Determining the Challenges and Future Opportunities in Vocational Education and Training in the UAE: A Systematic Literature Review
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Hazem Aldabbas
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Adnan Alzoukani
Abstract
There is a clear knowledge gap in the area of vocational education and training (VET) in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) literature. This study aims to review systematically the literature review in VET in the UAE over the last 25 years. This research employed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses methodology to determine the appropriate inclusion of studies in the literature review. The results are derived from an analysis of 35 studies conducted between 1999 and 2024, primarily focused on Emiratization and the importance of innovative technology to be incorporated in the VET process. Additionally, this research has identified a set of recurring challenges and future opportunities for VET in the UAE. This research makes a significant contribution to the literature on sustainable development in the UAE by highlighting the crucial role of VET in fostering human capital development and economic growth. Due to the scarcity of studies in the UAE, the findings of this study are constrained. However, this limitation opens up new opportunities for researchers and investigators to delve into and examine the field of VET in the UAE.
1 Introduction
Vocational education and training (VET) is now more crucial than ever, playing a vital role in advancing society and the economy for several reasons. First, the job market is evolving rapidly due to technological advancements and modernization strategies (Dybowski, 1998). Subsequently, the goal of the VET is to qualify individuals by facilitating the acquisition of necessary competencies, such as through the provision of training (Beer & Mulder, 2020). Second, VET can be a powerful tool in reducing the unemployment rate (e.g., Czech Republic, Austria, Germany) (Hoidn & Šťastný, 2023). In a meta-analysis study, it was found that the impact of informal education had a greater effect size than that of formal education (Kim, Kim, & Lim, 2023). Thus, VET encourages a culture of lifelong learning by providing opportunities for upskilling and reskilling, ensuring that graduates from VET programs remain relevant in their respective fields. Finally, the competitiveness and innovation of the industry pivot on practitioners who possess valuable knowledge and skills, ensuring a global edge (Lund & Karlsen, 2020). Thus, VET enhances a country’s competitiveness by producing a workforce with the practical skills and knowledge necessary to compete in international markets. Since, VET programs are designed to address this mismatch by providing industry-specific skills, increasing the employability of individuals and ensuring that individuals are equipped with the skills and knowledge required by specific industries
Developing skills is crucial for achieving various Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). One important goal is SDG 4, which focuses on better access to vocational education and higher learning, emphasizing skills and knowledge for good jobs (McGrath & Yamada, 2023). Additionally, skill development contributes to SDG 8 (quality employment) and 9 (industrialization and innovation). Furthermore, Khan, Aradi, Schwalje, Buckner, and Fernandez-Carag (2018) stated that the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) including the United Arab Emirates (UAE) aims to achieve SDG 4, focusing on quality education, and considering shared challenges in VET and employment reforms across the GCC. However, universities and higher education institutions play a crucial role and are viewed as catalysts for social change as they connect academic knowledge with real-world applications (Blaique, Nazmy, Aldabbas, & Corbin, 2023).
UAE has made the promotion of VET a top priority (Al Hammadi & Mohiuddin, 2017). Additionally, VET is structured to reinforce the provision of a skilled workforce, aiming to enhance productivity, promote economic development, and contribute to a knowledge-based economy – a crucial element in several strategic visions of the UAE (Dingus & Bašić, 2021). Furthermore, the acquisition of VET holds paramount importance for the UAE in line with the objectives outlined in UAE Vision 2021, Abu Dhabi Vision 2030, and Emiratization strategies (Neusuess, 2020). As a response to the growing need for a highly skilled workforce in the UAE, the government has prioritized the promotion of VET. These initiatives aim to inspire technical and professional skills among the young Emirati population (Raji, 2019).
The underlying concept of VET is to offer learners engaged in vocational training programs the opportunity for practical learning and theoretical knowledge (Vujkov, 2023). According to Anderson (2009), VET is grounded in two fundamental productivity assumptions. First, training for growth which is leading to enhanced productivity and subsequent economic growth. Second, skills for work foster employability and, in turn, create job opportunities. Additionally, this work clarifies the distinction between VET and general or formal education. VET refers to programs focused on acquiring specific knowledge, skills, and competence for occupations, often involving work-based components and leading to occupation-oriented qualifications. On the other hand, general or formal education is designed to develop learners’ overall knowledge, skills, literacy, and numeracy, preparing them for advanced education and laying the foundation for lifelong learning (UNESCO, 2012). Furthermore, we entitlement in this study that VET is a broader term that could include technical VET. For instance, during the 1960s, the term “technical vocational education and training” was commonly used; however, contemporary development cooperation scholars generally prefer the more inclusive term “vocational skills development” (Li & Pilz, 2023).
There is often a gap between the skills demanded by employers and those possessed by job seekers. The literature highlights a distinct mismatch between the attributes of university graduates and the consistently evolving requirements of the labor market (Ashour, 2020; QS, 2019). VET programs are designed to address this mismatch by providing industry-specific skills, increasing the employability of individuals, and encouraging a culture of lifelong learning by providing opportunities for upskilling and reskilling, ensuring that workers remain relevant in their respective fields. Additionally, VET is crucial in today’s dynamic world as it aligns individuals with industry needs, reduces unemployment, promotes entrepreneurship, and contributes to both individual and business success in the evolving job landscape.
The rationale for conducting this systematic literature review is to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of research on VET and TVET in the UAE. By systematically evaluating and synthesizing existing studies from 1999 to August 2024, this review aims to identify gaps in knowledge, assess the effectiveness of current VET practices, and offer actionable insights for future research and policymaking. This approach ensures methodological rigor and contributes valuable information to enhance the understanding and development of VET and TVET systems in the UAE. Furthermore, little information and not sufficient literature about VET are available in the UAE (Dingus & Bašić, 2021; Neusuess, 2020). Based on the importance of VET in the UAE and the study objectives, we formulated our research questions:
RQ1: What are the main themes of 35 studies conducted in the UAE context over the last 25 years?
RQ2: What challenges and future opportunities influence the implementation and outcomes of VET in the UAE?
2 Methodology
2.1 Research Approach
The current study employs a structured literature review, drawing on research techniques, approaches, and variables outlined by Paul and Criado (2020), to explore gaps in the field. The coding protocol for this study involves documenting bibliometric characteristics such as authorship, year, publication outlet, aim, key findings, methodology, strengths, limitations, and conclusion. It further uses thematic coding to identify the most critical themes of VET in the UAE.
2.2 Data Collection
Titles and keywords related to “Vocational Education and Training,” “VET,” “Technical Vocation Education and Training,” “TVET,” “Vocational Education,” “Vocational Training,” and “Skills Development” were systematically searched across the past two decades (1999–August 2024) in various databases, including WorldCat.org, Electronic Collections Online, Article First, SAGE Journals, Taylor and Francis Journals, Education Resources Information Center (ERIC), ScienceDirect, Business Source Complete, ProQuest, and Google Scholar. Details about the research strategy can be found in Appendix A.
Inclusion, exclusion, and data extraction criteria were established as follows. Publication date between January 1999 and August 2024 was set as one of the inclusion criteria. In 1999, the International Congress on Technical and Vocational Education in Korea, UNESCO, and the ILO agreed to adopt the term “technical and vocational education and training” (TVET) to unify the field (Owais, Alabidi, Hatamleh, & Hussein, 2020; UNESCO, 1999). Based on this decision, we begin our systematic literature review from 1999 through August 2024 in the UAE. Additionally, articles were included only if they were written in English, focused primarily on TVET or VET, and used the UAE as the main context of the study. Therefore, book chapters, eBooks, theses, conceptual papers, dissertations, essays, print books, conferences, empirical studies, and proceedings were included in the systematic literature review. Exclusion criteria involved articles in languages other than English or articles not in the UAE context. Additionally, articles that mention TVET in the UAE as an example or use it in their work without focusing primarily on the UAE have been excluded. A structured data extraction procedure was implemented, and Figure 1 illustrates the selection process through a flowchart of the method.
PRISMA flow diagram.
To select articles for this review, the structure of the flowchart was modeled after the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) Group guidelines (Moher, Liberati, Tetzlaff, Altman, & The PRISMA Group, 2009). The following five steps were employed to form the final pool of articles: (1) a total of 330 articles were identified from various databases, and an additional 510 were found through Google Scholar; (2) duplicate articles were removed, resulting in 70 remaining articles, all of which were screened to verify the inclusion of VET as one of the main paper areas; (3) among these, 70 articles that incorporated VET in their arguments or proposed future directions involving VET were included; and (4) after a full-text reading, 70 articles were assessed for eligibility, with 35 being included after applying inclusion criteria, and 36 were excluded because VET was not one of the main concepts discussed in the selected papers or the context did not belong to the UAE. Finally, the same rigorous process was iteratively applied twice to ensure the comprehensive inclusion of all relevant studies in this review (Aldabbas, 2022)
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Summary of 35 Studies (1999 to August 2024)
See Table 1.
Summary of 35 studies (1999 to Augst 2024)
| No | Study | Publication type | Methodology | Population | Study aim | Key findings/main results | Limitations | Strengths | Conclusion |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Bahgat (1999) | Journal article | Research paper | GCC including UAE | To assess gaps in the educational systems of the Gulf counties, including the UAE, and their alignment with societal needs | Despite growth in educational facilities, education quality in the Gulf does not meet societal needs, with issues in integrating traditional and modern methods, balancing indigenous and expatriate labor, and addressing gender disparities | There is no empirical evidence to support the key findings, including both quantitative and qualitative studies | recognizing the Gulf countries’ (including UAE) progress in modernizing education and infrastructure, identifying the need to align educational focus with job market demands for technical skills, and addressing the challenges of balancing cultural preservation with global integration and improving women’s roles | The conclusion indicates that the ongoing lack of vocational and technical training for the local population will likely sustain the demand for foreign labor, while women continue to face barriers to enrolling in vocational programs, especially in fields like electrical and mechanical engineering |
| 2 | Wilkins (2001) | Journal article | Quantitative | 104 students (79 UAE, 25 Oman) | This study explores student and employer perceptions of the Higher National Diploma (HND) and British higher education in two Arabian Gulf countries, focusing on its vocational offerings | This study found that 94% of HND students in the UAE and Oman were satisfied with their program, with 59% planning to pursue a British top-up bachelor’s degree. Most students and employers agreed that the HND somewhat prepared students for employment. Although 62% of students believed the UK offers the best higher education, 60% of UAE employers preferred candidates with an American degree over a British one | Small sample for two counties | The strengths of the study include its focus on preparing students for immediate contributions in the workplace, fostering a foundation for ongoing education and career advancement, and developing key skills, qualities, and attitudes essential for professional success | The UK government and universities must carefully consider international markets in their policy decisions to effectively boost the export of British education |
| 3 | Wilkins (2002) | Journal article | Case study | 79 Higher National Diploma students from Dubai Polytechnic, and HRM professionals from 22 large business organizations in the Emirate of Dubai | It aims to examine how VET supports the national human resource development strategy, identifying its economic, social, cultural, and political impacts | VET has been instrumental in advancing the government’s Emiratization policy, which seeks to boost the involvement of nationals in the workforce. It’s acknowledged that social and cultural factors impact all educational institutions, while private sector entities face significant political and economic challenges | Case study was for one organization which is limited the generalizability of the findings | The UAE’s VET sector has grown since 1988, supported by over thirty private institutions and the Ministry of Higher Education with UNESCO’s backing. Strong programs in banking, finance, and telecommunications engineering have significantly contributed to Emiratization goals, showcasing the sector’s robust development and alignment with national objectives | The UAE’s VET sector has advanced, aiding labor market goals like Emiratization, but faces challenges with social, cultural, and institutional barriers. The private sector plays a key role but struggles with accreditation compared to federal institutions. Despite this, successes like Dubai Polytechnic highlight the sector’s growth potential |
| 4 | Raven (2011) | Journal article | Secondary data | Secondary research on employment statistics and policies in the UAE, complemented by observations of the Higher Colleges of Technology (HCT) | Examine workforce issues and imbalances in the UAE stemming from its recent economic growth. It discusses the federal initiative Emiratization, designed to boost local Emirati employment | The paper examines three primary challenges encountered by the HCT in their efforts to prepare Emiratis for careers in the UAE education sector | Balancing modern “Western” education with UAE cultural values challenges degree relevance, with English at HCT versus Arabic in government schools creating a gap. Teaching’s low status among Emiratis and inadequate funding discourage careers in education, hindering Emiratization efforts and turning away students | The UAE embodies a unique cultural landscape that integrates diverse languages, religions, political dynamics, and ethical considerations, coupled with a push for rapid modernization of its government schools. This paper delineates the difficulties faced during this transformation and provides valuable guidance for educators and policymakers in analogous contexts | The study identifies key challenges for HCT in training Emiratis for education, including aligning programs with cultural values, promoting teaching as a career, and securing funding. Overcoming these obstacles is crucial for effective teacher training and achieving Emiratization goals |
| 5 | Al-Olaimat (2012) | Doctoral thesis | Mixed method | at the VEDC in Abu Dhabi. Quantitative (337 Male students and 23 Teachers). Qualitative (2 Interviews with the teaching staff) | This study seeks to assess the effectiveness of the newly implemented task-based learning approach in language education at VET Center in Abu Dhabi | The results indicate that the VET Development center is employing an effective teaching approach to involve their students, leading to positive academic outcomes | The study’s reliance on self-reported data may introduce biases, and the evaluation period may be too short to fully assess long-term impacts. While findings are positive, they may not be generalizable to other contexts due to the unique characteristics of the VET Development Center students, who have previously disengaged from formal learning | The study, focusing on disengaged male students, used questionnaires and interviews to gather perspectives from students and teachers. With 90% of students showing significant test score improvement, the task-based learning approach proved effective. Its positive reception by both students and teachers suggests it should continue and could serve as a model for similar educational settings | The study shows that the task-based learning approach at VEDC boosts academic achievement and motivation among disengaged learners, making it effective for this unique population. While promising, the study suggests further evaluations over time and future research on integrating different learning styles and grammar instruction into the approach |
| 6 | Alzahmi and Imroz (2012) | Journal article | Research paper | Data related to the UAE, collected from the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Planning, the Ministry of Economics, and the Ministry of Labor and Public Affairs | To understand the distinctive elements that impact the educational and developmental system of the workforce in the UAE | The study identifies key factors influencing UAE workforce education, such as the need for increased government spending, adaptation to diminishing natural resources, and enhancing human capital. It underscores the importance of changing societal perceptions of VET and increasing female workforce participation to support economic diversification and growth | The study relies on descriptive analysis of workforce education factors in the UAE without extensive empirical data or comparative analysis with other countries. It also lacks detailed exploration of how recommendations are implemented, and its focus on the UAE and similar Gulf States may limit the generalizability of its findings to other regions | Strengths lie in its thorough analysis of factors affecting workforce education in the UAE and its practical recommendations for policymakers. Its relevance to the UAE and Gulf States’ unique context provides valuable insights for addressing regional challenges and improving workforce development | The study concludes that the UAE must enhance its investment in technical and VET to sustain economic growth. It recommends increasing government funding, shifting societal attitudes toward vocational education, and improving female workforce inclusion to better prepare for future economic demands and global competition |
| 7 | AlSuwaidi (2014) | Doctoral thesis | Mixed method | The study focused on learners at the Sharjah Institute of Technology, one of ADVETI’s campuses, with a total population size of 160 students | Enhancing the graduates’ job prospects | Underscore the importance of introducing reflective practices and collaborative learning into the UAE’s VET to enhance graduates’ employability. These approaches, leveraging smart technologies and mobile devices, offer timely solutions within an evolving educational landscape. The research promotes integrating innovative pedagogical strategies to equip students with technical skills and higher-order competencies, enhancing their transition from education to employment and improving graduates’ employability | Small sample size and its focus on a single ADVETI campus, which may limit the generalizability of the findings. The pilot study’s short duration of four weeks may also affect the robustness of the results. The reliance on a single set of observations and the absence of longitudinal data restricts the ability to assess long-term impacts | The study’s innovative approach to integrating technology into VET and its use of both qualitative and quantitative methods to evaluate learning outcomes. The focus on reflective practices and collaborative learning is timely and relevant, given the rapid advancement of smart technologies and their potential to enhance vocational training | The study recommends expanding technology-enhanced learning and reflective practices in VET to improve students’ employability skills. It suggests scaling up the pilot model and integrating it into more courses to enhance the educational experience. By bridging the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical skills, technology can better prepare students for the workforce |
| 8 | Heikal (2014) | Master dissertation | Qualitative | The study investigated VET program evaluations in Abu Dhabi, specifically through in-depth interviews with three managers | Assessed the efficacy of the current evaluation method for measuring outcomes in Abu Dhabi’s VET programs | The study found that current evaluation methods for vocational programs are basic and limited to program closure. It suggests that the Multi-Objective Realization Approach (MORE) could enhance evaluations by considering long-term stakeholder objectives and measuring program impacts on employment and competencies | The study’s focus on just one vocational institute, limiting the ability to generalize findings to other institutions. Additionally, the study faced confidentiality issues with documents and had minimal focus on existing evaluation tools due to manager reluctance | The proposed MORE method offers a comprehensive framework for evaluating vocational programs by aligning evaluations with stakeholders’ objectives and extending beyond program completion. This approach aims to improve the design and execution of future programs and facilitate better decision-making | The current evaluation methods are inadequate for assessing long-term objectives and recommends the MORE approach to address these shortcomings. The MORE framework is expected to enhance the evaluation process, better align program outcomes with strategic goals, and improve overall program effectiveness |
| 9 | Glykas, Bailey, Al Maery, and Al Maery (2015) | Journal article | Different quality management frameworks | Not Applicable | Explores the general concept of quality and its associated implementation and assurance concepts. It specifically aims to assess the concept of quality management in VET | Based on case studies and questionnaire interviews across seven member states, along with an analysis of four sectoral accreditation systems that similarities exist between national and sectoral accreditation processes. These findings support the development of a unified systematic strategy for accreditation in VET | The study’s depth was limited by resource constraints and timing, affecting the comprehensiveness of the findings. Additionally, its focus on disseminating existing information about quality management (QM) in the VET sector, rather than generating new insights, restricted its ability to contribute original findings to the field of QM in VET | The study offers a comprehensive overview of quality management (QM) in the VET sector, integrating global knowledge and analyzing its impact on educational outcomes and industry alignment. It provides valuable insights into QM frameworks, methodologies, and standards, strengthened by two detailed case studies that offer practical examples and comparative perspectives on the challenges and successes of QM implementation in different regions | The research highlights the crucial role of quality management (QM) in enhancing VET effectiveness. Despite relying on existing information, it underscores QM’s positive global impact on educational standards and outcomes. The findings emphasize the importance of continued focus on implementing and refining QM systems in VET to ensure graduates are well-prepared for the modern workforce |
| 10 | Jaber and Hashem (2015) | Conference paper | Conceptual/competency synergy | Not Applicable | To present a practical model for training the UAE national workforce to address the rising demand for skilled workers, particularly in vital industries like the oil & gas sector | Aligned with ADNOC’s competency assurance policy, employees in HSE critical roles must possess precise knowledge and skills to perform their duties effectively, ensuring mutual reliance among team members | The article suggests that the model is tailored for ADNOC and the UAE petroleum sector, potentially limiting its applicability to other industries or regions without adaptation. The model’s success depends on integrating ADNOC standards with Scottish Vocational Qualifications (SVQs), which may not be universally applicable | The article’s strength is its practical approach to skill acquisition, covering all levels from trainee to expert. It employs systematic interventions based on experiential and adult learning principles to enhance workplace learning. The model’s adaptability allows for potential implementation in other sectors nationwide, complementing NQA national skill development efforts | The study concludes that effective continuous professional development needs planned, expansive work-integrated learning opportunities and self-directed learning. Introducing SVQ standards offers a systematic approach to training and evaluation, resulting in internationally recognized qualifications. The model supports accelerated expertise through structured on-the-job training, aligning with UAE’s nationalization goals and modern work requirements |
| 11 | Al Alawi (2016) | Journal article | Research paper | The research included 30 participants for a questionnaire and 2 interviewees for personal interviews | Is to explore cultural diversity in the UAE and its effects on the VET sector | Cultural diversity is integral to vocational institutions in the UAE, requiring clear guidelines to overcome challenges and ensure effective service delivery | The research faced limitations due to time and budget constraints, resulting in a smaller sample size with only two interviews and thirty surveys. These limitations may affect the reliability and validity of the findings. While qualitative methods provided deep insights, they may restrict the generalizability of the results across the UAE’s entire VET sector | The research’s strength lies in its focus on the impact of cultural diversity on operations management in UAE’s VET sector, an underexplored area. Its qualitative approach provides in-depth insights into cultural dynamics affecting decision-making and management. By incorporating perspectives from both local and international experts, the study offers valuable insights for policymakers and educational leaders on how cultural factors influence vocational education | Cultural diversity significantly influences VET operations management in the UAE. The research highlights the importance of culturally sensitive practices to address the challenges of a multicultural workforce and student body, enhancing educational effectiveness and supporting broader educational and economic goals. However, it notes the need for further research with a larger, more diverse sample to fully validate these findings and explore cultural impacts in the sector |
| 12 | Alnaqbi et al. (2016) | Journal article | Mixed method | The population included students who were involved in vocational education, students who were not yet enrolled in VET (from grade eight, before entering VET programs), and their parents | Explore the influence of parents’ and students’ attitudes on the intention to pursue VET in the UAE. It examines factors contributing to attitude, including individual, organizational, social, and demographic aspects | The s study aids the UAE government in strategizing, implementing, and improving VET to inspire students, enhance their skills, and prepare them for sustainable employment opportunities in the future. The rise in VET coincides with a decreasing capacity among private sector employers, reflecting the adverse impacts of deficiencies in the foundational sectors of technical education and vocational training | The study’s limitations are its focus on a specific demographic in the UAE, which may not apply to other contexts, and its reliance on inconsistent prior research results. The scope is limited to UAE vocational and technical schools, potentially restricting the broader applicability of its findings | The study’s strengths include its theoretical and managerial contributions, addressing gaps in existing literature by integrating previously separate variables. It applies established theories such as TRA, TPB, and SCT to VET in a developing country, enhancing its significance and relevance | The study concludes that understanding the attitudes of parents and students toward VET is essential for promoting VET programs in the UAE. It finds that these attitudes are influenced by individual, social, organizational, and demographic factors. The research highlights the need to address negative perceptions and the low reputation of VET to boost enrollment and acceptance |
| 13 | Ibrahim (2016) | Master dissertation | Mixed method | The study involved a total of 67 participants, including 56 Islamic Studies teachers, nine lead teachers, and two curriculum specialists from vocational and technical schools, centers, and institutes in the UAE | To examine educators’ perspectives on incorporating Islamic values into educational textbooks used in vocational and technical schools in the UAE | The notable result suggests that age group plays a pivotal role in determining the allocation of value within the Islamic Studies curriculum. The study found that Islamic values were present throughout the Islamic Studies curriculum from Grades 1 to 12. However, Grade 10 textbooks lacked these values, particularly those relevant to vocational education | The study is limited by its focus on a small sample of 56 participants from technical and vocational schools in the UAE and interviews with a few individuals. It only included teachers’ perspectives, excluding students. Additionally, the study’s focus on Grade 10 textbooks restricts the generalizability of its findings | The study’s strengths include its mixed-methods approach, which uses questionnaires, interviews, and content analysis for comprehensive data. It notably focuses on integrating Islamic values into vocational and technical education, addressing a curriculum gap. Additionally, it offers practical recommendations for curriculum development and teacher training, potentially significantly impacting the UAE’s educational system | The study concludes that a new Islamic Studies curriculum tailored for VETis needed, with Islamic values evenly distributed across grades. It emphasizes reinforcing these values through teacher training and an integrated curriculum to support students’ moral and spiritual development. The goal is to help students become productive members of society and contribute to the nation’s advancement |
| 14 | Khan et al. (2018) | Journal article | Review paper | Not Applicable | It aims to provide women increased access to education and equip them with the essential skills to make effective use of their VET | In UAE and GCC, numerous cultural and educational factors contribute to women’s reduced engagement in TVET. These encompass family influence on decision-making, preferences for gender-segregated education and occupation, and societal perceptions of suitable roles for females. Additionally, biased curricula, limited female representation among technical faculty, and perceptions of lower quality and prestige further discourage women’s enrollment in TVET programs, compounded by the perception of limited pathways to higher education | The study is limited by insufficient data on specific GCC populations and lacks comprehensive research on female education and employment. It highlights gaps in understanding women’s TVET enrollment and notes the need for greater GCC cooperation to improve regional strategies | The study excels in analyzing factors affecting female TVET participation in the GCC, highlighting cultural, educational, and labor market challenges. It underscores the need for reforms and regional cooperation to enhance TVET systems and increase female labor market participation | Despite progress in education, women’s TVET participation in the GCC remains low due to cultural and market factors. The study calls for TVET reforms, better alignment with labor market needs, and increased GCC cooperation to boost female employment in technical fields |
| 15 | Alnajjar, Nassar, Dodeen, Daiban, and Darweesh (2018) | Journal article | Quantitative | The study involved 1,920 middle and high school students from various emirates in the UAE | To explore the VET of students in the UAE and examined how these interests relate to both gender and grade level | Significant gender disparities across most Emirates scales, with certain subscales also differing significantly based on students’ grade level. Overall, the study concluded that students’ vocational interests remained consistent across grade levels, but there was a noteworthy shift among female students toward seeking equal opportunities with their male counterparts | Potential limitations include reliance on self-reported data, possible social desirability bias, use of a single assessment tool (ESVI-R), and context-specific findings limited to the UAE, which may affect generalizability to other settings | The study benefits from a large, representative sample and uses the culturally adapted ESVI-R tool, enhancing reliability and validity. It offers valuable insights into gender and grade-level differences in UAE students’ vocational aspirations | The study shows significant gender differences in vocational interests among UAE students, with more females interested in male-dominated fields. It emphasizes the need for gender-sensitive career guidance and further research on vocational interests in cultural contexts |
| 16 | Raji et al. (2019) | Journal article | Review paper | Not Applicable | Assess the necessity of incorporating computer-aided learning methods into vocational and higher education systems, and examine the challenges encountered during their implementation in the UAE | The benefits of TVET and computer-based learning primarily serve commercial interests. However, they also contribute to broader societal advancements by delivering high-quality education to students, reducing unemployment, and fostering lifelong learning among UAE citizens. This, in turn, ensures their self-efficacy | VET enrollment is very low (1-3%) due to a preference for university degrees and the absence of a national strategy. Challenges include inadequate teacher training, poor stakeholder communication, and technological barriers. The study also lacked data to assess CAL integration cost-effectiveness | The study’s strength lies in its thorough analysis of CAL in UAE TVET, highlighting its potential to improve quality and address unemployment. It identifies key areas for improvement, including teacher training and TVET program reputation, essential for success | The study concludes that CAL integration into TVET is beneficial but faces challenges. To succeed, improving program quality, infrastructure, and reducing reliance on trainers’ skills is crucial. Government intervention is needed to enhance TVET systems and align skills with labor market demands |
| 17 | Bhattacharya and Nakhare (2019) | Journal article | Experimental design | Not Applicable | Investigate the possibilities of utilizing Artificial Intelligence (AI) for enhancing student engagement in VET within the UAE | This study suggests a personalized intelligent mentoring system tailored to VET and assess its effectiveness in improving student learning outcomes | The study is ongoing and relies on secondary data from vendor success cases, lacking primary data and potentially reflecting biased opinions. The effectiveness of AI-based tutoring systems in various cultural contexts remains under-researched, with no consensus on their impact | The study explores AI’s potential in vocational education, emphasizing the need for personalized learning and cultural adaptation. It plans to empirically test AI tools, aiming to provide insights for improving educational practices tailored to the target population’s needs | AI-enabled tutoring systems could improve student engagement and performance in UAE vocational education. Ongoing research will empirically assess their impact by piloting the program in a classroom, comparing results with a control group to evaluate effectiveness |
| 18 | Samy and Savic (2019). | Journal article | Research paper | The primary population of interest includes HCT students, faculty, industry partners, and other stakeholders within the UAE’s higher education and labor market ecosystem | To explore how “Applied” or “Professional” Higher Education institutions worldwide are innovating their educational models to meet labor market demands | As industries evolve, the demands of the knowledge economy necessitate highly skilled, work-ready, innovative, and creative graduates, which can only be achieved through pedagogical transformation. The study found that HCT’s hybrid education model has begun to positively impact the satisfaction levels of both students and industry partners. The hybrid model’s focus on real-world and real-work experiences, along with strong industry partnerships, is central to HCT’s strategy | Implementing the hybrid educational model needs a full graduation cycle for accurate assessment. Challenges include change management among faculty, and incomplete integration of work-integrated learning with industry partners, affecting the effectiveness of these partnerships | The study examines HCT’s hybrid education model, aligning with national strategies and industry needs to enhance student employability. It highlights HCT’s leadership through strategic alliances and the Global Applied Education Network, showcasing its adaptability and commitment to educational improvement | HCT’s hybrid education model integrates academic rigor with industry experiences to meet UAE’s knowledge economy demands. The establishment of GAEN and international partnerships underscores HCT’s commitment to global standards, aiming to enhance graduate employability and impact the UAE economy positively |
| 19 | Marimo (2020) | Doctoral thesis | Qualitative research using document analysis | India, South Africa, and the UAE | To examine VET at the post-school level in India, South Africa, and the UAE | VET policies in the three countries are similar in philosophy but differ in implementation. Additionally, Challenges affecting VET include limited funding, inexperienced staff, minimal industry links, and poor public perception | the results may not be generalizable due to the unclear representation of the studied population. Additionally, personal knowledge and experience may influence the conclusions drawn | The study provides valuable insights for policymakers and researchers to guide ongoing VET reforms | The TVET system has faced challenges in India and South Africa, while it has experienced more positive outcomes in the UAE |
| 20 | Hassan (2020) | Doctoral thesis | Mixed methods approach | Vocational educators in the UAE | To examine the views and concerns of vocational educators engaged in adopting the newly introduced vocational qualifications (Q) and National Occupational Skills Standards curriculum model (NOSS) | Most educators experience intense personal and informational concerns due to insufficient communication between stakeholders, issues with the occupational relevance of the content, inadequate classroom support, workload challenges, and regulatory and collaboration issues. Educators are currently using the curriculum in a routine manner without significant alterations, despite acknowledging various adoption challenges | The study may not account for all factors influencing curriculum adoption, and results may be specific to the UAE context | Provides insight into the practical challenges of curriculum adoption in VET and highlights educators’ perspectives, which are critical for successful implementation | The study underscores the importance of addressing educators’ concerns and challenges to improve the adoption and implementation of the Q + NOSS curriculum. These findings offer valuable insights for policymakers and change facilitators to develop early intervention strategies |
| 21 | Nassar and Anajjar (2020) | Journal article | Quantitative | 1,920 middle and high school students | To examine the factor structure of the revised version of the Emirati Scale for Vocational Interests (ESVI-R | The key findings reveal that UAE students prioritize careers in the energy sector, reflecting its economic importance, and show a strong interest in special education, highlighting their values of humanity and tolerance | The study may be limited by the specific population sampled, as the results may not be generalizable beyond middle and high school students in the UAE | The study’s strengths include its large and diverse sample size and the rigorous application of factor analysis techniques, providing strong evidence for the ESVI-R’s validity | ESVI-R is a valid and reliable tool for assessing vocational interests among students in the UAE |
| 22 | Grobbelaar and Verma (2020) | Conference paper | Research paper | Institutions, educators, and students in Dubai’s vocational training centers, particularly those related to the tourism and hospitality sectors | Assess the readiness of Dubai’s Tourism and Hospitality VET Institutions to integrate Industry 4.0 skills into the curriculum, enhancing student capabilities for the future | VET needs to adapt to technological advancements, equipping students with the latest skills essential for Industry 4.0, such as advanced digitalization skills (IoT, Big Data, Blockchain, Robotics, etc.) and soft skills (Emotional Intelligence, Work Ethics, Problem Solving, Persuasion). Educators must embrace new teaching approaches, including expanded support for apprenticeship models with diverse employers, to meet the evolving needs of the workforce | Many vocational training centers in Dubai are still using outdated syllabi and are not fully familiar with Industry 4.0 requirements. Additionally, there is a global trend where fewer students are enrolling in vocational programs, leading to a shortage of skilled workers in industries like hospitality | The study highlights the significant role vocational training centers play in preparing students for the future workforce, particularly in rapidly evolving industries like tourism and hospitality. It also provides a detailed analysis of the impact of Industry 4.0 on various sectors and the necessity for education systems to adapt accordingly | Dubai’s vocational training centers need to update curricula to align with Industry 4.0 demands, integrating essential hard and soft skills. This is crucial for preparing students for future job markets and ensuring they are ready for evolving challenges and opportunities |
| 23 | Owais et al. (2020) | Journal article | Quantitative | The study involved 175 teachers and administrators from Technical Vocational Colleges (TVCs) in the UAE | Overview of the history and significance of TVET, compares TVET in the UAE and the UK, and analyses the connection between teacher training programs, access to technical resources, teachers’ technology integration, and the mission of vocational institutes in the UAE | There is correlation between teachers’ incorporation of technology, participation in teacher training programs, access to technical resources, and the alignment with the mission and vision of technical and vocational institutes | The study was confined to teachers and administrators within TVCs in the UAE, limiting its generalizability. The research environment could not be controlled, meaning responses might be influenced by the state of technology education during the study period. The findings may also have limited relevance in the future as technology evolves | The study systematically explored stakeholders’ perceptions of technology integration in technical and vocational education, providing valuable insights into the effectiveness of technology in enhancing teaching and learning processes. The use of structural equation modelling (SEM) ensured a robust analysis of the data, leading to reliable and valid findings | The study emphasizes the UAE’s efforts to integrate technology into technical and vocational education. It underlines the need for clear vision and mission statements, effective teacher training programs, and accessibility to technical resources to ensure successful technology integration. The study also suggests that integrating technology in education is essential not only in vocational institutes but also across schools, colleges, and universitiess |
| 24 | Al Hamad (2020) | Master dissertation | Qualitative | Five semi-structured interviews | To identify and address the challenges faced by Finnish VET providers in the internationalization process, particularly in transmitting technical and vocational training to the UAE | The study suggests effective solutions entail collaborating with UAE organizations, promoting Finnish VET models, and enhancing career guidance systems. Hiring local instructors proficient in Arabic and English and implementing structured teacher training programs are also crucial actions | The study’s limitations include the generalizability of the results due to the qualitative nature of the research, the difficulty in persuading high-ranking officials to participate, and the absence of participants from the industry and business sectors. Additionally, the language barrier during interviews and the limited time for interviews also posed challenges | The in-depth qualitative approach, which provided detailed insights through semi-structured interviews. The research offers practical solutions for Finnish VET providers and emphasizes the importance of strategic partnerships, cultural understanding, and localized strategies in the successful internationalization of VET | While there are significant challenges for Finnish VET providers in the UAE, strategic collaboration, cultural adaptation, and proactive image-building efforts can enhance the successful transmission of vocational education. The research provides valuable insights for administrators and managers in the field of international VET and suggests areas for further research, particularly in the internationalization of VET and teacher professional development |
| 25 | Neusuess (2020) | Journal article | Quantitative | 428 surveys were used for the main analysis. Additionally, a case study was conducted with 171 UAE national students from the Secondary Technical School (STS) | Acquiring understanding of the factors influencing Emirati students in pursuing TVET can aid the UAE in attracting a greater number of Emiratis to this field | The results highlight the importance of incorporating career perspectives, economic factors, and parental engagement in promoting technical and VET to Emirati students. Utilizing social media marketing is advised for optimal advertising outcomes | A narrow sample of students from specific schools, which may not represent the broader UAE student population. The data collection was cross-sectional and limited to a two-week period, potentially affecting the comprehensiveness of the findings. Additionally, excluding non-UAE nationals and not including perspectives from parents or industry professionals might limit the depth of the analysis | A well-defined participant group and the use of both descriptive and inferential statistical tests to analyze the data. The use of a quantitative approach with a large sample size and cross-validation through a case study enhances the reliability of the results. The use of SPSS for data analysis ensures rigorous examination and comparison of findings | The study concludes that technical and TVE is crucial for the UAE’s growth and aligns with national strategies. Career aspirations and parental influence are significant factors motivating Emirati students to pursue TVE. Addressing economic perception differences and leveraging social media for promotion can enhance TVE enrollment. The study underscores the need for ongoing research and broader sampling to fully understand and improve TVE in the UAE |
| 26 | Amro (2022) | Doctoral thesis | qualitative | 24 Interviews, 14 female students and 10 administrations and teachers | This study explores the external and internal factors that influence the enrollment rates of female students at a VET institute in the UAE. | The findings suggest that internal factors include the campus environment, learning experiences, and relationships with administrators and instructors, while external factors encompass awareness of the institute, its location, prior school and enrollment experiences, and the purpose of studying | It’s important to note that each female student and staff member has her own unique reality and interpretations which can affect the generalizability of qualitative research findings | Fills a significant gap in the literature by examining factors affecting female students’ enrollment in VET in the UAE. Additionally, provides insights into why female students stay, become absent, or drop out, enhancing understanding of these issues | The diverse lived experiences and their associated realities (e.g., internal and external factors) provided valuable opportunities for in-depth exploration |
| 27 | Manogaran (2021) | Book | Qualitative comparative case study | Twenty-one policymakers | To explore the challenges encountered by the UAE, Bahrain, and Oman | The UAE faces coordination issues in quality assurance across its federal education system. Mistakes in adopting practices from early developers have caused delays in registering qualifications and reaping expected benefits | A limitation of this study is the scarcity of critical data and literature on the three countries involved. Additionally, the sample sizes across these countries were uneven, with the UAE and Bahrain in the implementation stages and Oman in the development stage | A key strength of this thesis is its ability to help policymakers and policy researchers view their framework in a comparative context. Additionally, this research enhances understanding by highlighting the challenges of developing and implementing a borrowed policy without adequately considering the contextual differences between the lending and recipient countries | The ambitious policies in the studied countries face significant challenges due to underestimated costs and the time required to build local competencies. It emphasizes the complexities of policy borrowing and the importance of considering sociocultural and socio-political contexts in both lending and borrowing countries |
| 28 | Dingus & Bašić (2021) | Research report | Review of publicly available information | Adult education regulators and providers in the UAE | To assess the current state of adult education regulation in the UAE, identify challenges, and propose recommendations for improvement | The regulatory system for adult education is complex and lacks transparency, with inconsistent and sometimes contradictory information. Immediate updates and standardization of regulator websites are needed. A centralized portal with key indicators and a national adult education strategy should be developed. Increased collaboration among regulators and the private sector is essential | Limited information available on the sector and potential inconsistencies in publicly available data | Provides actionable recommendations to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the adult education sector | Implementing the proposed updates and strategies will enhance the adult education sector’s alignment with market demands and support national development |
| 29 | Alhajeri (2021) | Journal article | Literature | Not Applicable | This research highlights the efforts undertaken by the UAE government, specifically the Abu Dhabi government, to enhance and extend VET through collaborative initiatives with the private sector | Limited evidence suggests that VET interventions effectively secure employment for young individuals. There’s a perception that supporting and emphasizing the benefits of entrepreneurship education are significant concepts to address | Lack of comprehensive evidence on the effectiveness of TVET interventions for providing employment. Additionally, it notes the challenges in integrating VET with the rapidly evolving labor market needs, and the potential bias in the studies reviewed due to varying quality and study designs | Comprehensive exploration of the UAE’s VET landscape, its focus on the role of government initiatives in promoting entrepreneurship, and the use of a meta-analytic approach to assess the impact of TVET on employment. It also emphasizes the importance of collaboration between the private sector and educational institutions | UAE government’s efforts to expand and upgrade vocational education, particularly through collaboration with the private sector, are crucial for enhancing youth employability and fostering innovation. However, there is a need for continued refinement of TVET programs to better align with labor market demands and ensure long-term effectiveness in reducing unemployment and supporting economic growth |
| 30 | Gamar (2021) | Book chapter | Literature | Not Applicable | To advocate for the implementation of a critical pedagogical approach to enhance teacher professional development in the Arab states | The study highlights that the current TVET systems in the GCC including UAE are predominantly focused on developing instrumental skills for the labor market, often at the expense of fostering critical consciousness and social agency among educators and learners. It finds that integrating critical pedagogical approaches into TVET can empower educators to challenge systemic inequities and promote a more humanistic, transformative educational experience | The study is limited by the GCC’s focus on human capital theory, which emphasizes economic growth over developing critical, reflective citizens. It may also struggle with entrenched views of TVET as solely skill-oriented, amid rapid regional socioeconomic changes | The study advocates shifting from an economic model of TVET to one incorporating critical pedagogical approaches, promoting active citizenship and social justice. It offers a region-specific framework for transforming TVET in the GCC beyond mere skill development | Integrating critical pedagogies into TVET teacher development in the GCC is vital for addressing power dynamics and inequities. This approach fosters critical consciousness, transforming TVET into a more holistic, socially responsive system that supports regional social and economic development |
| 31 | Handley (2021) | Doctoral thesis | Qualitative | 41 participants, including students, postgraduates, employees, organizational decision-makers, and governmental policymakers in the UAE | To assess the historical and socio-cultural aspects pertaining to both academia and vocationally oriented qualifications, with a specific emphasis on apprentice programs within the UAE. The research sought to understand how the cultural dimensions of the UAE influence individuals’ viewpoints regarding learning and educational decisions | The research revealed that while academia is deeply embedded in UAE culture, vocational qualifications and apprenticeship schemes are often stigmatized and perceived as inferior. Participants showed a lack of awareness and understanding of these schemes, highlighting the need for substantial reforms in educational practices to increase acceptance and integration of vocational pathways | Two main limitations were identified: a lack of financial and contextualized information within the UAE and the wider GCC countries. The limited financial data suggested the need for a more in-depth study, while the scarcity of relevant literature required the study to bridge existing gaps in knowledge | Contextualized approach to understanding vocational learning mechanisms in the UAE. It provided fresh insights into how the indigenous population prefers to learn and develop, addressing the socio-cultural stigmas associated with non-academic routes | While the UAE has a robust and modern educational system, there is still space for vocational routes like apprenticeship schemes. However, significant challenges remain, including socio-cultural stigmas, a lack of institutional flexibility, and limited governmental support, which must be addressed to bridge the gap between academia and vocational training |
| 32 | Hojeij and Al Marzouqi (2023) | Journal article | Mixed method | The study involved 434 Emirati female students from Grades 9 to 12, enrolled in vocational high schools across the UAE | The focus of this study is to investigate the views of female Emirati students on their educational encounters in TVET, the obstacles encountered, and their anticipations for the future | The study revealed that the majority of participants had a positive educational experience in TVET, appreciating the physical environment, professional support, and diversity of the study program. They reported acquiring essential skills such as leadership, technical abilities, and English language proficiency. However, they also faced challenges, including a heavy workload, difficulty with English, and cultural stigmas associated with vocational education | The study was limited to female students in the Applied Technology High School (ATHS) system, which may not fully represent the broader population of Emirati students. The use of self-reported data through an online survey could also introduce bias, as it relies on the students’ perceptions and willingness to disclose their true feelings | Include its mixed-methods approach, which combined quantitative and qualitative data to provide a comprehensive understanding of the participants’ experiences. The large sample size and diverse geographic representation also add to the robustness of the findings. The study successfully highlights both the positive aspects of TVET, and the challenges faced by female students, providing valuable insights for future improvements | While Emirati female students generally have positive perceptions of their TVET experience and believe it equips them well for future careers, there are still significant challenges to address. These include improving practical training, reducing the academic workload, and changing societal perceptions of vocational education. The findings underscore the need for ongoing efforts to enhance vocational training and promote gender equality in the field |
| 33 | Mishrif, Karolak, and Mirza (2023) | Book chapter | Review paper | Not Applicable | It explores the primary channels and dynamics through which GCC countries can connect education development with the evolving demands of the labor market | The study identifies a significant mismatch between the skills imparted by higher education institutions and those required by the labor market in the context of Industry 4.0. It reveals that many educational curricula are outdated and do not adequately cover the latest technologies and methodologies essential for the modern workforce. Furthermore, the research highlights a critical need for enhanced collaboration between educational institutions and industry players to ensure that graduates are equipped with relevant skills | The study may suffer from outdated data and rapid technological changes in Industry 4.0, potentially affecting its accuracy. Variability in sample representativeness across GCC countries could also impact the generalizability of the findings | The study provides a comprehensive analysis of the gap between educational outputs and industry needs in light of Industry 4.0 advancements. It offers a balanced view by incorporating perspectives from both educational institutions and industry stakeholders | To bridge the higher education-labor market gap in the GCC, reforms are needed. Updating curricula for Industry 4.0 and strengthening university-industry partnerships are crucial for preparing graduates and addressing skills mismatches in the modern workforce |
| 34 | Jarrah et al. (2024) | Journal article | Quantitative | A random sample of 60 male and female VET teachers from Abu Dhabi | The study seeks to investigate the challenges associated with the utilization of innovative technological methods in vocational education | Teachers perceive moderate challenges regarding technological innovation in teaching VET. The most significant hurdles relate to technological applications, school capabilities, and curricula, with some challenges notably impacting student achievement, according to VET teachers’ perspectives | The study’s limitations include its focus on Abu Dhabi schools, time constraints from 2023, and concentration on VE teachers. These factors, along with sample size and research instrument issues, limit the generalizability of the findings | The study provides targeted insights into VE teachers in the UAE, using random sampling for reliable results. The methodological rigor is enhanced by SPSS data analysis and Cronbach alpha coefficient for reliability assessment | The study highlights moderate challenges in integrating technology into UAE vocational education, impacting student achievement. It underscores the need for improved technological infrastructure in government schools to support VE teachers and enhance student outcomes |
| 35 | Khasawneh (2024) | Journal article | Quantitative | The study involved a sample of 132 vocational teachers from different schools in the UAE | Explored challenges in online vocational education, revealing differing teacher perspectives and examining the impact of gender and experience | The findings indicate that using online courses for vocational training is challenging due to the essential practical component of this type of education | The study examined online VET challenges in UAE schools (2021–2022), focusing solely on Dubai and Abu Dhabi. It was limited to vocational teachers’ perspectives and did not include students or administrative staff | A comprehensive survey that covered multiple dimensions of online vocational education, such as administration, equipment, teacher development, curricula, and societal views. The inclusion of a diverse sample of teachers from various backgrounds provided a well-rounded understanding of the issues | The study found UAE’s online VET lacking due to outdated equipment and limited practical training. It calls for improved facilities, updated curricula, stronger private sector collaboration, and increased opportunities for female students to better prepare graduates for the workforce |
Fifty-seven percentage (n = 20) of studies were published in journal articles, while 43% (n = 15) were published as conference papers, policy reports, book chapters, books, and Master’s and PhD theses.
3.2 The Main Themes of Systematic Literature Review
In exploring the field of TVET and VET in the UAE, we have identified several key themes based on a review of 35 studies conducted over the past 25 years. These themes are categorized into four main subsections.
3.2.1 Emiratization and Cultural Factors
Emiratization and socio-cultural constraints. The key challenge for the UAE government is encouraging nationals to consider technical and private sector jobs. While nationals may show interest in managerial roles in the private sector, they often face challenges related to experience, skills, qualifications, and motivation that employers typically seek. Expatriate workers, on the other hand, typically bring more experience, higher qualifications, and a willingness to work longer hours for lower salaries (Wilkins, 2002). Research highlights that UAE nationals may be less interested in private-sector employment due to lower compensation packages and benefits, longer working hours, higher workloads, and a perceived lack of skills to handle the demands compared to the government sector (Reddy & Kota, 2019). In contrast to the private sector, public sector jobs are generally less demanding, offer greater flexibility, and provide higher salaries and attractive bonuses (Al Murshidia & Al Riyamib, 2020). However, The Abu Dhabi Centre for Technical and Vocational Education and Training (ACTVET) aims to boost the number of skilled Emirati youth pursuing fulfilling career paths and to promote lifelong learning and personal growth (Dingus & Bašić, 2021). ACTVET is dedicated to expanding the number of skilled Emiratis in fulfilling career paths while promoting lifelong personal development, aligning with the UAE’s commitment to advancing Emiratization to create opportunities for university graduates across both the public and private (Alzaabi, 2024).
In a recent study for Emirati females, the results showed that despite facing academic and cultural challenges, participants generally had a positive educational experience. They expressed confidence that their VET would pave the way for a brighter future, whether in their careers or furthering their education (Hojeij & Al Marzouqi, 2023). Similarly, an empirical study of 1920 UAE students found that students’ vocational interests remained consistent across grade levels. Additionally, a significant shift in the vocational preferences of female students was observed, indicating a desire for equal opportunities with their male counterparts (Alnajjar et al., 2018). Thus, we argue that VET significantly contributes to Emiratization policies by aiming to enhance UAE nationals’ capabilities and employability.
3.2.2 Technological Advancement in VET
To align traditional education with the contemporary job market, it is essential to integrate cutting-edge technologies into VET (Ghosh & Ravichandran, 2024). It was evident from 35 studies including this work the positive correlation between technology, education, training, and competency despite varying outcomes in distinct cases. For instance, Owais et al. (2020), indicated in their mixed method study a positive and noteworthy correlation between teachers’ incorporation of technology, participation in training programs, accessibility to technical resources/equipment, and the mission and vision alignment of technical and vocational institutes. Many studies show the benefits associated with technology usage, emphasizing the integration of VET models to enhance graduates’ employability. Additionally, commercial benefits of VET and computer-based learning contribute to societal improvement by offering quality education and reducing unemployment. Finally, the mismatch between graduates and jobs could be addressed by leveraging advanced technology. For example, incorporating artificial intelligence and machine learning techniques into teaching and learning could help to equip students with the necessary skills while improving the quality of education (Algethami, 2024; Ghosh & Ravichandran, 2024).
3.2.3 Challenges in VET Implementation in the UAE
This is the most critical theme that the majority of studies confirmed that VET faced challenges in motivating students to enroll. For instance, in Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE, the enrollment in technical programs at the upper secondary level is below 5% of the total student population (Khan et al., 2018). Based on the 35 studies, we summarized the challenges as follows:
Lack of planning in incorporating Industry 4.0 skills in VET. Formal education is not pursued to gain competence in the workplace; instead, it is a mandatory requirement to allow individuals to achieve a passing grade in specific written and oral examinations (Alainati, Alshawi, & Al-Karaghouli, 2010). However, Mishrif et al. (2023) emphasize the importance of updating curricula to include Industry 4.0 competencies and foster stronger partnerships between universities and industry sectors.
Challenges faced by Finnish VET providers in the UAE, emphasizing the need for collaboration, image enhancement, bilingual instructors, and structured teacher training programs. Lack of coordination among stakeholders in the UAE’s education-to-employment process is worsening skill and education mismatches in the country (Khassawneh & Abaker, 2022).
Factors influencing students’ decisions, including career prospects, parental influence, and job perspectives, form the foundation for further research on VET. However, one of the key challenges facing higher education and TVET programs is their low enrollment rates, ranging from 1% to 3%, which are considerably lower than the global average.
Instructors’ professional development as a means to provide a more human-centered and transformative education in vocational settings.
Emphasis on the cultural importance of university education for UAE nationals and exploration of integrating apprentice schemes into the education system. While educational practices and philosophies in the UAE are making efforts to align with recent reforms, it is essential to concurrently consider cultural factors. The willingness or reluctance of students to engage in vocational learning, for instance, may be connected to their cultural beliefs (Raven, 2011).
Higher Colleges of Technology (HCT) faces four primary challenges in training Emirati students in the UAE’s education sector. The first challenge involves ensuring that the relevance of degrees and diplomas offered, considering the unique cultural context of the UAE, the need to modernize government schools, and HCT’s language of instruction being English, while government schools predominantly use Arabic (Raven, 2011).
The costs associated with higher education in the UAE including the vocational are increasing at a rate surpassing inflation, posing a notable challenge, especially during economic slowdowns caused by declining oil prices (Jose & Chacko, 2017).
UAE higher education system including VET faced many challenges including outdated curricula, subpar teaching standards, deficiencies in STEM skills and subject offerings, and national attitudes toward education. Additionally, improving the quality of students transitioning from secondary school to higher education is essential (Ashour, 2020).
Women’s lower enrollment in VET programs and limited pathways due to cultural factors. Neusuess (2020) finds a significant difference in perceptions related to the economic factor between males and females suggesting that males prioritize the economic aspect in their educational considerations. Finally, communication between stakeholders and the TVET system is also inadequate (Raji, 2019).
3.2.4 Opportunities for VET in UAE
Although we have outlined the challenges facing VET in the UAE, there are still many opportunities and strengths that can enhance VET, such as
Government policy support is crucial for the success of VET initiatives in the UAE. As a high-income country, the UAE educational sector has access to financial funds. Specifically, UAE is considered a booming economy and diverse work activities necessitate VET programs with minimal experience requirements, such as a 2-year diploma.
The UAE Government (2022) identified four pillars for its Vision 2031, namely Forward Society, Forward Economy, Forward Diplomacy, and Forward Ecosystem. VET initiatives directly contribute to the “Forward Society” pillar by focusing on enhancing the skills and capabilities of UAE citizens, particularly through Emiratization, which is one of the core themes of this study. Additionally, VET supports the “Forward Economy” pillar, which emphasizes the importance of human capital as a key driver of economic growth. By concentrating on future-oriented skills, especially in technology and innovation, VET plays a critical role in developing a skilled workforce that meets the demands of the UAE’s evolving economy. Additionally, the UAE has initiated various plans and strategies aimed at diversifying its economy and enhancing its competitiveness, aligning with its national vision of transitioning to a knowledge-driven economy that reduces dependence on oil (Amro, 2022). Finally, VET can contribute significantly to the “Forward Ecosystem” pillar by providing specialized training in digital skills, infrastructure development, and smart technologies. This ensures that the workforce is prepared to support the UAE’s ambitious infrastructure projects and the digital transformation of government services, ultimately boosting the nation’s global competitiveness.
There is a rising demand for vocational roles such as financial analysts, paralegals, marketing specialists, and software developers, but the number of TVET institutions equipped to train youth in these areas is still limited (Alhajeri, 2021).
Vocational training fosters an entrepreneurial mindset and innovation, enabling graduates to start their own businesses and thereby help reduce unemployment (Algethami, 2024).
From a structural perspective, making occupations more equal in social status (such as raising the prestige of currently low-status jobs) and achieving a better gender balance may reduce the occurrence of career compromise (Beckmann, Wicht, & Siembab, 2023).
Sufficient infrastructure, such as that provided by institutions in the UAE, is needed to support VET programs.
There is potential to improve VET accessibility through ICT integration. Hassan, Hassan, Naseer, Khan, and Jeon (2021) highlight a crucial need to incorporate technologies such as IoT, robotics, data science, artificial intelligence, cloud computing, and other related advancements into all TVET training programs.
Engaging learners with appropriate VET curricula considering that VET plays a significant role in women’s employment and empowerment. For instance, a solution is for educational institutions and employers to work together to provide students in technical and vocational programs with job-relevant skills and practical experience through industry apprenticeships (Algethami, 2024).
4 Recommendations for Policymakers in the UAE
The job market is evolving rapidly due to technological advancements and globalization. VET provides practical skills and hands-on training, making individuals more adaptable to changing industry demands. However, we have summarized the factors that may bridge the gap as follows:
Policymakers in the UAE should select accredited programs from foreign countries and should involve rigorous checks for contextual relevance and quality assurance. Further, this necessitates the development of resources and teaching techniques in both languages to cater to linguistic diversity (Raven, 2011). For instance, the VET sector in Germany highlights the significance of establishing industry-specific upskilling through collaborations between the public and private sectors (Dingus & Bašić, 2021). Therefore, conducting regular surveys of the adult education market and ensuring a close alignment between the demands of learners and employers are needed (Dingus & Bašić, 2021).
Government policy asserts that VET should prioritize addressing demand-side requirements by identifying and meeting the diverse needs of stakeholders within the demand side (Billett, 2000). Students should also be supported in obtaining international professional certifications during their studies to enhance their learning experiences and boost their employability and opportunities (Amro, 2022; Karam et al. 2023).
Incorporate Industry 4.0 skills by developing a strategic plan to integrate Industry 4.0 competencies into VET curricula, ensuring alignment with workplace requirements. To build a responsive and industry-driven national TVET system, efforts should first focus on aligning with job market needs through modern policies and industry-led advisory councils and enhancing public awareness of career prospects (Owais et al., 2020).
Emphasize the importance of considering career factors, economic aspects, and parental involvement when promoting technical and vocational education to Emirati students. In detail, policymakers in the UAE should emphasize parental influence in encouraging their children to pursue VET. A study with 428 surveys and additional tests from 171 students found that career prospects and parental encouragement are key motivators for Emirati students to choose vocational education (Neusuess, 2020). Additionally, leveraging social media marketing is a strategic tool for effective advertising in this regard (Neusuess, 2020).
Cooperation and coordination are key success factors, possibly more important in VET than general education because of the many stakeholder types (Caves, Baumann, & Renold, 2021). Therefore, universities need to focus on talent development, emotional intelligence, and collaboration with the industry (Hiasat & Radaideh, 2023). A systematic review of 46 studies highlights the importance of close cooperation among involved parties, the pivotal role of individuals and the competence of instructors, and the need for a goal-oriented organization with transparent structures (Toepper, Zlatkin-Troitschanskaia, & Kühling-Thees, 2021). VET policymakers and related institutions need to work together to establish and enforce policies governing acceptance criteria for both universities and VET institutes (Samara, 2024). Partnerships between industry and vocational institutions should be strengthened, as the collaboration of both sectors is essential for delivering and implementing high-quality vocational education (Marimo, 2020).
VET institutions need to incorporate practical technological skills, understand the impact of technology on specific vocations, as well as focus on data analytics skills to address the vast amount of information generated. The curriculum should be updated regularly to incorporate technological advancements, evolving teaching and learning strategies, as well as social and cultural changes (Marimo, 2020).
Policies related to VET in the UAE need to adopt innovative and integrated approaches to address the needs of all stakeholders effectively. This shift introduces new challenges for the UAE government in delivering VET. Policymakers should consider the Triple Helix approach, which promotes collaboration among educational institutions, government, and industry. Such collaboration is essential for enhancing the employability of TVET graduates and closing the gap between their skills and industry requirements (Omar & Kamaruzaman, 2024).
Policymakers should take into account the impact of organizational changes and business developments when fostering vocational and education development, as employers adapt to the opportunities facilitated by governmental initiatives (Pinnington, Aldabbas, Mirshahi, & Pirie, 2022). Thus, organizations should revisit the early induction and socialization experiences of Emiratis to ensure they are thoughtfully designed to develop skills that improve future prospects and employability, both within and outside the organization.
Policymakers to create initiatives to encourage women’s participation in VET programs, addressing cultural barriers and economic perceptions by strengthening communication channels between VET systems and stakeholders to ensure better coordination and understanding of VET needs. For instance, GCC countries including the UAE consistently emphasize the influence of female role models as a key factor in encouraging women to pursue VET education and employment, serving as a powerful catalyst for behavior change (Khan et al., 2018). Consequently, employers who offer certain privileges to women should be encouraged and recognized as family-friendly, ensuring that women feel comfortable working for them (Elbanna, 2022).
Finally, the increased involvement of Emiratization in the teaching and learning process within their community is considered a pivotal factor in the Emiratization process (Raven, 2011). Additionally, The Emirati Talent Competitiveness Programme (NAFIS) provides valuable insights for policymakers in VET by showcasing an effective model for integrating industry and employment support. By aiming to employ 75,000 Emiratis in the private sector and providing comprehensive services such as job placements, on-the-job training, apprenticeships, and career consulting, NAFIS highlights the benefits of a multifaceted approach to workforce development (Elsayed, 2024). Policymakers can use this program as a benchmark to design similar initiatives that align VET with industry needs, enhance employability, and ensure that vocational training leads directly to job opportunities in the private sector.
To conclude, this work advocates for the establishment of a national strategy for VET in the UAE, given the existing gap in a comprehensive approach to raising awareness about the benefits of vocational training and its promotion (Raji, 2019).
5 Limitations and Future Studies
This study is very limited because of only 35 studies included in the literature. However, researchers are advised to write in this critical area quantitatively, qualitatively, or mixed methods, in addition to regulate systematic literature review to follow and understand the progression in this field and understand the gaps. Additionally, this study excluded Arabic-language publications; future research could explore Arabic-language studies to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the VET topic in the UAE. The literature is missing a strong theoretical approach to explaining implementation success and failure. However, the field is growing (Caves et al., 2021). As discussed in Section 1, there is a noticeable scarcity of studies on VET, particularly quantitative ones; future studies focusing on VET in the context of creativity and wellbeing among students or employees in various industries in the UAE are required (see, Aldabbas et al. 2023; Aldabbas & Bettayeb, 2024). Thus, the literature lacks quantitative studies, and more studies are needed specifically in the UAE.
To conclude, this study explored VET and conducted a comprehensive analysis of related literature spanning the past two decades in the UAE. The aim was to gain a deeper understanding of the challenges and success factors of VET. Recognized for its efficacy in fostering a sense of the importance of VET in 35 studies from 1999 to August 2024.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the editor, Dr. Joanna Kosinska, and two anonymous reviewers for their insights and suggestions in enhancing our work.
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Funding information: Authors state no funding involved.
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Author contributions: All authors planned the study. HA compiled the first draft. HA and AA provided input on various versions of the manuscript that were incorporated by HA. All authors approved the final manuscript which was submitted by HA.
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Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.
Detailed Search Strategy
A1. Search Strategy Overview
The search strategy for this systematic literature review was designed to be comprehensive and methodical to ensure the inclusion of relevant studies. The strategy involved using a range of keywords, advanced search techniques, and multiple databases to capture a broad spectrum of literature related to VET and TVET.
A2. Databases Searched
The following databases were systematically searched:
WorldCat.org
Electronic Collections Online
Article First
SAGE Journals
Taylor and Francis Journals
Education Resources Information Center (ERIC)
ScienceDirect
Business Source Complete
ProQuest
Google Scholar
A3. Keywords and Search Terms
The initial search was conducted using the following primary keywords:
“Vocational Education and Training”
“VET”
“Technical Vocational Education and Training”
“TVET”
“Vocational Education”
“Vocational Training”
“Skills Development”.
A4. Boolean Operators
Boolean operators were used to refine the search results:
AND (to combine different concepts, e.g., “Vocational Education AND UAE”)
OR (to include synonyms and related terms, e.g., “VET OR TVET”)
NOT (to exclude irrelevant terms e.g., STEM).
A5. Search Filters and Techniques
Date Range: Articles published from 1999 to August 2024.
Publication Type: Peer-reviewed articles, not scoop articles, book chapters, theses, dissertations, and conference proceedings.
Language: Studies published in English.
A6. Search Process and Results
Initial Search:
Total identified articles: 330 from databases, 510 from Google Scholar.
Duplicate Removal:
Duplicates removed: 770
Screening:
Remaining articles after duplicates removed: 70
Articles included: 35
Articles excluded: 35
Inclusion:
Articles included for full-text review: 35
Eligible articles after review (thematic): 35.
A7. Quality Assurance
This manuscript was researched and drafted by two authors. After the first author completed the initial research, the second author independently reviewed and applied their methodology. The entire process was repeated to ensure that all relevant articles were included. This rigorous process was also applied to the identification of the four key themes. Both authors worked independently and then compared their results to ensure consistency in the inclusion and exclusion of studies. In the revised manuscript, we consulted an academic professor to review the identified themes. She confirmed that these themes accurately reflect the content of the entire set of papers. If our manuscript is accepted, we will include her name in the acknowledgment section for her contribution to reviewing our work. This duplication of effort was implemented to ensure accuracy and minimize bias in the selection process. Furthermore, the selection process was conducted rigorously and iteratively, modeled after the PRISMA Group guidelines ensuring comprehensive inclusion of relevant studies.
A8. Iterative Process
The search and selection process were conducted twice to ensure the comprehensive inclusion of relevant studies and adherence to the criteria set forth.
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- Socially Interactive Approaches and Digital Technologies in Art Education: Developing Creative Thinking in Students During Art Classes
- Current Trends Virtual Reality to Enhance Skill Acquisition in Physical Education in Higher Education in the Twenty-First Century: A Systematic Review
- Case Study
- Contrasting Images of Private Universities
