Home Physical Sciences Analysis of CO2–O2 jet characteristics of post-combustion oxygen lance in converter under the influence of multiple parameters
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Analysis of CO2–O2 jet characteristics of post-combustion oxygen lance in converter under the influence of multiple parameters

  • Chao Feng EMAIL logo , Fuxin Wen , Yubin Li , Xin Du , Xing Wang , Liyun Huo , Guangsheng Wei EMAIL logo , Feihong Guo and Fuhai Liu EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: December 15, 2025
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High Temperature Materials and Processes
From the journal High Temperature Materials and Processes Volume 44 Issue 1

Abstract

Converter post-combustion technology is an effective measure to increase the scrap ratio efficiently and cleanly, and the application of CO2 in converter smelting has many beneficial effects. However, there are few studies on the characteristics of a mixed injection CO2 + O2 jet from a post-combustion oxygen lance. In this study, the effects of post-combustion nozzle flow rate and ambient temperature on the jet characteristics of mixed injection CO2 + O2 from a post-combustion oxygen lance were investigated and compared with those from conventional oxygen lance nozzles. The results show that increasing the flow rate and ambient temperature of the post-combustion nozzle can increase the main jet and post-combustion velocity and slow down the jet offset. The main jet velocity of the post-combustion nozzle has always been lower than that of the conventional nozzle. It can greatly improve the jet impact area and average velocity of the molten pool. The jet impact area of the conventional nozzle is always smaller than that of the post-combustion nozzle, but it can greatly improve the average velocity of the molten pool.

Keywords: post-combustion; jet velocity; CO2 ; ambient temperature; impact area

1 Introduction

The iron and steel industry is a major contributor to CO2 emissions. Reducing CO2 emissions in the production process of the iron and steel industry is a problem worth thinking about [1]. The reduction of CO2 emissions in the steel industry mainly involves the use of existing mature energy-saving technologies, the development and industrialization of key energy-saving technologies, and the development and application of advanced technologies [2,3]. Metallurgy experts and iron and steel enterprises have conducted extensive research and practice to optimize the individual processes of iron and steel production. The converter process is one of the most important links in the iron and steel production process. Optimization and innovation of its technology are of great significance for emission reduction in the iron and steel industry [4]. A variety of methods can be used to reduce carbon emissions in converter processes, including converter smelting with large scrap ratios and the application of CO2 recycling in converter smelting [5,6,7]. The use of CO2 in converter smelting has many beneficial metallurgical effects [8,9,10], is already used industrially. However, the addition of excessive CO2 in converter smelting lowers the temperature of the bath; therefore, the use of CO2 is limited. Many technologies are limited by the energy balance of converter smelting; therefore, it is necessary to provide effective heat compensation for the converter smelting process. At present, the heat compensation technology for converter smelting mainly includes scrap preheating outside the furnace, the addition of carbonaceous materials and other heat additives, and basic oxygen furnace-post combustion (BOF-PC) technology. Compared with other heat compensation technologies, BOF-PC technology has the technical advantages of environmental protection, small transformation, high cleanliness and thermal efficiency [11]. Many researchers have studied the optimization of oxygen lance and BOF-PC technology [12,13,14,15,16]. Farrand et al. investigated the post-combustion efficiency and heat transfer efficiency of Dofasco Iron and Steel’s 300 t KOBM converter smelting of using a flue gas analysis method. The post-combustion efficiency reached 16%, the heat transfer efficiency was 44%, and the post-combustion rate in the middle of the smelting showed a downward trend [17]. Based on experimental data and a theoretical injection model, Kato et al. concluded that the maximum post-combustion rate is determined by factors such as nozzle height, nozzle diameter, and nozzle angle [18]. Liu et al. analyzed the influence of the oxygen jet aggregation behavior and impact area of a 250 t converter conventional oxygen lance and post-combustion oxygen lance. The study shows that the deviation of the axis of the main hole jet is larger for the post-combustion oxygen lance, and the impact area of the jet also increases [19]. Feiler et al. conducted an industrial test of the post-combustion of a 160 t converter. The effective distribution of oxygen flow favors the formation of slag, which is conducive to dephosphorization. By controlling the post-combustion effect, splashing and furnace dust losses can be reduced [20]. Shin et al. simulated the turbulent combustion phenomenon of post-combustion in a 100 t converter smelting process with a mathematical model combining the simple chemical reaction system combustion model and turbulence model. The results showed that the combustion reaction was concentrated in the gas phase near the oxygen jet boundary and the post-combustion rate increased with decreasing oxygen velocity and increasing oxygen lance height [21]. Dong et al. simulated the jet flow field of a conventional four-hole oxygen lance and single-flow post-combustion oxygen lance of a 120 t converter and compared the industrial experimental results; with the increase of ambient temperature, the oxygen jet velocity and jet diameter increased, the blowing time and oxygen consumption of the post-combustion oxygen lance decreased, and the dephosphorization efficiency improved [22]. Solonenko et al. conducted industrial tests using an oxygen lance with a cylindrical composite nozzle, which helps to stabilize the supersonic oxygen flow and reduce the peroxidation of metals and slag [23]. Jia et al. investigated the jet characteristics of a six-nozzle staggered oxygen lance and a conventional oxygen lance. The results showed that the staggered nozzle oxygen lance reduced the slag splash at the furnace mouth and increased the effective impact area [24]. Wei et al. investigated the effect of CO2 mixing on the jet characteristics of a four-nozzle oxygen lance. Mixing CO2 with an oxygen jet can lower the flame combustion temperature and increase the dynamic pressure of the jet. Industrial test results showed that a CO2, the mixing ratio of 15 vol%, achieved high phosphorus removal efficiency [25].

Many scientists have also researched the effects of the post-combustion of gas components and gas slag gold multiphase flow, hoping to achieve better metallurgical effects by improving oxygen supply [26,27,28,29]. Many research results have also been successfully applied to industrial production to improve the level of converter smelting technology. Based on the good smelting effect of CO2 application in converter smelting and the technical advantages of post-combustion oxygen lance, the mixed injection of CO2 + O2 jet from the post-combustion oxygen lance is still little researched. In this study, a numerical simulation method is used to analyze the influence of CO2 + O2 mixed gas flow and ambient temperature on the jet characteristics of the post-combustion oxygen lance, hoping to provide a theoretical reference for the design and application of mixed injection of CO2 + O2 post-combustion oxygen lance.

2 Model description

2.1 Assumptions

The following assumptions are used in this study:

  1. The molecular viscosity of the mixed gas satisfies the Sutherland viscosity law.

  2. The mixed gas is an ideal gas and a compressible Newtonian fluid.

  3. The flow process is three-dimensional, steady-state, compressible non-isothermal.

  4. The pressure inside the converter remains constant during different smelting periods.

2.2 Basic equation

  1. The mass conservation equation is expressed as follows:

    (1) ∂ ( ρ u i ) ∂ x i = 0 .

  2. The energy conservation equation is expressed as follows:

    (2) ∂ ( ρ μ j c p T ) ∂ x j = μ j ∂ p ∂ x j + τ i j ∂ μ i ∂ x j − ∂ − k T ∂ T ∂ x j ∂ x j .

  3. The equation of momentum conservation in the i direction is given by

(3) ∂ ( ρ u i u j ) ∂ x j = − ∂ p ∂ x i + ∂ ( τ i j − ρ u i u j ¯ ) ∂ x j ,

(4) τ i j = μ ∂ u j ∂ x i + ∂ u i ∂ x j − 2 ∂ u k 3 ∂ x k δ i j ,

where ρ is the density of gas, kg·m−3 and ρ = P/RT, T is the absolute temperature, K; μ i is the ith direction's velocity, m·s−1; c p and τ ij are the specific heat capacity and the viscous stress results due to molecular viscosity; u i and u j are velocity component (m·s−1); k T is the thermal conductivity coefficient (W·m−1·K−1); δ ij is the Kronecker delta; and μ is molecular viscosity, Pa s.

Values of parameters μ were defined in accordance with Sutherland’s viscosity in equation (5):

(5) μ = 2.67 × 10 − 6 C E C l 2 M T ,

where M is the molecular weight, kg·kmol−1, and C E and C 1 are Lennard–Jones energy parameter and Lennard–Jones characteristic length (Å), C E = 195.2 K and C 1 = 3.941 Å.

2.3 Turbulence model

The nozzle of the oxygen lance is Laval type, and the CO2–O2 mixed gas jet is a supersonic jet, so the modified k–ε two-equation turbulence model [30] is used in this study, which is a modification of the standard k–ε. The turbulent kinetic energy equation k and its dissipation rate equation ε of the turbulence model are expressed by the following formula:

The turbulent kinetic energy equation k is expressed as follows:

(6) ρ d k d t = ∂ ∂ x i μ + μ t μ k ∂ k ∂ x i + G k + G b + σ ε − Y M .

The equation of turbulent viscosity is given as follows:

(7) μ t = ρ C μ k 2 ε 2 .

The equation of dissipation rate ε equation is given as follows:

(8) ρ d ε d t = ∂ ∂ x i μ + μ t μ ε ∂ ε ∂ x i + C 1 ε ε k ( G k + C 3 ε G b ) − C 2 ε ρ ε 2 k ,

where G k and Y M are the turbulence energy generated by laminar velocity gradient and Fluctuation due to excessive diffusion of compressible turbulence, J; σ ε is the Turbulent Prandtl numbers for ε equation, σ ε = 1.3; G b is the turbulence energy generated by buoyancy; μ t is the turbulent viscosity; C μ , C 1ε , C 2ε , and C 3ε are constants, the values of C μ , C 1ε , C 2ε , and C 3ε are 0.09, 1.44, 1.92, and 0.8; and σ k is the Turbulent Prandtl numbers for k equation and σ k is 1.0.

2.4 Computing domains and boundary conditions

This paper mainly studies the jet characteristics of mixed injection CO2–O2 oxygen lance nozzle in 120 t converter, the injection medium is 10% CO2 and 90% O2, and the jet characteristics of conventional four-hole oxygen lance and post-combustion oxygen lance are compared and analyzed. The design flow rate of the conventional oxygen lance nozzle is 19,500 Nm3·h−1, the Mach number is 2.0 and the four-hole uniformly distributed type is adopted, as shown in Figure 1. The distance between the post-combustion hole of the post-combustion oxygen lance nozzle and the end face of the nozzle is 300 mm, and different post-combustion flow ratios are set, as shown in Figure 2. The design parameters and conditions of conventional four-hole nozzles and post-combustion nozzles are shown in Table 1.

Figure 1 Structural diagram of a conventional four-hole oxygen lance nozzle.
Figure 1

Structural diagram of a conventional four-hole oxygen lance nozzle.

Figure 2 Structural diagram of post-combustion oxygen lance nozzle.
Figure 2

Structural diagram of post-combustion oxygen lance nozzle.

Table 1

Main technical parameters

Scheme COM SCH-1 SCH-2 SCH-3 SCH-4
Main nozzle Number 4
Mach number 2
Dt1 (mm) 35.2
De1 (mm) 46.1
a 1 (deg) 12.5
a 2 (deg) 3.5
Flow (Nm3·h−1) 19,500
PC nozzle Number — 8
Ds1 (mm) — 12.4
a 3 (deg) — 30
Flow ratio (%) — 10 25 40 55

Figure 3 shows the computational domain structure and boundary categories of this study. Because of the symmetry and computing speed of the model, this study uses a 1/4 symmetric computing domain and uses ICEM to establish the grid, which is divided into coarse grid (the number of grids is 912,553), medium grid (the number of grids is 1,086,645), and dense grid (the number of grids is 1,315,580). The inlet boundary selects the mass flow inlet, the exit boundary selects the pressure outlet, and the rest is wall. The length of the calculation domain is 3,800 mm, and the radius of the calculation domain is 1,600 mm. The parameters are set as shown in Table 1. In this study, the commercial CFD software ANSYS FLUENT is used to calculate the model. The model is solved based on the coupling solver of density, the pressure, velocity, temperature, and density are calculated by the implicit method, and the quadratic upwind scheme is used to discretize the convection term of the transport equation. The convergence condition is that the energy term is less than 10−6 and the other terms are set to 10−5.

Figure 3 Calculation structure and boundary conditions of oxygen lance nozzle.
Figure 3

Calculation structure and boundary conditions of oxygen lance nozzle.

3 Model verification

To verify the availability and sensitivity of the simulation model grid, three kinds of grids are tested and verified by a high-pressure gas cold test system, as shown in Figure 4. The velocity changes on the main nozzle jet axis of three kinds of grids are simulated respectively. The results show that compared with the medium grid, the average change rate of the axial velocity distribution of the main nozzle jet is about 2.3% and the maximum deviation is 4.7%. On the other hand, the average velocity change rate of dense grid and medium grid is less than 1%, so it can be ignored, and the effect of computational efficiency is taken into account. It is more appropriate to choose a medium mesh for the simulation. Furthermore, the verification test is carried out by using the cold jet detection device, which is composed of a high-pressure gas source device, a jet injection device, and a jet analysis system. The high-pressure gas is ejected by the jet device. The detection device converts the jet pressure signal into a digital signal display. Compared with the cold jet test data and numerical simulation results, the data show that the test data fit well with the simulation results, which verifies the effectiveness of the mathematical model.

Figure 4 Experimental validation of grid effectiveness testing.
Figure 4

Experimental validation of grid effectiveness testing.

4 Results and discussion

In this study, the changes in the CO2–O2 jet characteristics of conventional oxygen lance nozzles and post-combustion oxygen lance nozzles were analyzed, the effects of different post-combustion injection flow rates and ambient temperatures on jet velocity were investigated, and the axial jet velocity, radial velocity, impact area, and impact velocity of the main and post-combustion nozzles were analyzed. Based on the research results, the influence rules of different influencing factors on the variation of jet velocity were determined.

4.1 Influence of post-combustion hole flow on jet characteristics

The design of the post-combustion nozzle has a significant influence on the comprehensive performance of the post-combustion oxygen lance. It is important to study the influence of the CO2–O2 flow ratio of the post-combustion nozzle on the variation of the jet velocity. The ambient temperature in this section is 1,573 K.

4.1.1 Axial jet characteristics

The variation of the jet velocity along the axis of the main nozzle has a significant effect on the impact area and depth of the jet. Figure 5 shows the variation in the jet velocity along the axis for the five schemes. The results showed that the jet velocity of the conventional nozzle was higher than that of the post-combustion lance, and with an increase in the flow rate of the post-combustion nozzle, the jet velocity of the main nozzle increased within 1.3 m from the end face of the nozzle. A change in jet velocity outside the range of 1.3 m is small. Figure 5 shows that the post-combustion nozzle jet was mixed with the main nozzle jet and that the jet reduced the jet velocity of the main nozzle. When the gas flow rate of the post-combustion nozzle is small, the entrainment degree of the main jet with the post-combustion jet is the greatest, and the mutual interference between jets is more intense, as shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5 The variation of axial velocity of the main nozzle.
Figure 5

The variation of axial velocity of the main nozzle.

Figure 6 shows the velocity change in the centerline of the oxygen lance nozzles, which mainly reflects the convergence degree and the position of the main nozzle. The results show that the centerline velocity of conventional nozzles is the smallest within the range of 0.8 m and that of SCH-1 is the largest, while the velocity of conventional nozzles is the highest outside the range of 0.8 m and that of SCH-4 is the smallest. The results in Figure 6 show that the jet independence of conventional nozzles is better in the range of short injection distances, while the jet independence of SCH-1, which accounts for the smallest proportion of the post-combustion nozzle flow, is the worst, and the interference degree of the post-combustion jet of SCH-1 is the greatest. The secondary nozzle flow rate of SCH-4 was the highest, but the independence of the jet was the best, indicating that increasing the flow rate of the post-combustion improves the independence of the jet and slows the coalescence between jets.

Figure 6 Velocity variation trend of oxygen lance centerline.
Figure 6

Velocity variation trend of oxygen lance centerline.

Figure 7 shows the offset variation of the main nozzle jet, which is identical to the evaluation jet index shown in Figure 6. The results in Figure 7 show that the jet offset of the main nozzle of the conventional nozzle increases with an increase in the injection distance, whereas the jet offset of the conventional nozzle and SCH-4 is smaller, indicating that increasing the flow rate of the post-combustion nozzle is helpful to reduce the jet offset. The results in Figure 7 show that with an increase in the flow rate of the post-combustion nozzle, the velocity compensation for the main jet increases, which helps to slow the coalescence of the jet. Because the conventional nozzle does not interfere with the post-combustion jet, the amount of gas trapped along the jet is small, so the jet has better independence.

Figure 7 Deviation of the main nozzle axis jet from its geometric position.
Figure 7

Deviation of the main nozzle axis jet from its geometric position.

Figure 8 shows a cloud diagram of the jet velocity distribution at the main nozzle. The results show that when the velocity is 150 m·s−1 as the reference line for the jet injection distance and the actual height of the oxygen lance is 1.7 m as the reference position, Figure 8 shows that the injection distance of the conventional oxygen lance nozzles under the condition of converter lance position is the longest, while that of SCH-1 is the shortest, which is consistent with the results shown in Figure 5. The results show that the conventional nozzle has a larger impact depth under the condition of the smelting-lance position, and the jet impact capacity of the main nozzle can be improved by increasing the flow rate of the post-combustion nozzle.

Figure 8 Axial velocity field distribution of the main nozzle.
Figure 8

Axial velocity field distribution of the main nozzle.

Figure 9 shows the variation of jet velocity along the axis of the post-combustion nozzle for the four types of post-combustion oxygen lance nozzles. Because the post-combustion nozzle is cylindrical, it is different from the Laval nozzle of the main nozzle. The coverage of post-combustion was evaluated based on the jet velocity of the post-combustion nozzle. The results in Figure 9 show that the faster the axial jet velocity of the post-combustion nozzle, the better the jet independence and the higher the post-combustion injection flow rate. The post-combustion jet velocity of SCH-1 decreased to 0 over a short distance, while that of SCH-4 decreased slowly. The results in Figure 9 show that increasing the flow rate of the post-combustion nozzle increased the dynamic pressure of the jet, which contributed to the increase of the initial velocity of the jet. Due to the influence of the entrainment of the main nozzle jet, the decrease in the velocity of the post-combustion injection at a low flow rate includes the loss of the jet itself and the decrease in the velocity of the main jet entrainment acceleration. The velocity of SCH-2 and SCH-3 changes sharply at a distance of 0.2 m from the exit of the post-combustion nozzle. The main reason for this is that the post-combustion jet is closest to the main jet, and the velocity of the post-combustion jet varies significantly due to the entrainment of the main jet.

Figure 9 Axial velocity change of post-combustion nozzle.
Figure 9

Axial velocity change of post-combustion nozzle.

The evaluation of the performance of the post-combustion jet is mainly based on the coverage area of the post-combustion jet, the influence on the refractory of the furnace lining, and heat transfer of the nozzle. Figure 10 shows a cloud diagram of the velocity distribution of the post-combustion jet. The results show that with an increase in the post-combustion injection flow rate, the aggregation situation between the post-combustion jet and main jet decreases; however, when the flow rate of the post-combustion injection is too high, entrainment with the main jet increases. The post-combustion injection flow rate of SCH-1 was low, and its post-combustion jet completely coalesced with the main jet in a very short distance, which had the greatest influence on the main jet velocity. In conjunction with the analysis of the results shown in Figure 9, it can be seen that most of the post-combustion of SCH-1 occurs at the end of the nozzle, i.e., the main jet outlet, which significantly affects the heat transfer of the nozzle, while the jet velocity of SCH-4 is larger and the interference between the jet and the main jet is exceeded only by SCH-3. Although the coverage area of the post-combustion jet increases, it has a significant influence on the refractory life of the converter lining. The post-combustion jets of SCH-2 and SCH-3 have a certain velocity at the end of the nozzle, which contributes to the reduction of the oxygen concentration, to the slowing down of the heat release during combustion and to having a better post-combustion jet coverage area. The line “A-A” shows the velocity of the post-combustion jet at the same location. The larger the flow rate of the post-combustion jet hole, the higher the jet velocity at the same distance.

Figure 10 Axial velocity field distribution of post-combustion nozzle.
Figure 10

Axial velocity field distribution of post-combustion nozzle.

4.1.2 Radial jet characteristics

Figure 11 shows the variation of the main jet velocity in the diameter direction of the converter at different positions. The results show that the main jet velocity decreases as the injection distance increases, and the velocity of the conventional nozzles is always greatest at the same position. The larger the post-combustion injection flow rate, the higher the jet velocity. It was also found that at the same position, the maximum velocity of the conventional nozzle was far from the centerline of the nozzle, and the distance was the largest, while increasing the post-combustion injection flow rate caused the point of maximum velocity of the main jet to move away from the centerline of the oxygen lance nozzle. This is consistent with the results shown in Figure 7. As shown in Figure 11, the entrainment of ambient gas by conventional nozzles had the least effect on the velocity of the main jet, while the post-combustion jet aggravated the entrainment of the main jet and decreased the velocity of the main jet. At the same time, the coalescence phenomenon between the main jets is improved, as analyzed earlier.

Figure 11 Radial velocity distribution of the main nozzle Jet.
Figure 11

Radial velocity distribution of the main nozzle Jet.

Figure 12 shows the radial velocity distribution of the post-combustion jet at different positions between the end face and exit of the post-combustion nozzle. The results show that the post-combustion jet has two wave peaks on the horizontal plane of the nozzle end (0de). One is the wavelet peak generated by the main jet near the centerline of the nozzle and the post-combustion jet entrainment and the other is the wave peak of the post-combustion jet far from the centerline of the nozzle. With an increase in the post-combustion flow rate, the jet velocity increases, and the variation trend of the secondary jet offset first decreases and then increases. There is only one wave peak of the post-combustion jet at a distance from the nozzle end face 12de, and its variation trend is the same as that at 0de. As shown in Figure 12, with an increase in the post-combustion flow rate, the dynamic pressure of the jet increases, the velocity gradually increases, the entrainment degree of the post-combustion jet and the main jet increases, and a wavelet peak near the centerline of the nozzle appears. At the same time, in conjunction with the results of Figure 10, the entrainment degree of SCH-4 increases; therefore, the offset of the secondary jet first decreases and then increases.

Figure 12 Radial velocity distribution of post-combustion nozzle jet.
Figure 12

Radial velocity distribution of post-combustion nozzle jet.

Figure 13 shows the jet velocity distribution at different positions along the vertical distance of the post-combustion nozzle. The results show that at different positions in the vertical direction, as the post-combustion flow rate increased, the maximum jet velocity increased, and as the injection distance increased, the velocity tended to decrease. At the same time, it was found that at the same position, with an increase in the post-combustion flow rate, the offset of the maximum jet velocity to the horizontal plane of the nozzle first decreased and then increased. The display results in Figure 13 can be analyzed according to the results shown in Figures 10 and 12. Increasing the post-combustion injection flow rate is helpful for improving the jet velocity. Increasing the flow rate improves the independence of the post-combustion jet, but the flow rate increases more than recommended. The entrainment of the post-combustion jet and main jet intensified, resulting in a larger deviation of the secondary jet. Therefore, the maximum jet velocity of SCH-4 in the vertical direction was closer to the horizontal plane of the nozzle than that of SCH-3.

Figure 13 Radial velocity distribution of post-combustion nozzle jet.
Figure 13

Radial velocity distribution of post-combustion nozzle jet.

4.1.3 Jet capacity

Figure 14 shows the changing trend of the main jet impact area of the different schemes, where 20 m·s−1 was selected as the isoline. The results show that the impact area of the conventional nozzles gradually increases, while that of the post-combustion oxygen lance nozzles generally first decreases and then increases, while that of SCH-1 is like that of conventional nozzles, and the impact area of SCH-2 continuously decreases. The impact area remained the largest within the smelting lance range. The results in Figure 14 show that increasing the post-combustion injection flow rate significantly increases the impact area of the jet when the smelting-lance level is low, in which the post-combustion jet directly participates in the molten-pool stirring and increases the impact area of the jet. The larger the post-combustion injection flow rate. The interference intensity of the post-combustion jet is high and the change rate of the jet impact area is more obvious. The ratio of the post-combustion injection flow rate of SCH-2 decreased the jet offset and the jet impact area increased. Considering the jet impact area as the evaluation index, SCH-2 was found to be the most suitable.

Figure 14 Changes in jet impact area of different oxygen lance nozzle types.
Figure 14

Changes in jet impact area of different oxygen lance nozzle types.

Figure 15 shows the changes in average velocity in different planes. The results show that the stirring capacity of the conventional nozzles in the molten pool is the largest in different planes, and the maximum jet stirring capacity of the post-combustion nozzles is approximately 49% higher than that of the post-combustion nozzles. Near the injection distance, with the increase in post-combustion injection flow, the plane average velocity shows a decreasing tendency, and the average speed shows a trend of decreasing first and then increasing at longer distances. The results shown in Figure 15 can be analyzed in combination with Figures 5 and 8. Because the conventional jet is not disturbed by the post-combustion jet, the jet velocity is always the highest compared to other schemes. The results in Figure 8 show that the post-combustion jet of SCH-1 was completely entrapped by the main jet at a very short injection distance and that the post-combustion jet improved the stirring ability of the molten pool; thus, it had a higher impact velocity. The other post-combustion schemes were mainly due to the different impact stirring capability of the molten pool, which was caused by the different entrainment degrees between the secondary jet and the main jet. Due to the intervention of the post-combustion jet, the post-combustion oxygen lance nozzle exhibits a larger impact area at a closer injection distance compared to the conventional oxygen lance nozzle. However, due to the enhanced entrainment of the main jet by the post-combustion jet, the circumferential velocity of the main jet is reduced, indicating a decrease in the average velocity of the jet towards the impact surface.

Figure 15 Average velocity variation in the jet impact area.
Figure 15

Average velocity variation in the jet impact area.

4.2 Influence of ambient temperature on jet characteristics

The ambient temperature of the converter varies during the smelting process. A room temperature of 298 K, pre-smelting temperature of 1,573 K, and alate smelting temperature of 1,973 K were selected as parameters. In this section, the influence of different ambient temperatures on the post-combustion oxygen lance jet characteristics of mixed injection CO2 + O2 is analyzed, and the flow ration of post-combustion injection is set to 25% of the main nozzle flow.

4.2.1 Axial jet characteristics

Figure 16 shows the variation of the axial velocity of the main jet at different ambient temperatures. The results show that the jet velocity of the conventional oxygen lance is higher than that of the post-combustion oxygen lance at different ambient temperatures and that the jet velocity increases with increasing ambient temperature and the jet velocity decreases with increasing injection distance. Figure 16 shows that the main reason is that the increase in ambient temperature increases the jet pressure and jet velocity under the condition of the same injection gas flow rate. Previous research results have shown that at the same temperature, the post-combustion jet is entrained with the main jet, which decreases the velocity of the main jet; therefore, the conventional oxygen lance nozzle has a higher jet velocity.

Figure 16 Axial velocity distribution of the main nozzle jet.
Figure 16

Axial velocity distribution of the main nozzle jet.

Figure 17 shows the change in the offset degree of the main jet under different temperature conditions. The results show that an increase in ambient temperature helps to slow down the jet offset, and at different temperatures, the jet offset of conventional nozzles is smaller than that of post-combustion nozzles. Figure 17 shows that the main reason is that a higher ambient temperature increases the jet velocity, which gives the jet better independence and slows the jet offset. Entrainment occurred between the post-combustion jet and the main jet, which decreases the jet velocity and worsens the jet deviation.

Figure 17 Deviation of the main nozzle axis jet from its geometric position.
Figure 17

Deviation of the main nozzle axis jet from its geometric position.

Figure 18 shows the change in centerline velocity of the oxygen lance nozzle. The results show that the centerline velocity of the oxygen lance nozzles increases as the ambient temperature increases, and the centerline velocity of the conventional nozzles is higher than that of the post-combustion nozzles at high temperatures. As shown in Figure 18, as the ambient temperature increases, the density of the ambient gas and jet density decrease, which aggravates the entrainment degree of the jet and improves the effect of jet coalescence, resulting in an increase in the centerline velocity. With an increase in ambient temperature, the air replenishment ability of the post-combustion jet to the main jet is improved, which slows down the coalescence effect of the main jet.

Figure 18 Velocity distribution of the oxygen lance axis line.
Figure 18

Velocity distribution of the oxygen lance axis line.

Figure 19 shows the velocity-field distribution of the main jet at different ambient temperatures. The results show that the length of the core section of the jet increases as the ambient temperature increases, and the velocity of the main jet of the conventional nozzle was always higher than that of the post-combustion oxygen lance nozzle. This is consistent with the results shown in Figure 16. The increase of ambient temperature increases the dynamic pressure and velocity of the jet, and the entrainment degree of the conventional nozzle is lower than that of the post-combustion nozzle, which is beneficial for maintaining the independence of the jet, therefore, the velocity of the main jet is higher.

Figure 19 Axial velocity field distribution of the main nozzle.
Figure 19

Axial velocity field distribution of the main nozzle.

Figure 20 shows the change in the axial velocity of the post-combustion nozzle. The results show that the axial velocity of the post-combustion jet increases with the increase of the ambient temperature, and the velocity changes greatly at a distance of 0.1 m from the end face of the nozzle. Figure 20 shows that an increase in ambient temperature increases the dynamic pressure and velocity of the jet. At the same time, the independence of the post-combustion jet is enhanced with an increase in the ambient temperature; therefore, at lower temperatures, the coalescence of the post-combustion jet and main jet is greatest.

Figure 20 Axial velocity distribution of post-combustion nozzle.
Figure 20

Axial velocity distribution of post-combustion nozzle.

Figure 21 shows the velocity-field distribution of the post-combustion jet. The results show that as the ambient temperature increases, the entrainment degree of the post-combustion jet and the main jet increase, and the independence of the post-combustion jet is improved. As the ambient temperature increases, the ambient gas density in the converter decreases, and the post-combustion jet velocity increases, further aggravating the entrainment degree between the main jet and the ambient gas and increasing the entrainment range with the post-combustion jet.

Figure 21 Axial velocity field distribution of post-combustion nozzle.
Figure 21

Axial velocity field distribution of post-combustion nozzle.

4.2.2 Radial jet characteristics

Figure 22 shows the effect of ambient temperature on the variation of the main jet velocity. The results show that at the same ambient temperature, as the injection distance increases, the maximum jet velocity decreases and at the same position, as the ambient temperature increases, the maximum jet velocity increases; the maximum speed of the traditional oxygen lance nozzle is always higher than that of the post-combustion oxygen lance nozzle and the maximum velocity is far from the centerline of the oxygen lance nozzles. Figure 22 shows that the main reason is that the increase of ambient temperature increases the jet pressure, increases the jet velocity, and slows the offset degree of the jet. At the same time, the entrainment between the post-combustion jet and the main jet aggravates the offset degree of the jet.

Figure 22 Radial velocity distribution of the main nozzle.
Figure 22

Radial velocity distribution of the main nozzle.

Figure 23 shows the radial velocity distribution of the post-combustion jet. The results show that the maximum velocity of the post-combustion jet increases with increasing ambient temperature, and the maximum velocity moves away from the center of the oxygen lance nozzle. With an increase in ambient temperature, the wavelet peak near the center line of the oxygen lance increased, indicating that the ambient temperature increased. This aggravates the entrainment degree and range of the post-combustion jet and main jet.

Figure 23 Radial velocity distribution of post-combustion nozzle.
Figure 23

Radial velocity distribution of post-combustion nozzle.

Figure 24 shows the velocity distribution of the post-combustion jet in the vertical direction. The results show that the maximum velocity of the post-combustion jet decreases with increasing injection distance and increases with increasing ambient temperature. The maximum point of jet velocity moved away from the horizontal plane of the nozzle. The jet entrainment of ambient gas on the way reduces the jet velocity, and the increase in ambient temperature can increase the jet velocity and thus improve the independence of the jet and reduce the jet offset.

Figure 24 Radial velocity distribution of post-combustion nozzle Jet.
Figure 24

Radial velocity distribution of post-combustion nozzle Jet.

4.2.3 Jet capacity

Figure 25 shows the effect of ambient temperature on the jet impact area. The results show that the impact area of conventional nozzles gradually increases with increasing injection distance, while the impact area of post-combustion nozzles decreases at high temperatures. With an increase in ambient temperature, the impact area of the jet increased. Figure 25 shows that the increase in ambient temperature increases the jet velocity and slows down the jet offset, the impact area of the jet is increased by 15.2%, and the larger jet impact area of the post-combustion nozzle is the result of the involvement of the post-combustion jet. At an ambient temperature of 298 K, the post-combustion jet had little effect on the impact area, while the increase in ambient temperature significantly increased the jet velocity and the influence of the post-combustion jet on the impact area.

Figure 25 Changes in jet impact area of different oxygen lance nozzle types.
Figure 25

Changes in jet impact area of different oxygen lance nozzle types.

Figure 26 shows the effects of different ambient temperatures on the average velocity of the molten pool. The results show that with an increase in the injection distance, the stirring ability of the jet to the molten pool decreases, the average velocity of the molten pool decreases, and with an increase in the ambient temperature, the stirring ability of the jet to the molten pool improves. The stirring ability of the conventional nozzle is stronger than that of the post-combustion nozzle, and the average velocity of the molten pool in the smelting lance position is increased by approximately 40%. This is mainly due to the fact that the main jet velocity of traditional nozzles is higher than that of post-combustion nozzles.

Figure 26 Average velocity variation in the jet impact area.
Figure 26

Average velocity variation in the jet impact area.

5 Conclusion

In this study, the effects of conventional nozzles and four types of post-combustion injection flow rates and ambient temperatures on the jet characteristics of mixed-injection CO2 + O2 post-combustion oxygen lance nozzles were analyzed, focusing on axial velocity, radial velocity, jet offset degree, and the evaluation of jet capability of the main jet and post-combustion jet. The results of this study can be summarized as follows:

  1. Increasing the flow rate of the post-combustion nozzle can increase the main jet and post-combustion velocity and slow down the jet offset, whereas a too high flow rate of the post-combustion nozzle aggravates the jet excursion. The main jet velocity of the post-combustion nozzle was always lower than that of the conventional nozzle.

  2. Increasing the flow rate of the post-combustion nozzle can significantly increase the impact area of the jet and increase the average velocity of the molten pool to a certain extent. The jet impact area of the conventional nozzle is always smaller than that of the post-combustion nozzle. However, the average velocity of the improved molten pool increased by approximately 49%.

  3. Increasing the ambient temperature can increase the velocity of the main jet and the post-combustion jet and slow down the jet offset. Under the condition of higher ambient temperature, the main jet velocity of the conventional nozzle is always higher than that of the post-combustion nozzle.

  4. Increasing the ambient temperature can significantly increase the impact area of the jet and increase the average velocity of the molten pool to a certain extent. The jet impact area of the conventional nozzle is always smaller than that of the post-combustion nozzle, but the average velocity of the improved molten pool can be increased by approximately 40%.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 52293392 and No. 52304343) and the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (2023M730227).

  1. Funding information: This work was supported by the Advanced Materials-National Science and Technology Major Project (2025ZD0611200), National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 52304343 and No. 52293392), Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (FRF-IDRY-23-013) and National Science and Technology Major Project (2024ZD1200404).

  2. Author contributions: Chao Feng: conceptualization, methodology, writing original draft, funding acquisition. Fuxin Wen: conceptualization, project administration. Yubin Li: data curation, formal analysis. Xin Du: investigation, validation. Xing Wang: investigation, supervision. Liyun Huo: methodology, supervision. Guangsheng Wei: writing review editing, visualization. Feihong Guo: project administration, methodology. Fuhai Liu: software, validation.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: The data cannot be made publicly available upon publication because they contain commercially sensitive information. The data that support the findings of this study are available upon reasonable request from the authors.

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Received: 2024-11-22
Revised: 2025-04-14
Accepted: 2025-04-18
Published Online: 2025-12-15

© 2025 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/htmp-2025-0078
Keywords for this article
post-combustion; jet velocity; CO2; ambient temperature; impact area
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

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