mold was released. In the final stage of the process, the composite sheets were cut using a manual cutting saw according to the standard specifications for tension, bending, and impact.

Figure 1 Hot press machine model ILLIG RD 53C, 10 tons.
Figure 1

Hot press machine model ILLIG RD 53C, 10 tons.

3 Mechanical tests of DPKF/PP composites

3.1 Tensile test

Tensile tests determine a material’s behavior to stress by applying tensile (pulling) force on it. Testing a material’s strength and elongation ability is how tensile tests do this. This test was performed according to (ASTM D638). The test gives the full material profile tensile properties (strength, modulus, strain). The relation between stress and strain, which was obtained gives the composites’ mechanical behavior during the load and predicts the point of failure. Instron Laryee (Figure 2) was used with a crosshead speed of 5 mm/min. Five specimens were prepared for each composite.

Figure 2 Tensile Instron Laryee.
Figure 2

Tensile Instron Laryee.

3.2 Flexural test

Bend testing establishes a material’s flexural strength and modulus by applying stress to it until it fractures or deforms. Shear stress is created along the midline of the specimen during a flexure test, which causes tensile tension on the convex side and compression stress on the concave side. Shear stress needs to be reduced to guarantee that tensile or compression stress is the main cause of failure [3]. The same INSTRON in tensile test performed this test according to ASTM D790.

3.3 Impact test

Impact testing is the process of evaluating the resistance of an item to high-speed loading. An impact test measures the amount of energy required to fracture a test item quickly. This test is performed according to ISO-180 [3]. When the specimen is clamped at one end and held vertically in a cantilever beam end, it breaks at a velocity of 3.5 m/s due to a pendulum XJU-22 (Figure 3) with a work value of 5.5 J.

Figure 3 Pendulum XJU-22 Izod impact test.
Figure 3

Pendulum XJU-22 Izod impact test.

In addition, all the mechanical specimens were tested five times for each tensile, flexural, and impact properties test individually. Accordingly, Table 2 represents the tensile properties, and Table 3 illustrates the impact and flexural properties of the DPKF/PP composites. Moreover, the crucial statistical factors were calculated accordingly to represent the average, error, and standard deviation for each DPKF/PP composite sample.

Table 2

Tensile strength, tensile modulus, tensile strain, average, error, and standard deviation for the neat PP and different DPKF content by weight percentage in DPKF/PP composites

No. of samples Different DPKF content wt% in PP Tensile strength (MPa) Tensile modulus (GPa) Tensile strain (%)
1 (1) 0% DPKF with neat PP 30.132 5.27 7.322
2 (2) 0% DPKF with neat PP 36.247 4.66 6.459
3 (3) 0% DPKF with neat PP 34.311 5.70 5.706
4 (4) 0% DPKF with neat PP 26.308 4.09 6.5
5 5) 0% DPKF with neat PP 25.702 4.34 5.913
Average 30.54 4.81 6.38
Std.error 2.1009 0.2343 0.2811
Std.Dev.E 4.6977 0.5240 0.6286
Error −2.5968 −0.2897 −0.347
1 (1) 5% DPKF with 95% PP 24.081 6.371 5.386
2 (2) 5% DPKF with 95% PP 27.584 5.355 4.211
3 (3) 5% DPKF with 95% PP 26.162 5.778 5.292
4 (4) 5% DPKF with 95% PP 32.838 5.067 5.578
5 (5) 5% DPKF with 95% PP 28.555 5.969 3.896
Average 27.844 5.708 4.87
Std.error 1.4578 0.2289 0.3412
Std.Dev.E 3.2597 0.5119 0.7630
Error −1.8019 −0.2830 −0.4218
1 (1) 10% DPKF with 90% PP 28.51 4.834 4.597
2 (2) 10% DPKF with 90% PP 26.258 5.079 5.621
3 (3) 10% DPKF with 90% PP 26.885 4.636 4.668
4 (4) 10% DPKF with 90% PP 21.423 5.693 4.795
5 (5) 10% DPKF with 90% PP 26.274 6.008 4.769
Average 25.87 5.25 4.89
Std.error 1.1851 0.2598 0.1862
Std.Dev.E 2.6500 0.5810 0.4163
Error −1.4649 −0.3212 −0.2301
1 (1) 15% DPKF with 85% PP 34.332 7.589 4.163
2 (2) 15% DPKF with 85% PP 31.359 8.738 3.751
3 (3) 15% DPKF with 85% PP 27.35 9.326 4.113
4 (4) 15% DPKF with 85% PP 37.154 8.592 3.182
5 (5) 15% DPKF with 85% PP 30.805 8.205 3.741
Average 32.2 8.49 3.79
Std.error 1.6623 0.2884 0.1756
Std.Dev.E 3.7170 0.6449 0.3928
Error −2.0547 −0.3565 −0.2171

where Std.error: standard error, Std.Dev.E: standard deviation.

Table 3

Flexural strength, flexural modulus, impact strength, average, error, and standard deviation for the neat PP and different DPKF content by weight percentage in DPKF/PP composites

No. of samples Different DPKF content wt% in PP Flexural modulus (GPa) Flexural strength (MPa) Impact strength (%)
1 (1) 0% DPKF with neat PP 0.233 19.74 20.9
2 (2) 0% DPKF with neat PP 0.189 21.08 22.131
3 (3) 0% DPKF with neat PP 0.172 21.84 28.258
4 (4) 0% DPKF with neat PP 0.205 21.10 29.026
5 (5) 0% DPKF with neat PP 0.201 16.26 27.685
Average 0.2 20 25.6
Std.error 0.0100 0.4755 1.6922
Std.Dev.E 0.0225 1.0632 3.7840
Error −0.0124 −0.5877 −2.0917
1 (1) 5% DPKF with 95% PP 0.65 35.202 9.939
2 (2) 5% DPKF with 95% PP 0.474 30.963 10.148
3 (3) 5% DPKF with 95% PP 0.617 41.896 10.86
4 (4) 5% DPKF with 95% PP 0.515 38.973 9.365
5 (5) 5% DPKF with 95% PP 0.689 38.681 10.688
Average 0.589 37.143 10.2
Std.error 0.0407 1.8744 0.2685
Std.Dev.E 0.0911 4.1912 0.6004
Error −0.0504 −2.3168 −0.3319
1 (1) 10% DPKF with 90% PP 0.682 43.395 17.745
2 (2) 10% DPKF with 90% PP 0.621 35.901 16.244
3 (3) 10% DPKF with 90% PP 0.552 41.667 13.608
4 (4) 10% DPKF with 90% PP 0.66 32.476 17.044
5 (5) 10% DPKF with 90% PP 0.62 46.561 18.359
Average 0.627 40 16.6
Std.error 0.0222 2.5570 0.8271
Std.Dev.E 0.0496 5.7176 1.8494
Error −0.0274 −3.1606 −1.0223
1 (1) 15% DPKF with 85% PP 1.122 63.034 24.54
2 (2) 15% DPKF with 85% PP 1.286 66.883 17.59
3 (3) 15% DPKF with 85% PP 1.305 55.141 19.555
4 (4) 15% DPKF with 85% PP 0.975 59.242 20.84
5 (5) 15% DPKF with 85% PP 0.957 55.7 25.975
Average 1.129 60 21.7
Std.error 0.0738 2.2277 1.5584
Std.Dev.E 0.1651 4.9813 3.4848
Error −0.0912 −2.7536 −1.9263

where Std.error: standard error, Std.Dev.E: standard deviation.

4 Characterizations of DPKF/PP composites

4.1 SEM

A sophisticated kind of electron microscope called a SEM uses a focused electron beam to scan a sample’s surface to produce precise photographs of its surface. High-resolution pictures that show the topography and surface composition of the sample are made possible in large part by the SEM. SEM is utilized in the context of composite materials to see how various contents, such as DPKF (a particular filler or addition), affect the fracture surface following a tensile test for the DPKF/PP composites. The SEM Tescan Mira3 XMU from the Czech Republic (Figure 4) was the particular equipment utilized for this observation. Understanding how different DPKF concentrations affect the mechanical characteristics and failure causes of the composites was made easier with this technique.

Figure 4 SEM Tescan Mira3 XMU from the Czech Republic.
Figure 4

SEM Tescan Mira3 XMU from the Czech Republic.

4.2 XRD

By examining their distinct diffraction patterns, crystalline materials may be quickly and accurately characterized through the use of XRD, an analytical method that aids in the identification of various phases within the material. One such piece of equipment is the Shimadzu, Japan-based XRD-6000 device. A crystalline sample, such as a DPKF sample, reacts to X-rays by producing constructive interference patterns. The structural details of the sample are then revealed by detecting, processing, and recording these diffracted X-rays (Figure 5).

Figure 5 Shimadzu, Japan-based XRD-6000 device.
Figure 5

Shimadzu, Japan-based XRD-6000 device.

5 Results and discussion

5.1 Effect of changed fiber content on the tensile properties of DPKF/PP composites

5.1.1 Tensile strength

Figure 6 shows the effect of fiber loading on the tensile strength of DPKF/PP composites. The tensile strength values for the neat PP, 5, 10, and 15 wt% of DPKF/PP composites were 30.54, 27.844, 25.87, and 32.2 MPa, respectively. The best composite was the third one with a content of 15 wt% DPKF in the PP matrix. This was due to the good distribution of fibers within the matrix [27,66–70], and the perfect match between the fibers added with the polymer [28,71–75], reflected in its cohesion as obvious in Figure 8d. In addition, there were no gaps or voids between the fibers and the polymer, producing heavy interlocking [9,76–78]. Therefore, this proves that mechanical interlocking was sufficient to transfer the load from PP to DPKF, and the reinforcing effect of the DPKF was dominant. Meanwhile, at 5, 10 wt%, DPKF/PP composites, the less fiber amount in the matrix caused a reduction in load transfer capacity among the fibers; the lack of fiber content pushed the accumulation of stresses and reduced their transfer in the structure of the composites, which weakened their ability to withstand, so they failed [28,79–83].

Figure 6 Effect of fiber loading on tensile strength of DPKF/PP composites.
Figure 6

Effect of fiber loading on tensile strength of DPKF/PP composites.

5.1.2 Tensile modulus

Figure 7 shows the effect of fiber content on the tensile modulus of DPKF/PP composites. The tensile modulus values for the neat PP, 5, 10, and 15 wt% of DPKF/PP composites were 4.81, 5.708, 5.25, and 8.49 GPa, respectively. The tensile modulus of DPKG/PP composites augmented gradually with the fiber loading doses. The composite consists of a low-stiffness matrix and high-stiffness fibers; therefore, the increasing fiber loading leads to a rise in the stiffness of composites [29].

Figure 7 Effect of fiber loading on tensile modulus of DPKF/PP composites.
Figure 7

Effect of fiber loading on tensile modulus of DPKF/PP composites.

5.1.3 Tensile strain

Figure 8 shows the effect of fiber range on the tensile strain of DPKF/PP composites. The tensile strain values for the pure PP, 5, 10, and 15 wt% of DPKF/PP composites were recorded as 6.38, 4.87, 4.89, and 3.79%. DPKG/PP composites’ tensile strain declined slowly due to increased fiber loading. This supported the tensile modulus property of the DPKF/PP composites. Due to increased fiber content instead of increased polymers, composites tend to be less stretchable when compared with the neat PP matrix. This is due to the superior elongation ability of PP compared to the low capability of elongation for reinforced fibers in composites [30]. As a result of orientation, the fibers in the matrix parallel to the line of tensile stress resulted in high stiffness with a noticeable decrease in elongation [31].

Figure 8 Effect of fiber loading on the tensile strain of DPKF/PP composites.
Figure 8

Effect of fiber loading on the tensile strain of DPKF/PP composites.

5.2 Effect of changed fiber content on the flexural properties of DPKF/PP composites

5.2.1 Flexural strength

Figure 9 shows the effect of fiber lamination content on the flexural strength of DPKF/PP composites. The flexural strength values for the neat PP, 5, 10, and 15 wt% of DPKF/PP composites were 20, 37.143, 40, and 60 MPa, respectively. Flexural strength showed an increasing trend as fiber lamination loadings increased. The strong bonding between DPKF and PP matrix resulted in thriving flexural behaviors where the performance of the stress conveyed between the polymer and fiber rose. A similar behavior was also observed by teams of investigators [32,33,34,35].

Figure 9 Effect of fiber loading on the flexural strength of DPKF/PP composites.
Figure 9

Effect of fiber loading on the flexural strength of DPKF/PP composites.

5.2.2 Flexural modulus

Figure 10 shows the effect of fiber content on the flexural modulus of DPKF/PP composites. The flexural modulus values for the neat PP, 5, 10, and 15 wt% of DPKF/PP composites were 0.2, 0.589, 0.627, and 1.129 GPa, respectively. There was a similar behavior between flexural modulus and flexural strength. This confirmed the flexural strength results, as proved previously by [32,33,34,35].

Figure 10 Effect of fiber loading on the flexural modulus of DPKF/PP composites.
Figure 10

Effect of fiber loading on the flexural modulus of DPKF/PP composites.

5.3 Effect of changed fiber content on the impact strength of DPKF/PP composites

Figure 11 shows the effect of fiber content on the average impact strength of DPKF/PP composites. The impact strength values for the neat PP, 5, 10, and 15 wt% of DPKF/PP composites were 25.6, 10.2, 16.6, and 21.7 kJ/m2, respectively. It was evident that, when compared with the other composites at various energy levels, the composite specimens with 15% DPKF loading had greater impact strength values. It could be attributed to the increase in the stiffness of the composite due to the increased DPKF loading of reinforced PP. Conversely, there was a deterioration in impact strength behaviors for all doses of DPKF/PP when compared with the highest impact strength recorded for PP. When the hummer strikes the test sample, it undergoes kinetic energy dissipation through several processes, according to the energy dissipation point of view. For instance, these mechanisms include pull-out, tension, deformation, and frictional slip of DPKF in the PP matrix. Many factors dominate the impact process, such as hummer shape, fiber properties, and boundary conditions, the most critical of which is temperature. Therefore, the reason for the decline in impact strength values for all doses of DPKF/PP may be due to the influence of the temperature at which the test was performed [36].

Figure 11 Effect of fiber loading on the impact strength of DPKF/PP composites.
Figure 11

Effect of fiber loading on the impact strength of DPKF/PP composites.

6 Characterizations of DPKF/PP composites with changing fiber content

6.1 SEM

Figure 12 shows the SEM images for the fracture surfaces of tensile specimens for the different fiber content of DPKF in DPKF/PP composites. The pull-out and breakage of all DPKF combinations in the PP matrix were detected. This indicated that the adhesion between DPKF and PP matrix was good.

Figure 12 SEM images of (a) pure PP, (b) 5 wt%, (c) 10 wt%, and (d) 15 wt% DPKF/PP composites.
Figure 12

SEM images of (a) pure PP, (b) 5 wt%, (c) 10 wt%, and (d) 15 wt% DPKF/PP composites.

Figure 12a shows a streamlined, glassy broken surface in different places of the structured PP matrix.

Figure 12b–d show moderate fiber-matrix adhesion, with some gaps between fibers and matrix due to the hydrophilicity nature of DPKF, which was affected by heating processes during the hot compression procedures. In addition, SEM detected crushing and pulling-out fibers in different areas of the DPKF/PP composites due to the good interlocked DPKF with PP polymers [37,38,39]. Finally, this analysis confirmed the mechanical behaviors of the different DPKF/PP composites, such as tensile, flexural, and impact properties, as shown in Figure 6, through the precise representation of the fracture area in Figure 12.

6.2 XRD

Figure 13 shows the XRD analysis for the pure PP and changed fiber loading 5, 10, and 15 wt% of DPKF/PP composites. For the pure PP and the group DPKF/PP composites, the highest peak was found at 2θ = 14.1°; meanwhile, the lowest was at 2θ = 18.64°. Conversely, the intensities for these dosages were recorded as PP = 842.61, with different DPKF loading 5, 10, and 15 wt% in the PP matrix as 776.94, 777.14, and 880.05, respectively. The high-intensity peaks commonly indicate a coherent crystalline structure. However, the low intensity confirms disorderly interaction in the crystal structure. In other words, the intensity reflects the crystallinity of composites [40]. Relying on that consideration the 15 wt% DPKF/PP composite proved the best mechanical properties among all the DPKF/PP dosages and PP matrix. Additionally, DPKF distribution was uniformly noted in the form of individual layers within the PP polymer, causing exfoliated DPKF/PP composites with upgraded properties [1].

Figure 13 Diffraction pattern of pure PP and different DPKF/PP composites.
Figure 13

Diffraction pattern of pure PP and different DPKF/PP composites.

XRD data for pure PP and its composites reinforced with different percentages of DPKF is shown in the following tables. For material crystalline structure and phase behavior analysis, 2θ, d-spacing, and full width at half maximum (FWHM) measurements are essential.

Table 4 describes pure PP’s XRD features, whereas Tables 5–7 show the impacts of adding 5, 10, and 15 wt% DPKF to the PP matrix. These comparisons show how reinforcing affects composites’ crystalline structure and mechanical characteristics.

Table 4

XRD data showing 2θ, d-spacing, and FWHM for pure PP

2θ (deg) d (Å) FWHM (deg) Intensity (counts) Crystallite size (nm)
14.2757 6.19925 1.16040 17,264 6.91
21.6862 4.09472 1.65600 18,564 4.89
17.0978 5.18185 1.36800 13,720 5.88
14.2757 6.19925 1.16040 17,264 6.91
17.0978 5.18185 1.36800 13,720 5.88
18.7468 4.72960 1.31560 11,179 6.13
21.6862 4.09472 1.65600 18,564 4.89
25.6898 3.46494 0.96000 1,308 8.49
28.8781 3.08923 1.42670 1,233 5.75
42.8386 2.10931 1.66670 2,235 5.12
Average 6.08
Table 5

XRD data showing 2θ, d-spacing, and FWHM for 5 wt% DPKF reinforced PP composites

2θ (deg) d (Å) FWHM (deg) Intensity (counts) Crystallite size (nm)
14.2932 6.19170 1.20780 14,156 6.63
21.6581 4.09997 1.72960 17,586 4.68
17.0699 5.19026 1.56000 13,556 5.15
11.6883 7.56510 0.82660 242 9.67
12.5639 7.03977 1.12000 1,373 7.14
14.2932 6.19170 1.20780 14,156 6.63
17.0699 5.19026 1.56000 13,556 5.15
18.6671 4.74961 1.68000 11,780 4.80
21.6581 4.09997 1.72960 17,586 4.68
25.1707 3.53521 1.96000 2,464 4.16
28.6185 3.11666 1.86670 1,563 4.40
33.3795 2.68220 0.84000 477 9.88
42.9319 2.10494 1.76000 1,805 4.85
44.3111 2.04257 0.88000 463 9.75
Average 6.26
Table 6

XRD data showing 2θ, d-spacing, and FWHM for 10% DPKF-reinforced PP composites

2θ (deg) d (Å) FWHM (deg) Intensity (counts) Crystallite size (nm)
14.1909 6.23610 1.11090 15,258 7.21
21.5895 4.11284 1.62200 16,369 4.99
17.0300 5.20233 1.50000 12,554 5.36
11.4497 7.72220 1.20000 582 6.66
14.1909 6.23610 1.11090 15,258 7.21
17.0300 5.20233 1.50000 12,554 5.36
18.5872 4.76985 1.52000 10,501 5.30
21.5895 4.11284 1.62200 16,369 4.99
25.3370 3.51238 1.29330 1,646 6.30
28.6751 3.11064 1.78000 1,346 4.61
42.7087 2.11543 1.55330 1,909 5.50
Average 5.77
Table 7

XRD data showing 2θ, d-spacing, and FWHM for 15% DPKF reinforced PP composites

2θ (deg) d (Å) FWHM (deg) Intensity (counts) Crystallite size (nm)
14.2814 6.19679 1.20090 16,116 6.97
17.0699 5.19026 1.68000 15,740 5.00
21.5939 4.11202 1.80890 18,729 4.67
11.6883 7.56510 1.09340 692 7.63
12.6834 6.97371 1.04000 2,048 8.03
14.2814 6.19679 1.20090 16,116 6.97
17.0699 5.19026 1.68000 15,740 5.00
18.6671 4.74961 1.68000 12,242 5.01
21.5939 4.11202 1.80890 18,729 4.67
25.2905 3.51873 1.76000 1,507 4.83
28.6851 3.10958 1.52000 1,178 5.64
42.7521 2.11338 1.52000 1,740 5.86
44.5510 2.03213 0.88000 542 10.19
Average 6.19

7 Conclusion

An environmentally friendly composite of the DPKF/PP with a meticulously selected lamination method for its generation successfully achieved good mechanical properties.

The mechanical tensile, flexural, and impact properties studies confirmed the best fiber loading content of 15 wt% DPKF/PP that recorded a peak of tensile strength at a value of 32.2 MPa. Moreover, the recording was supported and confirmed by the SEM and XRD analyses as well. The highest peak for both the pure PP and the group DPKF/PP composites was found at 2θ = 14.1°, while the lowest peak was found at 2θ = 18.64°. However, the intensities with varying DPKF loadings of 5, 10, and 15 wt were noted for these dosages, with PP = 842.61% as 776.94, 777.14, and 880.05, in the PP matrix, in that order. This composite can be used in the automotive industry due to it is considered a sustainable material. We recommend further research to explore other applications of this material in different fields of engineering. This composite may need study with different combination methods or may need fiber treatment to improve the mechanical properties. These if applied could open many fields to utilize these composites in other application domains.

Acknowledgments

The Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research (MHESR) of the Iraqi Republic and the University of Technology-Iraq (UOT) provided assistance for this work. Moreover, the author is thankful to the Applied Science Department, Universitas Syiah Kuala in Indonesia and Universiti Malaysia Pahang in Malaysia for all its support.

  1. Funding information: This research did not receive any specific funding from any university or external funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. It was conducted independently as part of the authors’ academic work.

  2. Author contributions: In this study, Raghad U. Abass conceptualized and designed the research, prepared the DPKF/PP composite specimens using the lamination method, and conducted mechanical testing, including tensile, flexural, and impact tests, following ASTM standards. Mohammed Ausama Al-Sarraf supported the specimen preparation and mechanical testing processes while also performing SEM and XRD analyses to assess the morphology and crystallinity of the composites. Dandi Bachtiar contributed to the experimental methodology and data analysis, providing insights into the mechanical behavior of the composites and validating the findings related to fiber-matrix interactions. Mohd Ruzaimi Bin Mat Rejab was responsible for statistical analysis and visualization of the data, including creating figures and tables, and assisted in the final editing and reviewing of the manuscript for submission. All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and consented to its submission to the journal, reviewed all the results and approved the final version of the manuscript.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Received: 2024-09-04
Revised: 2024-09-23
Accepted: 2024-10-02
Published Online: 2024-11-15

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  31. Experimental and numerical investigations on tensile properties of carbon fibre-reinforced plastic and self-reinforced polypropylene composites
  32. Influence of plasma nitriding on surface layer of M50NiL steel for bearing applications
https://doi.org/10.1515/jmbm-2024-0019
Schlagwörter für diesen Artikel
date palm Khestawi-type fiber; polypropylene matrix; mechanical properties; lamination; materials characterizations
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Artikel in diesem Heft

  1. Research Articles
  2. Evaluation of the mechanical and dynamic properties of scrimber wood produced from date palm fronds
  3. Performance of doubly reinforced concrete beams with GFRP bars
  4. Mechanical properties and microstructure of roller compacted concrete incorporating brick powder, glass powder, and steel slag
  5. Evaluating deformation in FRP boat: Effects of manufacturing parameters and working conditions
  6. Mechanical characteristics of structural concrete using building rubbles as recycled coarse aggregate
  7. Structural behavior of one-way slabs reinforced by a combination of GFRP and steel bars: An experimental and numerical investigation
  8. Effect of alkaline treatment on mechanical properties of composites between vetiver fibers and epoxy resin
  9. Development of a small-punch-fatigue test method to evaluate fatigue strength and fatigue crack propagation
  10. Parameter optimization of anisotropic polarization in magnetorheological elastomers for enhanced impact absorption capability using the Taguchi method
  11. Determination of soil–water characteristic curves by using a polymer tensiometer
  12. Optimization of mechanical characteristics of cement mortar incorporating hybrid nano-sustainable powders
  13. Energy performance of metallic tubular systems under reverse complex loading paths
  14. Enhancing the machining productivity in PMEDM for titanium alloy with low-frequency vibrations associated with the workpiece
  15. Long-term viscoelastic behavior and evolution of the Schapery model for mirror epoxy
  16. Laboratory experimental of ballast–bituminous–latex–roving (Ballbilar) layer for conventional rail track structure
  17. Eco-friendly mechanical performance of date palm Khestawi-type fiber-reinforced polypropylene composites
  18. Isothermal aging effect on SAC interconnects of various Ag contents: Nonlinear simulations
  19. Sustainable and environmentally friendly composites: Development of walnut shell powder-reinforced polypropylene composites for potential automotive applications
  20. Mechanical behavior of designed AH32 steel specimens under tensile loading at low temperatures: Strength and failure assessments based on experimentally verified FE modeling and analysis
  21. Review Article
  22. Review of modeling schemes and machine learning algorithms for fluid rheological behavior analysis
  23. Special Issue on Deformation and Fracture of Advanced High Temperature Materials - Part I
  24. Creep–fatigue damage assessment in high-temperature piping system under bending and torsional moments using wireless MEMS-type gyro sensor
  25. Multiaxial creep deformation investigation of miniature cruciform specimen for type 304 stainless steel at 923 K using non-contact displacement-measuring method
  26. Special Issue on Advances in Processing, Characterization and Sustainability of Modern Materials - Part I
  27. Sustainable concrete production: Partial aggregate replacement with electric arc furnace slag
  28. Exploring the mechanical and thermal properties of rubber-based nanocomposite: A comprehensive review
  29. Experimental investigation of flexural strength and plane strain fracture toughness of carbon/silk fabric epoxy hybrid composites
  30. Functionally graded materials of SS316L and IN625 manufactured by direct metal deposition
  31. Experimental and numerical investigations on tensile properties of carbon fibre-reinforced plastic and self-reinforced polypropylene composites
  32. Influence of plasma nitriding on surface layer of M50NiL steel for bearing applications
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Heruntergeladen am 12.9.2025 von https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/jmbm-2024-0019/html
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