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Research on aging behavior and safe storage life prediction of modified double base propellant

  • Yan Gu EMAIL logo , Silong Yu , Qiong Wang , Jiaojiao Du and Fangfang Wang
Published/Copyright: December 5, 2022
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High Temperature Materials and Processes
From the journal High Temperature Materials and Processes Volume 41 Issue 1

Abstract

In order to study the long-time safe storage performance of GaTo modified double base propellant, the accelerated aging tests at 65, 70, 75, and 85°C were conducted. The chemical stabilities, mechanical properties, and microstructure of the propellant samples were characterized by differential scanning calorimeter, bromize-titration, impact resistance testing, and field emission scanning electron microscopy in the aging duration. The results showed that the chemical stability of propellant became worse due to nitrate esters decomposition. The impact resistance degradation is the result of binder network collapse, phase separation between binder and plasticizer, and interfacial dewetting during aging. Hence, the storage life of the propellant at ambient temperature has been evaluated based on stabilizer depletion and impact resistance deterioration via Arrhenius approach

Keywords: propellant; safe storage performance; thermal aging; life prediction

1 Introduction

Modified double base propellants, which are principally based on nitroglycerin (NG) and nitrocellulose (NC), are largely used in a wide range of applications because of their smokeless, low signature, simplicity, reliability, high thrust, and adaptable properties in burning rate. However, nitrate esters always decompose starting with the hemolytic breakdown of the O–NO2 bond. Even at normal storage conditions, these nitrate esters undergo an intrinsic chemical decomposition possibly leading to runaway autocatalytic reactions, which will cause mechanical, chemical, and ballistic properties degradation, even serious safety accidents [1,2]. Therefore, efficient stabilizers were added in order to absorb the decomposition products and to inhibit this catalytic reaction, so the early decomposition or even explosion during storage will be avoided. There are already several reports on the investigation of the stabilizer depletion and several milestones have been achieved in this field [3,4,5,6].

Till date several new techniques and methodologies have been used to accurately assess the chemical stability and life time prediction of solid propellants. For example, Chelouche et al. [7,8,9] reported a series of Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy measurements carried out on double base rocket propellants with different natural aging times, and demonstrated that the homolytic scission of the O–NO2 bond and the hydrocarbon chains of the nitrate esters are the main processes that occurred when nitrate esters decompose. A new methodology has been established for the prediction of real and equivalent in-service-time by coupling vacuum stability test (VST) and principal component analysis, and kinetic modeling is carried out on VST data by model-free to estimate the activation energies for all samples.

The mechanical properties of solid propellants are also crucial for storage safety and usage safety of weapon systems. Post-curing, oxidative crosslinking and degradation of the adhesive system will cause the decrease in mechanical properties of the propellant, and generally result in a loss of the grain structural integrity. The increasing interest in structural integrity issues has paid more attention to the mechanical failure of solid propellants recently. Zhou et al. [10] investigated the effect of pre-strain aging on the micro damage properties of HTPB propellant during aging, and found that the bonding performance between HTPB propellant matrix and solid filler was mainly affected by aging temperature. Pan and Liu [11] investigated the correlation between chemical stability and binder network structure of NEPE propellant during aging storage, and provided a way of storage life modeling analysis based only on the parameter of tensile strength of NEPE propellant. Kumar et al. [12] predicted the shelf life of a heterogeneous solid propellant based on the classical Arrhenius equation using zero-order kinetics of degradation based on the percentage elongation of propellant reduced to 30%.

GaTo propellant is a new generation of modified double base propellant independently developed by China, with the formula based on NG and NC, ammonium percolates (AP) as oxidant and aluminum (Al) powder as combustion agent. The propellant has the advantages of wide adjustable range of phlogiston, good performance reproducibility and high instantaneous thrust in the process of service, and are widely used in multiple types of shoulder mounted individual rocket in recent years. Therefore, the following storage safety difficulties need to be solved urgently. The double base of NG and NC are easily decomposed in an autocatalytic way even under ambient conditions. With the accumulation of nitrogen oxides, the chemical stabilities and ballistic properties of GaTo propellants are seriously impaired. In addition, the mechanical behavior of GaTo propellants strongly depends on its microstructure, such as the binder matrix and interfacial bonding properties. GaTo propellants are usually manufactured into thin-walled hollow tubular structures, and equipped in the form of brush charge, which means that they are likely forced to strike the projectile base or wall and collide with each other during launch, transportation, and storage. These load and application conditions can result in interfacial dewetting between AP particles and the NC binder matrix which will cause the reduction in mechanical properties of GaTo propellant, and generally result in sudden surge of structure destruction. To study its aging problem, the correlation between chemical stability and mechanical aging must be considered.

In this study, in order to investigate the aging behavior of GaTo propellant during storage, the accelerated aging test was carried out, then stabilizer depletion and impact resistance have been measured in the aging duration. At the same time, the mechanism of chemical and mechanical performance degradation has been investigated via thermal decomposition behavior, degeneration of change in the cross-linked network, and the change in micro-phase structure. The safe storage life of GaTo propellants was predicted based on the degradation of stabilizer content and mechanical properties via Arrhenius equation. The research work is of great significance to the long-term storage safety evaluation, anti-aging measurement, and formulation optimization of GaTo propellant.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Propellant manufacturing

The GaTo propellants were prepared by solvent extrusion process with the main components being NG, NC, AP, Al, compound stabilizer of Res (resorcinol), and C2 (1,3-dimethyl-1,3-diphenyl urea) and other functional additives. The propellant samples are hollow tubes with a length of 109 mm and average external longitude of 7 mm encapsulated in special capillary tubes.

2.2 Accelerated aging test

The aging experiments were carried out at air-circulating ovens (accurate to ±1°C). The round GaTo propellant samples were aged at elevated temperatures and then removed according to the scheduled times of the test matrix shown in Table 1. In order to avoid the explosion accidents, the aging test should be terminated when the residual stabilizer is less than 50%.

Table 1

Accelerated aging schedule

T (°C) Aging time (days)
85 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5
75 2, 5, 8, 15, 18, and 22
70 4, 8, 14, 21, 28, and 38
65 8, 20, 30, 40, 60, and 70

The samples before and after aging were selected to carry out the following tests, as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 The experimental scheme of GaTo accelerated aging test.
Figure 1

The experimental scheme of GaTo accelerated aging test.

2.2.1 Determination of stabilizer

The content of effective stabilizer was tracked by bromize-titration in the aging duration according to GJB 770B-2005 [13]. The result of bromize-titration test is the effective stabilizer content converted according to C2. The result is the average of two measurements.

2.2.2 Impact test

The impact resistance was tested at 20 ± 2°C by Charpy impact tester according to GJB 770B-2005 [13]. The hollow tubular GaTo propellants with an outer diameter of 7 mm and an arc thickness of 1.2 mm were shaped into a 60 mm samples to be tested. The final absorbed energy of each specimen was the average of four samples.

In order to analyze the mechanism of aging behavior, GaTo propellant samples aging at 75°C were selected to carry out the following tests:

2.2.3 Thermal measurements

The differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) curves were obtained using a Mettler Toledo DSC model DSC1, at temperature range of 100–400°C. Samples were scanned at 10°C·min−1 under dry nitrogen atmosphere (20 mL·min−1). The weight of the samples was about 5 mg and sealed in alumina pan.

2.2.4 Cross-linking density

Cross-linking densities in aging process was characterized at 60°C by NIUMAG MicroMR-CL magnetic resonance cross-linking instrument.

2.2.5 Determination of NG Content

The retention time of NG is confirmed to detect their standard substances premixed according to a suitable ratio by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). GaTo propellant samples of different aging time weighing 0.4 g were put into 60 mL conical flasks, and soaked in chromatographic acetone/H2O mixture for 10 h. Afterwards the soaking liquid was detected by HPLC. The relative content of NG is obtained by calculating the ratio of peak area.

2.2.6 Micromorphology Characterization

Micromorphology of propellant samples before and after aging was characterized by QUANTA 600 FEG type field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM). Vacuum level was 10−3 Pa and working distance was 10 mm. Slices of propellant samples were cut after the impact tests to visually investigate the absence or presence of dewetting phenomena.

2.3 Safe storage life prediction

The values of safe storage performance deterioration thus obtained for different accelerated aging temperatures can be used to define the effect of temperature on the degradation rate or to predict the storage life. Arrhenius approach has been extensively used to analyze high-temperature accelerated aging propellants and then to extrapolate these results to make long-term predictions at lower temperature [14], typically at the storage temperature. The Arrhenius equation is given in equation (1):

(1) k = A exp ( − E a / R T ) ,

which can be rearranged to:

(2) ln k = ln A − ( E a / R T ) × 1 / T ,

where k is the reaction rate constant, E a is the activation energy (kJ·mol−1), R is the universal gas constant (J·mol−1·K−1), and T is the absolute temperature (K). Using activation energy (E a), storage, and aging temperatures, the shelf life of propellant is estimated as follows:

(3) t E / t T = k T / k E = exp [ ( E α / RT ) ( 1 / T E − 1 / T T ) ] ,

where t E and t T are shelf life at storage temperature and test time at accelerated aging temperature, T E and T T are storage and aging temperatures, respectively.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Aging behavior of chemical stability (nitrate ester decomposition)

In the aging duration, nitrous oxides (NO x ) are produced continuously due to the decomposition of NG/NC in GaTo, which can affect the performance and long-term stability of such propellants. The stabilizer in GaTo propellants could absorb the NO x to prevent the autocatalytic accelerated decomposition, so the chemical stability of GaTo could be determined by the residual effective stabilizer content after aging [5]. The course of the stabilizer content during the aging of the GaTo propellants is presented in Figure 2.

Figure 2 Stabilizer depletion of GaTo propellants with error bars at 85, 75, 70, and 65°C.
Figure 2

Stabilizer depletion of GaTo propellants with error bars at 85, 75, 70, and 65°C.

The trend line of stabilizer depletion has been fitted via OriginLab, and the fitting equations are shown in Table 2. As can be seen from Figure 2 and Table 2, the curves of stabilizer consumption at 85, 75, 70, and 65°C trended to be linear, so the stabilizer depletion rate is constant and independent of reactant concentration, which means stabilizer consumption is conformity with the zero order reaction [15].

Table 2

Fitting equation of stabilizer depletion

T (°C) Fitting equation R 2 ln k
85 ω = 5.6 – 0.543t 0.9841 −2.1628
75 ω = 5.6 – 0.151t 0.9818 −3.6119
70 ω = 5.6 – 0.092t 0.9178 −4.1352
65 ω = 5.6 – 0.044t 0.9943 −4.8283

Based on the data in Table 2, the reaction rate constant and aging temperature are established (Figure 3). Where X axis is the 1/T (aging temperature) and Y axis is ln k. Figure 3 figures out that the 1/T and ln k have a linear relationship.

Figure 3 ln k as function of 1/T.
Figure 3

ln k as function of 1/T.

The kinetic equation of stabilizer depletion was calculated by 1/T and ln k via Arrhenius method:

(4) ln k = 44.59 − 16139 / T , R 2 = 0.9974 .

In order to investigate the chemical stabilities of GaTo propellants during aging, GaTo propellants before and after aging at 75°C for 22 days were investigated by DSC experiments and the curves are shown in Figure 4, respectively. Generally, there were two characteristic endothermic peaks in the thermal decomposition process of GaTo. The exothermic peak in the temperature of 200–210°C reveals decomposition of NG/NC components (T p-NG-NC) [16], and the exothermic peak of about 315°C exhibits the solid-vapor reactions in the lower temperature thermal decomposition stage of AP (T p-AP). Meanwhile, there is a small exothermic peak at about 245°C representing the crystal transition of AP (T r-AP) [17]. After aging test, T p-NG-NC shifted to the high-temperature side and the exothermic enthalpy became larger, indicating that the rate of the thermal decomposition of NG/NC in aged GaTo propellants increased at higher heating rates.

Figure 4 DSC curves of GaTo before and after aging at 75°C for 22 days at the heating rate of 10°C·min−1.
Figure 4

DSC curves of GaTo before and after aging at 75°C for 22 days at the heating rate of 10°C·min−1.

Besides, there was no obvious difference in the shape of T p-AP before and after aging tests. Theoretically, AP may decompose slightly to generate ClO 4 − and HClO 4 + in the aging duration, and act upon the carbon skeleton of NG/NC components to promote the accelerated decomposition. While the addition of CdO in the formula can effectively delay the low temperature thermal decomposition of AP with oxygen vacant Cd atoms resulting in the formation of active oxygen, possibly in the form of peroxide or superoxide [18]. Therefore, decomposition of NG/NC is dominant in the aging process of GaTo propellants.

The thermal decomposition of NG/NC in GaTo propellant can be divided into two stages. The first stage is the endothermic decomposition reaction of NC and NG, which is the rupture of the O–NO2 bond, with the formulas as follows [3,4,5,6]:

[ C 6 H 7 O 2 ( ONO 2 ) 3 ] n → C 6 H 7 O 2 ( ONO 2 ) 3 … − q 1 ,

C 6 H 7 O 2 ( ONO 2 ) 3 → RCHO + H 2 O + NO 2 … − q 2 ,

C 3 H 5 ( ONO 2 ) 3 → RCHO + NO 2 … − q 3 .

The second stage is the autocatalytic reaction between the decomposition product NO2 and other decomposition products, with the formulas as follows:

RCHO + NO 2 → H 2 O + NO + N 2 + CO + … Q 1 ,

NO 2 + NC / NG → NO +  NO 2 + RCHO + H 2 O + … Q 2 .

As a result, the decomposition goes faster and faster since the amount of NO x doubles and accumulates with the deep decomposition of nitrate esters. When NO x increases and accumulates too much, NG/NC will decompose in a rapid self-accelerating way until it explodes.

The decomposition reaction could be controlled when stabilizers are included in the propellant, which can quickly absorb the nitrogen oxide produced by the thermal decomposition of nitrate ester and effectively prevent the thermal acceleration reaction [19]. The values of activation barriers between the stabilizers and NO2 are lower or much lower than those of reactions between nitrate esters and NO2, which is depicted in Figure 5.

Figure 5 The aging decomposition of NG-NC in GaTo propellants.
Figure 5

The aging decomposition of NG-NC in GaTo propellants.

The degradation criterion has been defined as a reduction in effective stabilizer concentration to less than 50 wt% according to GJB/770B-2005. In this work, stabilizer was not completely consumed during aging, which indicated that residual stabilizer still could delay the autocatalytic decomposition of NG/NC. NO x neutralized by stabilizer mainly occurs on the surface of GaTo propellant, and the reaction rate was decided by the concentration of stabilizer on the surface. At the same time, stabilizer diffused from the interior to the surface of GaTo propellant until the consumption and diffusion reached a state of equilibrium, which means the consumption rate is equal to the diffusion rate, hence the MNA content declined linearly and rapidly during aging.

3.2 Aging behavior of mechanical properties

GaTo propellants are usually equipped on individual rockets in the form of brush charge. Under the impact of burning gas, propellants are forced to strike the projectile base or wall and collide with each other. If the mechanical properties decrease to a critical point after long-term storage, sudden surge of combustion is inevitable. The impact tests have been carried out and the changes in impact resistance of GaTo at different aging temperatures are shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6 Changes in impact resistance of GaTo with error bars at 85, 75, 70, and 65°C.
Figure 6

Changes in impact resistance of GaTo with error bars at 85, 75, 70, and 65°C.

As can be seen from Figure 6, impact resistance data decline linearly, and the rate of decline is temperature dependent. The trend line of impact resistance degradation has been fitted by OriginLab, and the results are shown in Table 3.

Table 3

Fitting equation of impact resistance degradation

T (°C) Fitting equation R 2 ln k
85 Re = e −0.152t 0.9215 −1.8839
75 Re = e −0.039t 0.9358 −3.2188
70 Re = e −0.024t 0.8991 −3.7297
65 Re = e −0.011t 0.8515 −4.5098

Based on the data in Table 3, the reaction rate constant and aging temperature are established (Figure 7), where X axis is the 1/T (aging temperature) and Y axis is ln k. Figure 7 figures out that the 1/T and ln k have a linear relationship.

Figure 7 ln k as function of 1/T.
Figure 7

ln k as function of 1/T.

The kinetic equation of impact resistance deterioration was calculated by 1/T and ln k via Arrhenius method:

(5) ln k = 40.45 − 15 , 389 / T , R 2 = 0.9961 .

The microstructure of a typical solid propellant material consists of polymeric binder (e.g., NC), plasticizer (e.g., NC), oxidizer (e.g., AP), and some other additives. From the mechanical behavior perspective, each of these phases exhibits a complex constitutive response that varies with temperature and load.

The binder network structure of propellants is closely related to its mechanical properties. Figure 8 shows the change behavior of cross-linking density with aging time at 75°C. The values of cross-linking density increased slightly in the early stage of aging, then declined wavelike, and decreased obviously at the later period of aging, which indicated that the post-curing reaction and the decomposition of NC binder network existed together in the aging duration. The post-curing reaction was the main reaction at the beginning of thermal aging due to the re-arrangement of the NC molecular chain. As the thermal aging continues, the NO x accumulation will accelerate the NC molecular chains degradation, not only thermal degradation but also oxidative degradation. Meanwhile, with residual solvent consumed, the post-curing reaction rate decreased and NC polymer molecular chains collapsed gradually.

Figure 8 Change behavior of cross-linking density of GaTo at 75°C.
Figure 8

Change behavior of cross-linking density of GaTo at 75°C.

The structure of NC is rigid liner molecules and connected with each other loosely. NG has a plasticization effect on NC so as to make NG molecular chains more flexible, thus enhancing the mechanical strength of GaTo propellants. Figure 9 shows the relationship between NG consumption and impact resistance degradation during 75°C aging.

Figure 9 NG contents vs impact resistance of GaTo under aging at 75°C.
Figure 9

NG contents vs impact resistance of GaTo under aging at 75°C.

As shown in Figure 9, impact resistance degradation has good liner relationship with NG depletion, with the equation as follows:

(6) y = 15.26 x − 339.9 , R 2 = 0.952 .

During the storage aging process, decomposition and migration of NG from the NC polymer bulk lead to the decrease in free volume of NC with the reduction in distance between NC macromolecules [20,21]. The shortening of NG plasticizer would also increase the interactions between segments of the NC polymer and decrease the plasticization between NC and NG, which has been found to result in the propellants being more brittle and easier to fracture [22].

In the aging duration, a few translucent white crystalline flakes were observed on the surface of the GaTo propellants, in the FESEM image as shown in Figure 10a. EDS pattern (Figure 10b) shows that the crystalline flake is AP, which indicated that the moisture in the atmosphere diffused into the interior of GaTo propellants, causing a few AP dissolution and recrystallization on the surface.

Figure 10 FESEM image (a) and EDS pattern (b) of crystalline flakes on the surface of GaTo aged at 75°C for 22 days.
Figure 10

FESEM image (a) and EDS pattern (b) of crystalline flakes on the surface of GaTo aged at 75°C for 22 days.

The mechanical failure properties of solid propellants are also determined by the bond of the particle/matrix interfaces. The fracture morphology of broken surface, obtained after the impact test of GaTo samples, has been characterized by FESEM, as shown in Figure 11.

Figure 11 FESEM images of GaTo impact fracture section before (a) and after (b) aging at 75°C for 22 days.
Figure 11

FESEM images of GaTo impact fracture section before (a) and after (b) aging at 75°C for 22 days.

Figure 11(a) represents the morphology of unaged GaTo impact fracture. The AP particles are distributed in NC frameworks uniformly, and there is no obvious dewetting phenomenon (a process of large oxidizer particles debonding from the binder matrix). Figure 11(b) represents the morphology of GaTo impact fracture aged at 75°C for 22 days. There are voids and holes between the AP crystal particles and binder frames, which were probably caused by the AP crystal particles debonded from the binder matrix during the fracture process of impact test. It is obvious that the interfacial bonding performance of GaTo propellant degraded after aging. According to the theory of particle reinforced composites [23], in the aging process, AP particles became larger and more irregular, resulting in poor distribution uniformity in GaTo propellants, which reduce the adhesion of the AP particle surface to the NC binder matrix. Once AP particles debonded from NC polymer bulk, the binder could no longer withstand the impact force and GaTo propellants ruptured finally. In addition, the linear expansion coefficient of AP is far less than that of the binder matrix, and gas produced by NC/NG thermal decomposition may promote the interface dewetting between AP and NC matrix, further resulting in deterioration of mechanical performance.

Based on the analysis above, there are three key factors that affect the mechanical aging behavior of GaTo propellants: First, migration and decomposition of plasticizer lead to the decrease in mobility of polymer bulk, and then the GaTo propellants are easier to fracture. Second, NC polymer chains collapsed gradually in a thermal oxidative way during aging. Additionally, dewetting in AP particles/NC binder matrix resulted in the degradation of macro-mechanical properties. The factors above are closely connected with the decline of the mechanical properties.

3.3 Long-time safe storage life prediction

Based on the mechanism of aging behavior, the decline in both chemical stability and mechanical properties existed simultaneously during the thermal aging. NO x produced by nitrate esters decomposition not only lead to the stabilizer consumption but also to microstructure collapse and therefore, plasticization of NC/NG weakens.

Generally, a propellant is assumed to be safe when it meets the criteria, such as national military standard of China or the product finalization document. In this work, there are two types of indexes that are involved in the failure criterion of GaTo propellants: change in the properties and mechanical properties and loss of the stabilizer, which has been given in Table 4.

Table 4

Safe storage life criteria of GaTo propellants

Safe storage life criteria Documents
50% decreased in effective stabilizer content GJB/770B-2005
20% decreased in impact resistance The product finalization document from manufacturer

Based on the kinetic equation of equations (5) and (6) and the failure criterions in Table 4, the safe storage life of the GaTo at 25°C can be estimated, and the results are listed in the Table 5.

Table 5

Safe storage life predicted via Arrhenius approaches at 25°C

Safe storage life criterion Life assessment model R 2 τ 25/year
50% decreased in effective stabilizer content ln k = 44.59 – 16,139/T 0.9961 39.7
20% decreased in impact resistance ln k = 40.45 – 15,389/T 0.9974 11.7

The results showed that τ 25 (the safe storage life at 25°C) based on stabilizer depletion and impact resistance remains 39.7 years and 11.7 years, respectively. Considering the safety and reliability aspect, the lower shelf life is recommended.

4 Conclusion

The storage behavior of GaTo propellant has been analyzed during the accelerated aging progress. The change in chemical stability and mechanical properties were tested in the aging duration. According to the experimental data analysis, a few conclusions can be drawn as follows:

  1. The chemical stability of GaTo propellants decreased during accelerated aging due to the NG/NC thermal decomposition, which leads to stabilizer consumption in the 0th-order reaction way.

  2. The mechanical properties of GaTo propellants decreased during aging due to decomposition and migration of NG, collapse of cross-linking density, and interfacial dewetting, which leads to the deterioration in plasticization of NC/NG and microstructure stabilities of GaTo. Degradation in chemical stability and mechanical properties happened simultaneously, and chemical stability plays a significant role in maintaining the firmness of network structure and microstructure during storage.

  3. The safe storage life prediction at 25°C based on stabilizer consumption and impact resistance degradation has been calculated. The results showed that the safe storage life based on impact resistance decrease by 20% giving lower value (τ 25 = 11.7 years). Considering the safety and reliability aspect, the lower shelf life is recommended.

  4. The life prediction and mechanism of aging behavior is of great significance in long-term storage safety evaluation, anti-aging measurement, and formulation optimization of GaTo propellants.

Symbols and abbreviations

Al

aluminum powder

AP

ammonium percolates

C2

1,3-dimethyl-1,3-diphenyl urea

DSC

differential scanning calorimeter

FESEM

field emission scanning electron microscopy

HPLC

high performance liquid chromatography

NC

nitrocellulose

NG

nitroglycerin

R 2

coefficient of determination

Res

resorcinol

T

aging temperature/°C

t

aging time/day

τ 25

safe storage life at 25°C

Acknowledgment

This research was supported by Xi’an Modern Chemistry Research Institute. The authors would like to thank the anonymous referees for their valuable comments that greatly helped in improving this article.

  1. Funding information: The authors state no funding involved.

  2. Author contributions: Yan Gu: writing – original draft, writing – review & editing, and formal analysis. Silong Yu: writing – original draft, and visualization. Qiong Wang: formal analysis. Jiaojiao Du: formal analysis. Fangfang Wang: formal analysis.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: Data are available on request from the authors.

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Received: 2022-05-13
Revised: 2022-07-20
Accepted: 2022-08-08
Published Online: 2022-12-05

© 2022 Yan Gu et al., published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  2. Numerical and experimental research on solidification of T2 copper alloy during the twin-roll casting
  3. Discrete probability model-based method for recognition of multicomponent combustible gas explosion hazard sources
  4. Dephosphorization kinetics of high-P-containing reduced iron produced from oolitic hematite ore
  5. In-phase thermomechanical fatigue studies on P92 steel with different hold time
  6. Effect of the weld parameter strategy on mechanical properties of double-sided laser-welded 2195 Al–Li alloy joints with filler wire
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  9. Effect of different welding procedures on microstructure and mechanical property of TA15 titanium alloy joint
  10. Single-source-precursor synthesis and characterization of SiAlC(O) ceramics from a hyperbranched polyaluminocarbosilane
  11. Carbothermal reduction of red mud for iron extraction and sodium removal
  12. Reduction swelling mechanism of hematite fluxed briquettes
  13. Effect of in situ observation of cooling rates on acicular ferrite nucleation
  14. Corrosion behavior of WC–Co coating by plasma transferred arc on EH40 steel in low-temperature
  15. Study on the thermodynamic stability and evolution of inclusions in Al–Ti deoxidized steel
  16. Application on oxidation behavior of metallic copper in fire investigation
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  18. Prediction model of interfacial heat transfer coefficient changing with time and ingot diameter
  19. Design, fabrication, and testing of CVI-SiC/SiC turbine blisk under different load spectrums at elevated temperature
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  41. An investigation on as-cast microstructure and homogenization of nickel base superalloy René 65
  42. Effect of multiple laser re-melting on microstructure and properties of Fe-based coating
  43. Experimental study on the preparation of ferrophosphorus alloy using dephosphorization furnace slag by carbothermic reduction
  44. Research on aging behavior and safe storage life prediction of modified double base propellant
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  58. Dynamics at crystal/melt interface during solidification of multicrystalline silicon
  59. Boron removal from silicon melt by gas blowing technique
  60. Removal of SiC and Si3N4 inclusions in solar cell Si scraps through slag refining
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https://doi.org/10.1515/htmp-2022-0234
Keywords for this article
propellant; safe storage performance; thermal aging; life prediction
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Numerical and experimental research on solidification of T2 copper alloy during the twin-roll casting
  3. Discrete probability model-based method for recognition of multicomponent combustible gas explosion hazard sources
  4. Dephosphorization kinetics of high-P-containing reduced iron produced from oolitic hematite ore
  5. In-phase thermomechanical fatigue studies on P92 steel with different hold time
  6. Effect of the weld parameter strategy on mechanical properties of double-sided laser-welded 2195 Al–Li alloy joints with filler wire
  7. The precipitation behavior of second phase in high titanium microalloyed steels and its effect on microstructure and properties of steel
  8. Development of a huge hybrid 3D-printer based on fused deposition modeling (FDM) incorporated with computer numerical control (CNC) machining for industrial applications
  9. Effect of different welding procedures on microstructure and mechanical property of TA15 titanium alloy joint
  10. Single-source-precursor synthesis and characterization of SiAlC(O) ceramics from a hyperbranched polyaluminocarbosilane
  11. Carbothermal reduction of red mud for iron extraction and sodium removal
  12. Reduction swelling mechanism of hematite fluxed briquettes
  13. Effect of in situ observation of cooling rates on acicular ferrite nucleation
  14. Corrosion behavior of WC–Co coating by plasma transferred arc on EH40 steel in low-temperature
  15. Study on the thermodynamic stability and evolution of inclusions in Al–Ti deoxidized steel
  16. Application on oxidation behavior of metallic copper in fire investigation
  17. Microstructural study of concrete performance after exposure to elevated temperatures via considering C–S–H nanostructure changes
  18. Prediction model of interfacial heat transfer coefficient changing with time and ingot diameter
  19. Design, fabrication, and testing of CVI-SiC/SiC turbine blisk under different load spectrums at elevated temperature
  20. Promoting of metallurgical bonding by ultrasonic insert process in steel–aluminum bimetallic castings
  21. Pre-reduction of carbon-containing pellets of high chromium vanadium–titanium magnetite at different temperatures
  22. Optimization of alkali metals discharge performance of blast furnace slag and its extreme value model
  23. Smelting high purity 55SiCr automobile suspension spring steel with different refractories
  24. Investigation into the thermal stability of a novel hot-work die steel 5CrNiMoVNb
  25. Residual stress relaxation considering microstructure evolution in heat treatment of metallic thin-walled part
  26. Experiments of Ti6Al4V manufactured by low-speed wire cut electrical discharge machining and electrical parameters optimization
  27. Effect of chloride ion concentration on stress corrosion cracking and electrochemical corrosion of high manganese steel
  28. Prediction of oxygen-blowing volume in BOF steelmaking process based on BP neural network and incremental learning
  29. Effect of annealing temperature on the structure and properties of FeCoCrNiMo high-entropy alloy
  30. Study on physical properties of Al2O3-based slags used for the self-propagating high-temperature synthesis (SHS) – metallurgy method
  31. Low-temperature corrosion behavior of laser cladding metal-based alloy coatings on EH40 high-strength steel for icebreaker
  32. Study on thermodynamics and dynamics of top slag modification in O5 automobile sheets
  33. Structure optimization of continuous casting tundish with channel-type induction heating using mathematical modeling
  34. Microstructure and mechanical properties of NbC–Ni cermets prepared by microwave sintering
  35. Spider-based FOPID controller design for temperature control in aluminium extrusion process
  36. Prediction model of BOF end-point P and O contents based on PCA–GA–BP neural network
  37. Study on hydrogen-induced stress corrosion of 7N01-T4 aluminum alloy for railway vehicles
  38. Study on the effect of micro-shrinkage porosity on the ultra-low temperature toughness of ferritic ductile iron
  39. Characterization of surface decarburization and oxidation behavior of Cr–Mo cold heading steel
  40. Effect of post-weld heat treatment on the microstructure and mechanical properties of laser-welded joints of SLM-316 L/rolled-316 L
  41. An investigation on as-cast microstructure and homogenization of nickel base superalloy René 65
  42. Effect of multiple laser re-melting on microstructure and properties of Fe-based coating
  43. Experimental study on the preparation of ferrophosphorus alloy using dephosphorization furnace slag by carbothermic reduction
  44. Research on aging behavior and safe storage life prediction of modified double base propellant
  45. Evaluation of the calorific value of exothermic sleeve material by the adiabatic calorimeter
  46. Thermodynamic calculation of phase equilibria in the Al–Fe–Zn–O system
  47. Effect of rare earth Y on microstructure and texture of oriented silicon steel during hot rolling and cold rolling processes
  48. Effect of ambient temperature on the jet characteristics of a swirl oxygen lance with mixed injection of CO2 + O2
  49. Research on the optimisation of the temperature field distribution of a multi microwave source agent system based on group consistency
  50. The dynamic softening identification and constitutive equation establishment of Ti–6.5Al–2Sn–4Zr–4Mo–1W–0.2Si alloy with initial lamellar microstructure
  51. Experimental investigation on microstructural characterization and mechanical properties of plasma arc welded Inconel 617 plates
  52. Numerical simulation and experimental research on cracking mechanism of twin-roll strip casting
  53. A novel method to control stress distribution and machining-induced deformation for thin-walled metallic parts
  54. Review Article
  55. A study on deep reinforcement learning-based crane scheduling model for uncertainty tasks
  56. Topical Issue on Science and Technology of Solar Energy
  57. Synthesis of alkaline-earth Zintl phosphides MZn2P2 (M = Ca, Sr, Ba) from Sn solutions
  58. Dynamics at crystal/melt interface during solidification of multicrystalline silicon
  59. Boron removal from silicon melt by gas blowing technique
  60. Removal of SiC and Si3N4 inclusions in solar cell Si scraps through slag refining
  61. Electrochemical production of silicon
  62. Electrical properties of zinc nitride and zinc tin nitride semiconductor thin films toward photovoltaic applications
  63. Special Issue on The 4th International Conference on Graphene and Novel Nanomaterials (GNN 2022)
  64. Effect of microstructure on tribocorrosion of FH36 low-temperature steels
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