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Influence of laser power on mechanical and microstructural behavior of Nd: YAG laser welding of Incoloy alloy 800

  • Haitham M. Alswat EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: July 17, 2025
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High Temperature Materials and Processes
From the journal High Temperature Materials and Processes Volume 44 Issue 1

Abstract

Incoloy alloy 800, a type of superalloy, is well-suited for industries that require high corrosion resistance. Laser beam welding (LBW) is an effective method for improving the quality of its joints. In this study, Incoloy alloy 800 is joined using Nd:YAG LBW by varying laser power between 2 and 3 kW with a constant welding speed of 2 m·min−1. Joints were analyzed using microscopic and mechanical testing. The observed weld zone has an hourglass shape and elongated columnar structure as well as dendrites with fine equiaxed grains. Remarkable phase changes occur due to the high cooling rate, which is associated with LBW. The reduction in mechanical properties was observed at high laser power due to the laves formation. The mode of fracture was changed from ductile to brittle while increasing the laser power.

Keywords: superalloy; laser beam welding; microstructure; mechanical properties

1 Introduction

Nickel-austenite base superalloy Incoloy alloy 800 has excellent properties to resist corrosion, along with high rupture strength [1]. Incoloy alloy 800 has the ability to protect against oxidation and carburization at high temperatures because of the formation of a Cr2O3 layer. The joining of these alloys can be used widely where high-temperature operation is required, especially in nuclear reactors, superheaters, pressure vessels, reheaters, hot ducts, and aeroengines, such as combustion chambers and turbines [2,3,4,5]. It is a good weldable grade due to its crack resistance capability and resistance to solidification cracks [6]. Common issues associated with the joining of Inconel alloys are laves formation, segregation of elements, and formation of intermetallic compounds in the weld region, solidification of weld metal, etc. Several studies are available related to laves formation [3,4,5,6,7,8,9]. Laves formed at grain boundaries owing to the elemental segregation of Mo, Si, and W during solidification with laser additive-manufactured nickel-based alloys [3,4]. The weld zone becomes weaker due to the dilution of elements of the original weld metal alloys. Elemental segregation of alloys is the cause for the formation of laves during solidification after welding. Propagation of the crack, followed by the initiation of the crack, occurs because of laves formation. Various mechanical properties such as tensile strength, toughness, fatigue, and creep strength are affected by these laves. Laves formation can be controlled using proper welding techniques and process parameters, which have low heat input and high cooling rate.

Many researchers have already used different techniques to join Inconel alloys [10,11,12,13]. However, challenges associated with joining Inconel alloys using the fusion welding technique include hot cracking, high thermal expansion, micro-fissuring, and forming an undesirable precipitation phase and oxide layer, which delays bonding. The solid-state welding technique called friction stir welding can address these challenges; nevertheless, it has another challenge, which is the manufacturing of the tool and improper material flow between the joints.

The joining of Incoloy alloy 800 using laser beam welding (LBW) can control these defects with a selection of proper process parameters. In this process, the weld bead geometry is smaller with less heat input. The high laser power density resulted in the formation of a small amount of HAZ. Focusing the laser beam during welding is very precise to achieve speeds that are not possible with other fusion welding processes. Minimal distortion with high-quality weld joints can be achieved using LBW. Automation of LBW is quite possible as the workpiece and laser beam head have no direct interaction. Edge preparation and filler materials are not required in LBW. Cold cracking is less due to the lower absorption of hydrogen.

Various literature reports related to the joining of Inconel alloys using LBW are available [14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27]. An analysis was made by Gobbi et al. [14] to compare the Nd-YAG laser with the CO2 laser on the depth-to-width ratio of bead geometry of LBW of Inconel alloy 718. The highest values of depth-to-width ratio are achieved while using a CO2 laser. A uniform weld bead profile is achieved using the Nd-YAG laser. Odabaşı et al. [15] joined Inconel 718 using LBW and observed a fine dendritic structure in the weld zone owing to low heat inputs. Osoba et al. [16] studied LBW Haynes 282 alloys and identified carbides in the weld zone (WZ). Pang et al. [17] observed a non-uniform microstructure with austenite dendrites inside the weld zone of LBW of K418. Ren et al. [18] welded Inconel 617 alloy using LBW and found higher hardness with lower heat input.

Arivarasu et al. [19] observed that tensile failure takes place in the base metal (BM) of LBW of Inconel 825 alloy due to the presence of equiaxed grain structure and the absence of laves phases in the weld zone. Hong et al. [20] investigated the LBW of Inconel 718 alloys and reported that the presence of laves phases in the weld zone reduced the ductility remarkably. The Nd:YAG LBW process parameter was optimized by Jelokhani-Niaraki et al. [21], and they identified that laser power is one of the significant process parameters for deciding the weld strength. Caiazzo et al. [22] observed smaller grain sizes in the weld zone with lower heat input, which increases the mechanical properties. There are no studies reported on the welding of Incoloy alloy 800 with different laser powers and their effects on the properties of the joints. In this work, joining of Incoloy alloy 800 using Nd:YAG laser with different laser power variations was performed, and mechanical and microstructure properties of the joints produced with different laser powers were studied and presented in detail.

2 Experimental procedure

In this work, Incoloy alloy 800 with dimensions of 100 mm × 50 mm × 4 mm was used as BM. The chemical composition of Incoloy alloy 800 (in wt.%) is 31% Ni, 20% Cr, 0.6% Mn, 0.52% Si, 0.29% Ti, 0.15% Al, and a few more components of C, Mo, Ta, P, S, Fe. A RofinSinar DY 044 series Nd:YAG laser with 4.4 kW was used for welding. The plate to be welded was fixed very rigidly to avoid misalignment during welding. Oxidation was controlled using argon gas as the shielding with a flow rate of 15lpm. The specimen was cleaned using acetone before welding to avoid the presence of other elements in the molten pool. Welding was performed using KUKA CNC welding software. Different laser powers of 2, 2.5, and 3 kW were used with a constant welding speed of 2 m·min−1 and a spot size of 300 µm. Samples were prepared perpendicularly to the weld bead geometry to investigate the joint properties. Marble’s reagent was used as an etchant after polishing samples as per the standard metallographic technique. An optical microscope and a Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (FESEM) were used to analyze the microstructure of the welded joints. The macrostructure of the joints was analyzed using a stereo microscope. Advanced microstructure analyses were conducted using electron back-scattered diffraction (EBSD) to determine the grain formation in the WZ, HAZ, and BM. Microhardness measurements were performed in the perpendicular direction of the cross-section of the weld joints. A load of 500 g was applied for 15 s to make each indentation. The ASTM standard technique was used to prepare the tensile specimen, and a computerized tensile testing machine was used to analyze the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of the joints. The fracture mode of the tensile failed specimen was analyzed by FESEM.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Macrostructure

The weld geometry of LBW of Incoloy alloy 800 is represented by a macrograph, as shown in Figure 1. Weld joints are completely fused with full penetration, which indicates that the joints are successfully welded for the laser power. The WZ has no cuts or underfills and unnecessary convexity. No significant molten metal outflow is seen at the welded joint [19]. No cold and hot crackings are formed because of the absence of segregation of alloying elements. WZ displays no pores, which are formed due to the entrapment of gas. The weld geometry has the shape of an hourglass because of the characteristics of keyhole welding. The difference in weld geometry of the WZ for various laser powers is illustrated in Figure 2(a), which indicates that each laser power has a significant impact on the weld geometry. A larger weld width was observed at the top of the plate due to the high amount of heat transfer taking place at the top of the plate compared to the bottom of the plate. High laser power produced a larger width compared to lower laser power due to higher heat input. The formation of HAZ is less at low laser power, which is beneficial to the weld strength. The aspect ratio for different laser powers is shown in Figure 2(b), which indicates that an increase in laser power increases the aspect ratio.

Figure 1 Macrostructure of LBW of Incoloy alloy 800 at laser powers of (a) 2 kW, (b) 2.5 kW, and (c) 3 kW.
Figure 1

Macrostructure of LBW of Incoloy alloy 800 at laser powers of (a) 2 kW, (b) 2.5 kW, and (c) 3 kW.

Figure 2 Aspect ratio and width variation of LBW of Incoloy alloy 800 at different laser powers.
Figure 2

Aspect ratio and width variation of LBW of Incoloy alloy 800 at different laser powers.

3.2 Microstructures

EBSD images of the LBW of Incoloy alloy 800 with laser power of 2 kW are shown in Figure 3. Different zones, such as BM, HAZ, and WZ, are observed clearly with various sizes of grains. The grain boundaries decide the various zones of the joints. The structure of the BM is changed in HAZ and WZ owing to the heat produced by the laser from the focus point of the laser to the BM. Significant changes in the microstructure around the joint are formed due to the cooling process, followed by the heating process. Complete melting takes place, and remarkable changes are accrued in the WZ because of the cooling process followed by solidification. Conversely, the changes in the grain size accrued with HAZ without melting. The optical microstructure of WZ for different laser powers is shown in Figure 4. The WZ microstructure has remarkable changes during welding when compared to BM. This zone formed directly from the bottom of the focus point of the laser beam and was fully melted during the welding. Cooling and solidification occurred once the laser head moved away from the focus point of the laser. In the weld zone, austenite grains formed and grew perpendicular to the weld line. The thermal cycle affects the HAZ. Smaller changes in the grain size of HAZ are accrued when compared to BM. The weld zone has a complete austenite microstructure (Figure 4(a)–(f)). Common fusion welding defects, such as microfissuring and liquation cracking, were not formed. The columnar grain structure was distinctly developed in the WZ. This developed structure was perpendicular to the WZ and had a distinctive narrow columnar shape at the border of the WZ, which grew more as it got closer to the center of the weld. This is primarily caused by the heat transfer from the weld pool to the BM and the tendency of grains with columnar structures formed with nickel-based alloys [19,23]. No solidification cracks and laves phases are formed in the WZ at a lower laser power, which is attributed to the fine-grain formation with equiaxed structure. The microstructure of the WZ showed no detrimental precipitation, which causes the formation of grain boundaries owing to the solidification of the weldment. The sweeping process, which promotes atomic movement further into WZ, is eliminated by this scenario. The metallurgical properties of the WZ are then improved as a result [24]. The initial shape and microstructural development are enhanced by the influence of the laser power [23]. The grains of the WZ developed in a perpendicular direction at the beginning of the solidification process, and this grain development is called epitaxial growth. This process removed the negative impact on microstructural properties formed by the addition of the filler material in the conventional fusion welding technique. The development of epitaxial growth increased the weld strength and ductility of the weldment.

Figure 3 EBSD images of LBW of Incoloy alloy 800.
Figure 3

EBSD images of LBW of Incoloy alloy 800.

Figure 4 Microstructure of LBW of WZ at different laser powers: (a) and (b) 2 kW, (c) and (d) 2.5 kW, and (e) and (f) 3 kW.
Figure 4

Microstructure of LBW of WZ at different laser powers: (a) and (b) 2 kW, (c) and (d) 2.5 kW, and (e) and (f) 3 kW.

The SEM images of the WZ of LBW of Incoloy alloy for various laser powers are illustrated in Figure 5. Intermetallic phases with a hemispheric sealed packed structure are known as laves phases. The presence of laves phases is in the WZ when the laser power is increased (2.5 and 3 kW), which results in more heat inputs. The presence of these laves has negative impacts on the weld strength as it has a brittle structure by nature. Mo has the ability for segregation during solidification owing to its lower solubility with the γ-matrix, which promotes Laves formation in interdendritic regions. Further, Ti tends to stabilize with these phases by combining into their structure [4,5,28,29]. These laves also affect the chemical stability of the joints by absorbing solute atoms, including Ti, Mo, and Si, and then releasing from their environments. The absorption of solute atoms is the major reason for hardening the elements in the superalloys; therefore, the presence of a significant amount of laves can cause the joints to weaken easily. Generally, segregation of elements takes place during lave formation at the time of solidification. Controlling the elemental segregation can reduce the laves phase formation. At a lower laser power of 2 kW, the formation of laves did not occur due to the absence of elemental segregation with a lower heat input. WZ formed at a lower laser power (2 kW) was analyzed using an EPMA map, as shown in Figure 6. This map shows the distribution of each element in the WZ with different color compositions. This mapping indicates that homogeneous distribution takes place and no significant amount of elemental segregation takes place. Thus, no laves phase formed at lower laser power due to the lower amount of heat input.

Figure 5 SEM images of the WZ of LBW of Incoloy alloy 800 at laser powers of (a) 2 kW, (b) 2.5 kW, and (c) 3 kW.
Figure 5

SEM images of the WZ of LBW of Incoloy alloy 800 at laser powers of (a) 2 kW, (b) 2.5 kW, and (c) 3 kW.

Figure 6 EPMA mapping of the WZ of LBW of Incoloy alloy 800 at a laser power of 2 kW.
Figure 6

EPMA mapping of the WZ of LBW of Incoloy alloy 800 at a laser power of 2 kW.

Figure 7 shows the TEM images of LBW of Incoloy alloy 800 at a laser power of 3 kW. The formation of laves takes place at the grain boundaries, as shown in Figure 7, as a result of the high heat input developed at high laser power. The micrograph has several sub-grain boundaries with a multifaceted dislocation. Substantial dislocation concentrations are frequently present at sub-grain boundaries. Thermal stress formed by the solidification process caused the formation of dislocations. In the WZ, melting takes place between the BM boundaries that serve as mold walls. Consequently, the movement of the molten pool is restricted at the time of solidification and subsequent cooling of the joint. It is constrained in its capacity to grow and/or shrink effectively. Formation of thermal stress usually takes place in laser welding due to the high cooling rate. Thermal stress-induced subsequent deformation leads to the formation of dislocations. Thus, a dislocation-filled field is correlated to the enhancement of the WZ.

Figure 7 TEM images of the WZ at a laser power of 3 kW: (a) dislocations and (b) laves.
Figure 7

TEM images of the WZ at a laser power of 3 kW: (a) dislocations and (b) laves.

3.3 Mechanical properties

The microhardness of the BM, HAZ, and WZ of the LBW of Incoloy alloy 800 is presented in Figure 8. Higher hardness is observed in the WZ compared to HAZ and BM for all laser powers. When compared to BM and HAZ, the WZ has higher hardness for all the laser powers. A nearly symmetrical hardness profile is observed on both sides of the WZ. The HAZ does not show significant weakening caused by phase changes. However, remarkable strengthening accrued in the WZ. Changes in the grain size, occurrence of substructures, changes in the phase, residual strain field, and existence of solute elements are the major factors for strengthening the WZ [25]. A finer grain size will produce higher hardness as per the Hall–Petch relationship. Nevertheless, a larger grain size is observed in the WZ. Therefore, an explanation cannot be made between grain size and hardness. According to the Hall–Petch relationship, coarser grains reduce hardness; however, this concept has been superseded by other strengthening mechanisms. Residual stress and thermal gradients during welding lead to notably high dislocation density and the formation of hard intermetallic phases called laves. These Laves phases, which typically nucleate along interdendritic and grain boundaries, create substantial barriers to dislocation motion. Consequently, the higher dislocation density and dispersion of Laves phases may result in higher hardness in the WZ despite the coarser grains. As per the EMPA, there is no indication of the presence of microalloying in WZ, which might have had an unfavorable impact on the strengthening of the solid solution. At high laser power, laves phases are present in the WZ, which weaken the mechanical properties [26,27]. The dislocation due to induced strain improved the strength of the WZ. Dendritic microstructures are present with fine equiaxed grains in the WZ, as shown in Figure 4(a)–(f). At high laser power, hardness is decreased due to a less fine dendritic structure in the WZ compared to lower laser power.

Figure 8 Microhardness analysis of the weld at different laser powers.
Figure 8

Microhardness analysis of the weld at different laser powers.

The UTS of BM reached up to 600 MPa during the tensile test measurements. It fluctuates between 599 MPa at 2 kW and 395 MPa at 3 kW, demonstrating a significant loss in UTS at the higher laser power, as shown in Figure 9. The achieved joint efficiency of the LBW of Incoloy alloy 800 is 99% at a lower laser power of 2 kW. Significant weakness occurs in the WZ at high laser power due to the laves formation. These laves phases have a negative impact on fatigue life, ductility, creep rupture, and fracture toughness of the weld joints [7,8,9]. The fracture surface was flat and rough. No laves were observed at lower power, as shown in Figure 10a. Ductile failure occurs at a lower laser power (2 kW) due to increased absence of dimples in the laves phase. The presence of the laves phase is shown in Figure 10(b) and (c) with increasing laser power (2.5 and 3 kW), which caused the brittle failure. Fracture strength of the weld joint is reduced significantly because of the laves formation. The absence of laves phases and pores in the WZ is the major reason for achieving higher UTS at a lower laser power. Very fine, ductile dimples with proper structure formation are seen at a lower laser power. Smaller grain size with BM is the major reason for this observation. During the tensile test, the breakdown of this smaller grain requires more energy, which causes failure in the ductile mode. When increasing the laser power, the grain size of the WZ becomes larger and the formation of laves accrued, which results in a fracture mode from ductile to brittle.

Figure 9 Effect of laser power on UTS of LBW of Incoloy alloy 800.
Figure 9

Effect of laser power on UTS of LBW of Incoloy alloy 800.

Figure 10 Fracture analysis of a tensile tested specimen at different laser powers: (a) 2 kW, (b) 2.5 kW, and (c) 3 kW.
Figure 10

Fracture analysis of a tensile tested specimen at different laser powers: (a) 2 kW, (b) 2.5 kW, and (c) 3 kW.

4 Conclusions

The LBW technique was applied to join Incoloy alloy 800. Joint properties of the weld were studied with microstructures and mechanical testing. The following conclusions were made from this work.

  • Columnar dendritic grain structure was developed in the WZ with a direction perpendicular to the laser beam focus point.

  • Finer-grain structure was observed in the WZ at a lower laser power owing to a low heat input and a high cooling rate.

  • The development of the laves phases was observed with high laser power affecting the properties of the joints.

  • Higher hardness was noticed at high laser power due to the formation of laves.

  • Increasing laser power reduced the UTS, and the joint efficiency was 99% at a lower laser power of 2 kW.

Acknowledgments

The author would like to thank the reviewers of the manuscript for their valuable comments, which helped in improving the manuscript.

  1. Funding information: The author states no funding is involved.

  2. Author contribution: The author has accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and consented to its submission to the journal, reviewed all the results, and approved the final version of the manuscript.

  3. Conflict of interest: The author states no conflicts of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: The raw/processed data required to reproduce these findings cannot be shared at this time due to restrictions on data sharing.

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Received: 2025-02-14
Revised: 2025-05-03
Accepted: 2025-06-07
Published Online: 2025-07-17

© 2025 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/htmp-2025-0084
Keywords for this article
superalloy; laser beam welding; microstructure; mechanical properties
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

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  14. Aspects of thermal radiation for the second law analysis of magnetized Darcy–Forchheimer movement of Maxwell nanomaterials with Arrhenius energy effects
  15. Use of artificial neural network for optimization of irreversibility analysis in radiative Cross nanofluid flow past an inclined surface with convective boundary conditions
  16. The interface structure and mechanical properties of Ti/Al dissimilar metals friction stir lap welding
  17. Significance of micropores for the removal of hydrogen sulfide from oxygen-free gas streams by activated carbon
  18. Experimental and mechanistic studies of gradient pore polymer electrolyte fuel cells
  19. Microstructure and high-temperature oxidation behaviour of AISI 304L stainless steel welds produced by gas tungsten arc welding using the Ar–N2–H2 shielding gas
  20. Mathematical investigation of Fe3O4–Cu/blood hybrid nanofluid flow in stenotic arteries with magnetic and thermal interactions: Duality and stability analysis
  21. Topical Issue on Conference on Materials, Manufacturing Processes and Devices - Part II
  22. Effects of heat treatment on microstructure and properties of CrVNiAlCu high-entropy alloy
  23. Enhanced bioactivity and degradation behavior of zinc via micro-arc anodization for biomedical applications
  24. Study on the parameters optimization and the microstructure of spot welding joints of 304 stainless steel
  25. Research on rotating magnetic field–assisted HRFSW 6061-T6 thin plate
  26. Special Issue on A Deep Dive into Machining and Welding Advancements - Part II
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  28. Special Issue on Polymer and Composite Materials and Graphene and Novel Nanomaterials - Part II
  29. Low-temperature corrosion performance of laser cladded WB-Co coatings in acidic environment
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  31. Effect of thermal effect on lattice transformation and physical properties of white marble
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