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Optimization of medium–low-grade phosphorus rock carbothermal reduction process by response surface methodology

  • Biwei Luo , Pengfei Li , Yan Li , Pengpeng He , Jun Ji , Dongsheng He and Qifeng Tian EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: June 24, 2020
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Green Processing and Synthesis
From the journal Green Processing and Synthesis Volume 9 Issue 1

Abstract

Phosphorus extraction from phosphorus rock was conducted by carbothermal reduction with silica and coke. The effects of reaction temperature, reaction time, coke excess coefficient, molar ratio of silicon–calcium, and phosphorus rock particle size on the phosphorus reduction rate were investigated by the response surface methodology (RSM). The central composite design (CCD) with five factors and five levels was used to explore the effects of variables’ interactions on the phosphorus reduction rate. The results showed that there are significant interactions between reaction time and temperature; reaction temperature and molar ratio of silicon–calcium; reaction temperature and phosphorus rock particle size; coke excess coefficient and molar ratio of silicon–calcium; and coke excess coefficient and phosphorus rock particle size. The optimum conditions in the experimental range are reaction time 92 min, reaction temperature 1340°C, coke excess coefficient 1.27, molar ratio of silicon–calcium 1.28, and phosphorus rock particle size 75–106 µm, which were derived from the quadratic statistic model. Under these conditions, the phosphorus reduction rate can reach 96.88%, which is close to the model prediction value 99.40%. The optimized carbothermal reduction conditions of phosphorus rock by the RSM are helpful to reduce the energy cost of thermal phosphoric acid process.

Keywords: phosphorus rock; carbothermal reduction reaction; response surface methodology; optimization

1 Introduction

Yellow phosphorus is mainly obtained from phosphate ore, coke, and silica by carbothermal reduction method in the electric furnace, and the main components of the three raw materials are Ca5(PO4)3F, C, and SiO2, respectively. In this process, coke is mainly used as a reducing agent and conductor, whereas silica is mainly used as a flux to form stable silicate and promote the reduction reaction of phosphate [1,2,3]. The main reaction equation is shown in Eq. 1:

(1)Ca5(PO4)3F+15C+9SiO2=3P2(g)+15CO(g)+9CaSiO3+CaF2

The phosphorus obtained by carbothermal reduction process is an irreplaceable raw material to produce phosphates and their derivatives. It is an important raw material for producing food-grade, electronic-grade, and medical-grade phosphoric acid, as well as the basic raw material for agricultural chemical products [4,5]. However, in order to facilitate slag discharge, the operating temperature of yellow phosphorus production by the electric furnace process should be about 150°C higher than the melting point of the residue, and the power consumption is 13,000–15,000 kWh per ton, which makes it a typical huge energy consumption industry [6,7]. Therefore, the development of an energy-saving technology is vital to promote the sustainable development of yellow phosphorus industry.

In China, medium- and low-grade phosphate ores are the majority of phosphorus resources. The utilization percentage of medium- and low-grade phosphorus resources is lower than expected. Effective utilization of medium- and low-grade phosphate ores is necessary to realize the sustainable development of phosphorus chemical industry [8]. Phosphoric acid prepared by wet process of medium- and low-grade phosphate requires ore dressing, and the purity of the prepared phosphoric acid is not high enough, which leads to the subsequent complicated separation process [9]. Kiln phosphoric acid process is still in the research stage due to its immature technology [10]. Medium- and low-grade phosphate ores can be directly used in the thermal process of phosphoric acid to obtain high-purity phosphoric acid. The huge energy consumption is its main disadvantage [4,11]. Therefore, reducing energy consumption is an important issue in thermal phosphoric acid process.

Many studies on thermal phosphoric acid technology have been carried out. Jiang et al. [12] studied the kinetics of fluorapatite carbothermal reduction reaction. After reaction at 1,250°C for 60 min, the reduction rate of fluorapatite reached about 48%. The reaction at 1,300°C for 60 min resulted in a reduction rate of 76%. Li et al. [13] found that a reduction rate of 98.9% with medium- and low-grade phosphate ores was approached at 1,550°C for 60 min and the reaction temperature is the most important factor that influences the reduction rate of phosphate ore. Cao et al. [14] added a certain amount of alkali metals to enhance the activity of carbon and the reduction rate of phosphorus rock. By adding 1.5% K2CO3 and reacting at 1,300°C for 60 min, the reduction rate of phosphorus rock was increased to 67%. When the reaction time was prolonged to 4 h, the reduction rate of phosphorus rock could reach 91.32%. Yang et al. [15] revealed that the carbothermal reduction reaction of fluorapatite promoted by Al2O3 mainly occurred in the low-temperature zone and at the initial stage of the reaction. The reaction was conducted at 1,250°C for 50 min, and the reduction rate of phosphorus rock can be increased from 65% to 75% by adding Al2O3. Li et al. [16] used medium- and low-grade phosphorus rocks with high content of calcium to react at 1,300°C for 210 min, and the reduction rate of phosphorus rock could reach more than 94%. They proposed that the reduction rate of phosphate ore decreases with the increase in the molar ratio of silicon–calcium, and the decrease in the reduction rate is more significant when the molar ratio of silicon–calcium >2. Li et al. [17] studied the growth behavior and size characterization of metallic iron particles in coal-based reduction of oolitic hematite–coal composite briquettes and manifested that reduction temperature, time, and ore size fraction strongly influenced the reduction. Li et al. [18] studied the feasibility of potassium feldspar as a flux to reduce phosphate rock, and they found that when the coke excess coefficient increased from 1.0 to 1.05, the reduction rate of phosphate rock increased from 95% to 99.61%. In order to reduce the temperature (time) of the carbothermal reduction reaction and save energy, orthogonal experiments are mainly used by the current researchers to optimize the process conditions. When the reaction temperature is mainly in the range of 1,250–1,350°C and the reaction time is 60–120 min, the reduction rate of phosphate ore could usually reach 40–95%. From the above description, one can see that in addition to reaction temperature and time, coke excess coefficient, molar ratio of silicon–calcium, and phosphorus rock particle size are other pivotal factors to determine the reduction rate of phosphorus ore. In this paper, these five factors are chosen to study their effects on the phosphorus reduction rate.

The response surface methodology (RSM) is a relatively scientific and efficient parameter optimization method, which is widely used in chemical, agricultural, pharmaceutical, environmental, and mechanical engineering fields. This method is simple and efficient, especially for studying the interaction between several experimental factors. Compared with single-factor optimization, the response surface methodology has the advantages of fewer experiments, accurate prediction, and the ability to study the interaction between several factors at the same time [19], which makes this method better than the traditional orthogonal methodologies. In this paper, based on single-factor experiment and literature research, the response surface methodology is used to optimize the process variables (reaction temperature, reaction time, coke excess coefficient, molar ratio of silicon–calcium, and phosphorus rock particle size) of carbothermal reduction reaction of phosphorus rock to improve the energy efficiency of thermal phosphoric acid process.

2 Materials and methods

The phosphorus rock used in the experiments was from Yichang, Hubei Province. PANalytical Axios wavelength-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometer was used to determine the composition of the phosphorus rock. The main chemical components are shown in Table 1. The industrial analysis of the reducing agent coke is shown in Table 2. Silica (analytical purity) was supplied by Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co. Ltd.

Table 1

The main chemical components of the phosphorus rock (%wt)

Composition of oreP2O5CaOSiO2MgOFe2O3Al2O3F
W (%)19.5842.2325.337.171.451.31.45
Table 2

Analysis of the industrial coke (%wt)

Fixed carbonAshVolatile matterMoisture
82.039.274.154.55

The phosphorus rock powder was mixed with coke and silica powders, which passed 200-mesh sieve evenly according to the designed ratio, pressed into several φ 15 × 3 mm flakes under 5 MPa, and then dried for further use. 5–6 g of dried sample was placed in a graphite crucible and heated in the LFT-1600 tube furnace, with the rate of flow of nitrogen of 80 mL min−1 for 30 min. Under the protection of nitrogen, the temperature was elevated at a rate of 5°C min−1 to a specified temperature. After the reaction ended, the slag was removed from the graphite crucible after cooling to room temperature. After ground through 200-mesh sieves, the residue was used for the analysis of the content of P2O5 and further characterization. The phosphorus rock particle size was determined using sieves with different meshes.

The content of P2O5 in the residue was analyzed by gravimetric method with quinoline phosphomolybdate as agent. The phosphorus rock reduction rate (Y) was calculated according to Eq. 2:

(2)Y=M0w0−M1w1M0w0

where M0 and M1 are the mass of samples before and after the reaction and w0 and w1 are the mass fraction of P2O5 before and after the reaction, respectively.

The reaction time (A), reaction temperature (B), coke excess coefficient (C), molar ratio of silicon–calcium (D), and phosphorus rock particle size (E) were the factors and the phosphorus reduction rate (Y) was the response value in this paper.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Single-factor investigation

The results of the single-factor investigation are displayed in Figure 1. The results in Figure 1a show that the reduction rate increases with the reaction time. When the reaction time continues to extend, the reduction rate will tend to close to 100% as the most phosphates had reacted out. Considering the reduction rate and economic cost, the reaction time in the RSM experiments is in the range of 30–120 min.

Figure 1 Influence of various factors on the reduction rate. (a) Fixed levels B (1,300°C), C (1.20), D (1.20), E (75–106 µm). (b) Fixed levels A (75 min), C (1.20), D (1.20), E (75–106 µm). (c) Fixed levels A (75 min), B (1,300°C), D (1.20), E (75–106 µm). (d) Fixed levels A (75 min), B (1,300°C), C (1.20), E (75–106 µm). (e) Fixed levels A (75 min), B (1,300°C), C (1.20), D (1.20).
Figure 1

Influence of various factors on the reduction rate. (a) Fixed levels B (1,300°C), C (1.20), D (1.20), E (75–106 µm). (b) Fixed levels A (75 min), C (1.20), D (1.20), E (75–106 µm). (c) Fixed levels A (75 min), B (1,300°C), D (1.20), E (75–106 µm). (d) Fixed levels A (75 min), B (1,300°C), C (1.20), E (75–106 µm). (e) Fixed levels A (75 min), B (1,300°C), C (1.20), D (1.20).

As shown in Figure 1b, the reduction rate increases gradually with the reaction temperature. When the temperature is above 1,300°C, the reduction rate increases slowly and becomes stable. From the point of view of thermodynamics, the increase in the temperature provided a favorable thermodynamics condition and promoted phosphorus rock reduction. Considering the reduction rate and application feasibility, the RSM experiments were conducted at 1,200–1,400°C.

Considering the effects of the amount of reduction agent coke on the reduction rate, the relation between different coke excess coefficients and the reduction rate is demonstrated in Figure 1c, which shows that the reduction rate increases with CEC. In order to study the effects of coke excess coefficient on the reduction rate comprehensively, the coke excess coefficient (CEC) was set in the range of 0.80–1.60 in the RSM experiments.

The effects of molar ratio of silicon–calcium (Si/Ca) on the reduction rate and the results are shown in Figure 1d. One can see that the reduction rate increases first and then decreases with the increase in the molar ratio of silicon–calcium (Si/Ca). In the process of phosphorus production, silica is used as a flux to reduce the reaction temperature. The melting point of slag usually depends on the value of silicon–calcium ratio. The amount of silica should not be too high to prevent side reactions from occurring. The molar ratio of silicon–calcium (Si/Ca) was set in the range of 0.80–1.60 in the RSM experiments.

The phosphorus rock particle size influences the heat and mass conduction and thereby the reduction rate. Figure 1e shows that the reduction rate increases first and then decreases with the decrease in the phosphorus rock particle size. When the phosphorus rock particle size is in the range of 75–106 µm, the reduction rate is the highest in the single-factor investigation experiments. Therefore, five different particle sizes of 0–48 µm, 48–75 µm, 75–106 µm, 106–150 µm, and 150–270 µm were chosen in the RSM experiments.

3.2 Optimization of reaction conditions by RSM

Based on the literature investigation and previous single-factor experiments, reaction time (A, 30–120 min), reaction temperature (B, 1,200–1,400°C), coke excess coefficient (C, 0.8–1.60), molar ratio of silicon–calcium (D, 0.8–1.60), and phosphate particle size (E, 0–270 µm) were chosen as factors to pursue the best reduction rate of phosphorus rock. The central composite design (CCD) with five factors and five levels was conducted by Design-Expert 8.0.6 software as shown in Table 3. The optimum conditions for phosphorus rock carbothermal reduction were obtained by the response surface methodology.

Table 3

Factors and coding levels of response surface analysis

FactorCodedCoding level
−αLow (−1)Central (0)High (+1)+α
Reaction time (min)A30567594120
Temperature (°C)B1,2001,2581,3001,3421,400
CECC0.81.031.201.371.60
Si/CaD0.81.031.201.371.60
Phosphorus rock particle size (µm)E150–270106–15075–10648–750–48

Through CCD procedure, the detailed fifty experiments with five different factors and levels were generated and are shown in Table 4. The phosphate reduction rates of 50 runs of the experiments are also displayed in Table 4, and the reduction rate was obtained in the range of 61.18% to 97.90%.

Table 4

Conditions and results of fifty CCD experiments

RunVariablesResponse
Time (min)Temperature (°C)Carbon excess coefficientMolar ratio of silicon–calciumPhosphorus rock particle size (µm)Reduction rate (%)
ABCDEY
1561,3421.371.03106–15087.09
2561,3421.031.37106–15094.62
3751,3001.201.200–4871.56
4561,2581.371.03106–15074.65
5941,3421.031.37106–15097.46
6751,3001.201.2075–10690.52
7561,3421.371.0348–7588.05
8941,2581.031.03106–15082.26
9751,3001.201.2075–10693.22
10751,3001.201.2075–10692.46
11941,3421.031.3748–7593.79
121201,3001.201.2075–10692.34
13751,3000.801.2075–10682.58
14751,4001.201.2075–10697.80
15941,2581.371.0348–7582.35
16751,3001.201.2075–10692.73
17941,3421.371.0348–7593.85
18941,3421.371.3748–7597.90
19941,2581.031.3748–7577.60
20561,2581.031.37106–15074.62
21751,3001.201.2075–10692.08
22941,3421.031.03106–15086.75
23941,3421.031.0348–7584.63
24561,2581.371.37106–15075.78
25751,3001.201.20150–27081.63
26561,2581.031.3748–7569.40
27941,2581.371.03106–15087.20
28301,3001.201.2075–10677.56
29561,3421.031.0348–7578.23
30561,2581.031.0348–7561.18
31561,2581.371.3748–7577.56
32941,2581.371.37106–15085.13
33561,2581.031.03106–15067.16
34941,2581.031.37106–15087.65
35751,3001.201.2075–10690.06
36751,2001.201.2075–10661.49
37561,3421.371.37106–15094.24
38941,3421.371.03106–15090.75
39751,3001.201.2075–10691.81
40561,3421.031.03106–15081.36
41751,3001.201.2075–10690.45
42751,3001.601.2075–10695.37
43751,3001.201.6075–10693.59
44561,3421.371.3748–7595.73
45941,2581.371.3748–7585.76
46941,3421.371.37106–15097.53
47561,3421.031.3748–7588.82
48561,2581.371.0348–7574.64
49941,2581.031.0348–7571.5
50751,3001.200.8075–10675.53

3.3 Quadratic regression fitting and the result of variance analysis

The experimental results were fitted to various models (linear, interactive (2FI), quadratic, and cubic) to get regression equation. Three different tests, namely the sequential model sum of squares, lack-of-fit tests, and model summary statistics, were conducted in this paper to determine the adequacy of various models to represent the maximum reduction rate of phosphorus rock, and the results are listed in Table 5. The fit summary output indicated that the quadratic polynomial model was significant for the present system as shown in Table 5, while the interaction of two factors (2FI) and the linear model were suggested to be insignificant. As shown in Table 5, linear and interactive (2FI) models exhibit lower R2, adjusted R2, predicted R2, and also high p-values as compared to quadratic model. Cubic model was found to be aliased. Therefore, the quadratic model including linear, interactive, and quadratic terms was chosen to describe the effects of process variables on the reduction rate of phosphorus rock.

Table 5

Fit summary output as the sequential model sum of squares, lack-of-fit tests, and model summary statistics

SourceSum of squaresdfMean squareF-valuep-valueRemarks
prob > F
Sequential model sum of squares
Mean vs total3.61 × 10513.61 × 105
Linear vs Mean3.59 × 10357.19 × 10232.55<0.0001
2FI* vs linear2.91 × 1021029.081.450.2004
Quadratic vs 2FI*6.24 × 10251.205 × 10263.34<0.0001Suggested
Cubic vs quadratic42.70152.852.760.0324Aliased
Residual14.42141.03
Total3.65 × 105507.31 × 103
Lack-of-fit tests
Linear9.62 × 102372618.680.0003
2FI6.71 × 1022724.917.860.0003
Quadratic47.4222.151.550.29Suggested
Cubic4.6870.670.480.82Aliased
Pure error9.7471.39
SourceStd. dev.R-squaredAdjusted R-squaredPredicted R-squaredPRESSRemarks
Model summary statistics
Linear4.700.7870.7630.7371.200 × 103
2FI4.480.8510.7850.7929.48 × 102
Quadratic1.400.9880.9790.9581.94 × 102Suggested
Cubic1.010.9970.9890.9701.36 × 102Aliased
  1. *

    2FI means two-factor interaction.

Furthermore, the analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to evaluate the adequacy of the model equation. ANOVA evaluations of the model, including its variables and their interactions, are given in Table 6. As can be seen from Table 6, the effects of the reaction time (A), reaction temperature (B), coke excess coefficient (C), molar ratio of silicon to calcium (D), and phosphorus rock particle size (E) on the reduction rate of phosphorus rock (Y) are all significant because their prob >F-values for phosphorus rock reduction rate (Y) are all lower than 0.05 (p value < 0.05), indicating that these factors are significant [20,21,22]. In addition, the interactions A–B, B–D, B–E, C–D, and C–E are also significant because their prob >F-values are also below 0.05. In the analysis of variance, the larger the F-value of the variable(s) and their interaction item is, the greater influence of those item(s) on the response value is [23]. Therefore, the sequence of the effect of various factors on the phosphorus rock reduction rate (Y) is as follows: B > A > D > C > E. The effect order of the interaction items on the reduction rate (Y) is CE > AB > CD > BD > BE.

Table 6

Analysis of variance for the regression model

SourceSum ofdfMeanF-valuep-valueRemarks
squaressquareprob > F
Model4509.1820225.46114.46<0.0001Significant
A-time548.491548.49278.44<0.0001
B-temperature2115.7212115.721074.06<0.0001
C-CEC341.381341.38173.31<0.0001
D-Si/Ca484.71484.7246.06<0.0001
E-particle size 104.291104.2952.94<0.0001
AB77.94177.9439.57<0.0001
AC5.7115.712.90.0993Not significant
AD6.9216.923.510.071Not significant
AE4.0914.092.080.1603Not significant
BC4.6714.672.370.1346Not significant
BD42.37142.3721.51<0.0001
BE20.58120.5810.450.0031
CD49.6149.625.18<0.0001
CE78.75178.7539.98<0.0001
DE0.1710.170.0850.7722Not significant
A279.01179.0140.11<0.0001
B2252.171252.17128.02<0.0001
C212.85112.856.520.0162
D288.42188.4244.88<0.0001
E2395.971395.97201.02<0.0001
Residual57.13291.97
Lack-of-fit47.38222.151.550.2864Not significant
Pure error9.7471.39
Cor total4566.349

The data shown in Table 4 were regressed by Design-Expert 8.0.6, and the derived quadratic polynomial model equation includes the reaction time (A), reaction temperature (B), coke excess coefficient (C), molar ratio of silicon to calcium (D), phosphorus rock particle size €, and the reduction rate of phosphorus rock (Y). Combined with ANOVA results in Table 6 and removing insignificant items from the model, the obtained quadratic polynomial model equation is as follows:

(3)Y=9.166+3.56A+6.99B+2.81C+3.35D−1.55E−1.56AB+1.15BD+0.80BE−1.205CD+1.57CE−1.19A2−2.13B2−0.48C2−1.206D2−2.67E2

Figure 2 shows the relationship between the predicted and actual reduction rates of phosphorus rock. As can be seen from the diagram, most of the actual values are close to the predicted values, and a few of the actual values fall on both sides of the predicted values symmetrically, indicating that the model fits the actual responses well. Table 5 gives the R2 = 0.988, which means the model can explain 98.8% of the variation of response values. A good fit between the predicted and the actual values proves that the good fitting model can be used to analyze and predict the optimum reduction conditions of phosphorus rock.

In order to show how any two factors affect the response, the 3D response surface plots and the contour plots are demonstrated in Figures 3 and 4, respectively. It is important to focus on the effects of the significant terms. Therefore, the 3D response surface plots of the interactions AC, AD, AE, BC, and DE are not shown.

Figure 2 Predicted and actual values of phosphorus rock reduction rate.
Figure 2

Predicted and actual values of phosphorus rock reduction rate.

Figure 3 Response surface plot showing the effects on the reduction rate. (a) Fixed levels C (1.20), D (1.20), E (75–106 µm). (b) Fixed levels A (75 min), C (1.20), E (75–106 µm). (c) Fixed levels A (75 min), C (1.20), D (1.20). (d) Fixed levels A (75 min), B (1,300°C), E (75–106 µm). (e) Fixed levels A (75 min), B (1,300°C), D (1.20).
Figure 3

Response surface plot showing the effects on the reduction rate. (a) Fixed levels C (1.20), D (1.20), E (75–106 µm). (b) Fixed levels A (75 min), C (1.20), E (75–106 µm). (c) Fixed levels A (75 min), C (1.20), D (1.20). (d) Fixed levels A (75 min), B (1,300°C), E (75–106 µm). (e) Fixed levels A (75 min), B (1,300°C), D (1.20).

Figure 4 Contour plot showing the effects on reduction rate. (a) Fixed levels C (1.20), D (1.20), E (75–106 µm). (b) Fixed levels A (75 min), C (1.20), E (75–106 µm). (c) Fixed levels A (75 min), C (1.20), D (1.20). (d) Fixed levels A (75 min), B (1,300°C), E (75–106 µm). (e) Fixed levels A (75 min), B (1,300°C), D (1.20).
Figure 4

Contour plot showing the effects on reduction rate. (a) Fixed levels C (1.20), D (1.20), E (75–106 µm). (b) Fixed levels A (75 min), C (1.20), E (75–106 µm). (c) Fixed levels A (75 min), C (1.20), D (1.20). (d) Fixed levels A (75 min), B (1,300°C), E (75–106 µm). (e) Fixed levels A (75 min), B (1,300°C), D (1.20).

The 3D response surface plot in Figure 3a, which gives the reduction rate as a function of the reaction time and reaction temperature, indicates that a higher reduction rate could be achieved with reaction time and temperature. Combining that with Figure 4a, the reaction temperature is more influential than the reaction time as to the reduction rate.

Figure 3b shows the 3D response surface plot at varying reaction temperatures and molar ratios of silicon to calcium. It can be inferred that the reduction rate increases with the reaction temperature and the molar ratio of silicon to calcium. Figure 4b demonstrates that the effect of reaction temperature on the reduction rate is stronger than that of molar ratio of silicon–calcium.

In Figure 3c, the 3D response surface plot is developed for the reduction rate with varying reaction temperatures and phosphorus rock particle sizes. The figure indicates that the reduction rate increases with the reaction temperature, while it increases to a certain extent and then decreases with the decrease in the phosphorus rock particle size. Figure 4c reflects that the reaction temperature affects the reduction rate stronger than the phosphorus rock particle size.

The 3D response surface plot based on the independent variables coke excess coefficient and molar ratio of silicon to calcium is shown in Figure 3d, indicating that the reduction rate increases with increasing coke excess coefficient and molar ratio of silicon–calcium. The molar ratio of silicon to calcium is obviously a stronger factor of the reduction rate than the coke excess coefficient, which can be found in Figure 4d.

Figure 3e gives the 3D response surface plot at varying phosphorus rock particle sizes and coke excess coefficients. It shows that the reduction rate increases with increasing coke excess coefficient. However, the reduction rate increased to a certain level and then decreased with decreasing phosphorus rock particle size. It can be seen from Figure 4e that the influence of coke excess coefficient on the reduction rate is slightly stronger than that of phosphorus rock particle size.

3.4 Response surface optimization validation test results

Under the prediction result of the CCD model, the theoretical optimum reduction conditions and the result are as follows: reaction time 92 min, reaction temperature 1,340°C, coke excess coefficient 1.27, molar ratio of silicon–calcium 1.28, phosphorus rock particle size 75–106 µm, and the maximum reduction rate 99.40%. In order to test the accuracy of the model, the reduction rate of phosphorus rock is 96.88% under the optimum reduction conditions. The deviation from the predicted value is only 2.52%, which implies the model can predict the experimental results well. Based on the investigation of the related literature, the reduction rate is close to or higher than most of the reported values in the literature.

In order to illustrate the innovation and the significant improvement of this study, similar reports about phosphorus rock carbothermal reduction were searched. Their reaction conditions and results are listed in Table 7. It can be seen that our optimized conditions of phosphorus rock carbothermal reduction are relatively mild and the reduction rate is fairly good as compared to the other published results.

Table 7

Comparison with the results of similar literature

Temperature (°C)Time (min)Si/CaCECAdditivesReduction rate (%)AuthorsReference
1,350600.67Methyl cellulose 94.84Q. Wu et al.Mater. Res. Express 2019;6:075513
1,3002401.11.1NiSO490.68R. Cao et al.Silicon 2019;11:2829–36
1,350601.678Y. Liu et al.Adv. Mater. Res. 2012;361–363:268–74
1,400401.5Potassium feldspar and K2CO396.8Z. Chen et al.Silicon 2020;12:613–20
1,300400.890Y. Li et al.Phosphorus, sulfur, and silicon 2018;193:141–8
1,3002401.11.1K2CO3–NiSO492.77G. Zheng et al.Silicon, 2019, DOI: 10.1007/s12633-019-00311-5
1,340921.271.2896.88This study

4 Conclusions

The process conditions of carbothermal reduction of medium- and low-grade phosphorus rocks were optimized by the response surface methodology. The effects of reaction time, reaction temperature, coke excess coefficient, molar ratio of silicon to calcium, and phosphorus rock particle size on the reduction rate of phosphorus rock were investigated. The optimum conditions are as follows: reaction time 92 min, reaction temperature 1,340°C, coke excess coefficient 1.27, molar ratio of silicon–calcium 1.28, and phosphorus rock particle size 75–106 µm. Under these conditions, the reduction rate of phosphorus rock (96.88%) is close to the predicted value (99.40%). The reduction rate of phosphorus rock in this paper is close to or higher than most of the reported results in the literature, which provides the experimental basis for energy saving and consumption reduction in thermal phosphoric acid process.

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Acknowledgments

This study was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 51474160). The authors would like to acknowledge the scientific support provided by Wuhan Institute of Technology and National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 51474160).

  1. Author contributions: J. J. and Q. T. developed the idea of this research and made the problem formulation; B. L., P. L., and Y. L. derived the formulas, made the calculations, performed the simulation, and prepared the initial draft of the paper; and Q. T. oversaw all aspects of the research, data analysis, and writing and revised this manuscript. All authors have discussed the results and approved the final version of the paper. All authors have read and agreed to publish this version of the manuscript.

  2. Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2020-02-12
Revised: 2020-05-09
Accepted: 2020-05-14
Published Online: 2020-06-24

© 2020 Biwei Luo et al., published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Obituary for Prof. Dr. Jun-ichi Yoshida
  2. Regular Articles
  3. Optimization of microwave-assisted manganese leaching from electrolyte manganese residue
  4. Crustacean shell bio-refining to chitin by natural deep eutectic solvents
  5. The kinetics of the extraction of caffeine from guarana seed under the action of ultrasonic field with simultaneous cooling
  6. Biocomposite scaffold preparation from hydroxyapatite extracted from waste bovine bone
  7. A simple room temperature-static bioreactor for effective synthesis of hexyl acetate
  8. Biofabrication of zinc oxide nanoparticles, characterization and cytotoxicity against pediatric leukemia cell lines
  9. Efficient synthesis of palladium nanoparticles using guar gum as stabilizer and their applications as catalyst in reduction reactions and degradation of azo dyes
  10. Isolation of biosurfactant producing bacteria from Potwar oil fields: Effect of non-fossil fuel based carbon sources
  11. Green synthesis, characterization and photocatalytic applications of silver nanoparticles using Diospyros lotus
  12. Dielectric properties and microwave heating behavior of neutral leaching residues from zinc metallurgy in the microwave field
  13. Green synthesis and stabilization of silver nanoparticles using Lysimachia foenum-graecum Hance extract and their antibacterial activity
  14. Microwave-induced heating behavior of Y-TZP ceramics under multiphysics system
  15. Synthesis and catalytic properties of nickel salts of Keggin-type heteropolyacids embedded metal-organic framework hybrid nanocatalyst
  16. Preparation and properties of hydrogel based on sawdust cellulose for environmentally friendly slow release fertilizers
  17. Structural characterization, antioxidant and cytotoxic effects of iron nanoparticles synthesized using Asphodelus aestivus Brot. aqueous extract
  18. Phase transformation involved in the reduction process of magnesium oxide in calcined dolomite by ferrosilicon with additive of aluminum
  19. Green synthesis of TiO2 nanoparticles from Syzygium cumini extract for photo-catalytic removal of lead (Pb) in explosive industrial wastewater
  20. The study on the influence of oxidation degree and temperature on the viscosity of biodiesel
  21. Prepare a catalyst consist of rare earth minerals to denitrate via NH3-SCR
  22. Bacterial nanobiotic potential
  23. Green synthesis and characterization of carboxymethyl guar gum: Application in textile printing technology
  24. Potential of adsorbents from agricultural wastes as alternative fillers in mixed matrix membrane for gas separation: A review
  25. Bactericidal and cytotoxic properties of green synthesized nanosilver using Rosmarinus officinalis leaves
  26. Synthesis of biomass-supported CuNi zero-valent nanoparticles through wetness co-impregnation method for the removal of carcinogenic dyes and nitroarene
  27. Synthesis of 2,2′-dibenzoylaminodiphenyl disulfide based on Aspen Plus simulation and the development of green synthesis processes
  28. Catalytic performance of the biosynthesized AgNps from Bistorta amplexicaule: antifungal, bactericidal, and reduction of carcinogenic 4-nitrophenol
  29. Optical and antimicrobial properties of silver nanoparticles synthesized via green route using honey
  30. Adsorption of l-α-glycerophosphocholine on ion-exchange resin: Equilibrium, kinetic, and thermodynamic studies
  31. Microwave-assisted green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using dried extracts of Chlorella vulgaris and antibacterial activity studies
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  33. Green synthesis of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles from plant leaf extracts and their applications: A review
  34. Synthesis, characterization, and electrochemical properties of carbon nanotubes used as cathode materials for Al–air batteries from a renewable source of water hyacinth
  35. Optimization of medium–low-grade phosphorus rock carbothermal reduction process by response surface methodology
  36. The study of rod-shaped TiO2 composite material in the protection of stone cultural relics
  37. Eco-friendly synthesis of AuNPs for cutaneous wound-healing applications in nursing care after surgery
  38. Green approach in fabrication of photocatalytic, antimicrobial, and antioxidant zinc oxide nanoparticles – hydrothermal synthesis using clove hydroalcoholic extract and optimization of the process
  39. Green synthesis: Proposed mechanism and factors influencing the synthesis of platinum nanoparticles
  40. Green synthesis of 3-(1-naphthyl), 4-methyl-3-(1-naphthyl) coumarins and 3-phenylcoumarins using dual-frequency ultrasonication
  41. Optimization for removal efficiency of fluoride using La(iii)–Al(iii)-activated carbon modified by chemical route
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  43. Evaluation of saponin-rich/poor leaf extract-mediated silver nanoparticles and their antifungal capacity
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  45. Environmentally benevolent synthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles using Olea ferruginea Royle for antibacterial and antioxidant activities
  46. Eco-synthesis and characterization of titanium nanoparticles: Testing its cytotoxicity and antibacterial effects
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  48. Phytosynthesis of selenium nanoparticles using the costus extract for bactericidal application against foodborne pathogens
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  51. Trillium govanianum Wall. Ex. Royle rhizomes extract-medicated silver nanoparticles and their antimicrobial activity
  52. In vitro bactericidal, antidiabetic, cytotoxic, anticoagulant, and hemolytic effect of green-synthesized silver nanoparticles using Allium sativum clove extract incubated at various temperatures
  53. The green synthesis of N-hydroxyethyl-substituted 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroquinolines with acidic ionic liquid as catalyst
  54. Effect of KMnO4 on catalytic combustion performance of semi-coke
  55. Removal of Congo red and malachite green from aqueous solution using heterogeneous Ag/ZnCo-ZIF catalyst in the presence of hydrogen peroxide
  56. Nucleotide-based green synthesis of lanthanide coordination polymers for tunable white-light emission
  57. Determination of life cycle GHG emission factor for paper products of Vietnam
  58. Parabolic trough solar collectors: A general overview of technology, industrial applications, energy market, modeling, and standards
  59. Structural characteristics of plant cell wall elucidated by solution-state 2D NMR spectroscopy with an optimized procedure
  60. Sustainable utilization of a converter slagging agent prepared by converter precipitator dust and oxide scale
  61. Efficacy of chitosan silver nanoparticles from shrimp-shell wastes against major mosquito vectors of public health importance
  62. Effectiveness of six different methods in green synthesis of selenium nanoparticles using propolis extract: Screening and characterization
  63. Characterizations and analysis of the antioxidant, antimicrobial, and dye reduction ability of green synthesized silver nanoparticles
  64. Foliar applications of bio-fabricated selenium nanoparticles to improve the growth of wheat plants under drought stress
  65. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles from Valeriana jatamansi shoots extract and its antimicrobial activity
  66. Characterization and biological activities of synthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles using the extract of Acantholimon serotinum
  67. Effect of calcination temperature on rare earth tailing catalysts for catalytic methane combustion
  68. Enhanced diuretic action of furosemide by complexation with β-cyclodextrin in the presence of sodium lauryl sulfate
  69. Development of chitosan/agar-silver nanoparticles-coated paper for antibacterial application
  70. Preparation, characterization, and catalytic performance of Pd–Ni/AC bimetallic nano-catalysts
  71. Acid red G dye removal from aqueous solutions by porous ceramsite produced from solid wastes: Batch and fixed-bed studies
  72. Review Articles
  73. Recent advances in the catalytic applications of GO/rGO for green organic synthesis
https://doi.org/10.1515/gps-2020-0035
Keywords for this article
phosphorus rock; carbothermal reduction reaction; response surface methodology; optimization
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Obituary for Prof. Dr. Jun-ichi Yoshida
  2. Regular Articles
  3. Optimization of microwave-assisted manganese leaching from electrolyte manganese residue
  4. Crustacean shell bio-refining to chitin by natural deep eutectic solvents
  5. The kinetics of the extraction of caffeine from guarana seed under the action of ultrasonic field with simultaneous cooling
  6. Biocomposite scaffold preparation from hydroxyapatite extracted from waste bovine bone
  7. A simple room temperature-static bioreactor for effective synthesis of hexyl acetate
  8. Biofabrication of zinc oxide nanoparticles, characterization and cytotoxicity against pediatric leukemia cell lines
  9. Efficient synthesis of palladium nanoparticles using guar gum as stabilizer and their applications as catalyst in reduction reactions and degradation of azo dyes
  10. Isolation of biosurfactant producing bacteria from Potwar oil fields: Effect of non-fossil fuel based carbon sources
  11. Green synthesis, characterization and photocatalytic applications of silver nanoparticles using Diospyros lotus
  12. Dielectric properties and microwave heating behavior of neutral leaching residues from zinc metallurgy in the microwave field
  13. Green synthesis and stabilization of silver nanoparticles using Lysimachia foenum-graecum Hance extract and their antibacterial activity
  14. Microwave-induced heating behavior of Y-TZP ceramics under multiphysics system
  15. Synthesis and catalytic properties of nickel salts of Keggin-type heteropolyacids embedded metal-organic framework hybrid nanocatalyst
  16. Preparation and properties of hydrogel based on sawdust cellulose for environmentally friendly slow release fertilizers
  17. Structural characterization, antioxidant and cytotoxic effects of iron nanoparticles synthesized using Asphodelus aestivus Brot. aqueous extract
  18. Phase transformation involved in the reduction process of magnesium oxide in calcined dolomite by ferrosilicon with additive of aluminum
  19. Green synthesis of TiO2 nanoparticles from Syzygium cumini extract for photo-catalytic removal of lead (Pb) in explosive industrial wastewater
  20. The study on the influence of oxidation degree and temperature on the viscosity of biodiesel
  21. Prepare a catalyst consist of rare earth minerals to denitrate via NH3-SCR
  22. Bacterial nanobiotic potential
  23. Green synthesis and characterization of carboxymethyl guar gum: Application in textile printing technology
  24. Potential of adsorbents from agricultural wastes as alternative fillers in mixed matrix membrane for gas separation: A review
  25. Bactericidal and cytotoxic properties of green synthesized nanosilver using Rosmarinus officinalis leaves
  26. Synthesis of biomass-supported CuNi zero-valent nanoparticles through wetness co-impregnation method for the removal of carcinogenic dyes and nitroarene
  27. Synthesis of 2,2′-dibenzoylaminodiphenyl disulfide based on Aspen Plus simulation and the development of green synthesis processes
  28. Catalytic performance of the biosynthesized AgNps from Bistorta amplexicaule: antifungal, bactericidal, and reduction of carcinogenic 4-nitrophenol
  29. Optical and antimicrobial properties of silver nanoparticles synthesized via green route using honey
  30. Adsorption of l-α-glycerophosphocholine on ion-exchange resin: Equilibrium, kinetic, and thermodynamic studies
  31. Microwave-assisted green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using dried extracts of Chlorella vulgaris and antibacterial activity studies
  32. Preparation of graphene oxide/chitosan complex and its adsorption properties for heavy metal ions
  33. Green synthesis of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles from plant leaf extracts and their applications: A review
  34. Synthesis, characterization, and electrochemical properties of carbon nanotubes used as cathode materials for Al–air batteries from a renewable source of water hyacinth
  35. Optimization of medium–low-grade phosphorus rock carbothermal reduction process by response surface methodology
  36. The study of rod-shaped TiO2 composite material in the protection of stone cultural relics
  37. Eco-friendly synthesis of AuNPs for cutaneous wound-healing applications in nursing care after surgery
  38. Green approach in fabrication of photocatalytic, antimicrobial, and antioxidant zinc oxide nanoparticles – hydrothermal synthesis using clove hydroalcoholic extract and optimization of the process
  39. Green synthesis: Proposed mechanism and factors influencing the synthesis of platinum nanoparticles
  40. Green synthesis of 3-(1-naphthyl), 4-methyl-3-(1-naphthyl) coumarins and 3-phenylcoumarins using dual-frequency ultrasonication
  41. Optimization for removal efficiency of fluoride using La(iii)–Al(iii)-activated carbon modified by chemical route
  42. In vitro biological activity of Hydroclathrus clathratus and its use as an extracellular bioreductant for silver nanoparticle formation
  43. Evaluation of saponin-rich/poor leaf extract-mediated silver nanoparticles and their antifungal capacity
  44. Propylene carbonate synthesis from propylene oxide and CO2 over Ga-Silicate-1 catalyst
  45. Environmentally benevolent synthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles using Olea ferruginea Royle for antibacterial and antioxidant activities
  46. Eco-synthesis and characterization of titanium nanoparticles: Testing its cytotoxicity and antibacterial effects
  47. A novel biofabrication of gold nanoparticles using Erythrina senegalensis leaf extract and their ameliorative effect on mycoplasmal pneumonia for treating lung infection in nursing care
  48. Phytosynthesis of selenium nanoparticles using the costus extract for bactericidal application against foodborne pathogens
  49. Temperature effects on electrospun chitosan nanofibers
  50. An electrochemical method to investigate the effects of compound composition on gold dissolution in thiosulfate solution
  51. Trillium govanianum Wall. Ex. Royle rhizomes extract-medicated silver nanoparticles and their antimicrobial activity
  52. In vitro bactericidal, antidiabetic, cytotoxic, anticoagulant, and hemolytic effect of green-synthesized silver nanoparticles using Allium sativum clove extract incubated at various temperatures
  53. The green synthesis of N-hydroxyethyl-substituted 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroquinolines with acidic ionic liquid as catalyst
  54. Effect of KMnO4 on catalytic combustion performance of semi-coke
  55. Removal of Congo red and malachite green from aqueous solution using heterogeneous Ag/ZnCo-ZIF catalyst in the presence of hydrogen peroxide
  56. Nucleotide-based green synthesis of lanthanide coordination polymers for tunable white-light emission
  57. Determination of life cycle GHG emission factor for paper products of Vietnam
  58. Parabolic trough solar collectors: A general overview of technology, industrial applications, energy market, modeling, and standards
  59. Structural characteristics of plant cell wall elucidated by solution-state 2D NMR spectroscopy with an optimized procedure
  60. Sustainable utilization of a converter slagging agent prepared by converter precipitator dust and oxide scale
  61. Efficacy of chitosan silver nanoparticles from shrimp-shell wastes against major mosquito vectors of public health importance
  62. Effectiveness of six different methods in green synthesis of selenium nanoparticles using propolis extract: Screening and characterization
  63. Characterizations and analysis of the antioxidant, antimicrobial, and dye reduction ability of green synthesized silver nanoparticles
  64. Foliar applications of bio-fabricated selenium nanoparticles to improve the growth of wheat plants under drought stress
  65. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles from Valeriana jatamansi shoots extract and its antimicrobial activity
  66. Characterization and biological activities of synthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles using the extract of Acantholimon serotinum
  67. Effect of calcination temperature on rare earth tailing catalysts for catalytic methane combustion
  68. Enhanced diuretic action of furosemide by complexation with β-cyclodextrin in the presence of sodium lauryl sulfate
  69. Development of chitosan/agar-silver nanoparticles-coated paper for antibacterial application
  70. Preparation, characterization, and catalytic performance of Pd–Ni/AC bimetallic nano-catalysts
  71. Acid red G dye removal from aqueous solutions by porous ceramsite produced from solid wastes: Batch and fixed-bed studies
  72. Review Articles
  73. Recent advances in the catalytic applications of GO/rGO for green organic synthesis
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