Exploring the Relationship Between Social–Emotional Learning and Cyberbullying: A Comprehensive Narrative Review

1.1 Overview of Social–Emotional Learning (SEL)

SEL was derived from the constructivist perspective as a new educational approach that can improve educational achievement and other personal and social developments for students (Paolini, 2020). In previous decades, educational policymakers and educators emphasized academic achievement and career development; however, they ignored students’ social and psychological needs and their need to become a successful and fully integrated individual (Kamei & Harriott, 2021). Thus, SEL emerged from those needs as an attempt to complete today’s educational paradigm. However, emotional experiences are remarkably important in academic life, since they affect almost every aspect of cognition and learning (Khazanchi, Khazanchi, Mehta, & Tuli, 2021; Lawson, McKenzie, Becker, Selby, & Hoover, 2019). For example, tests, examinations, homework, and deadlines are linked to various emotions, including boredom, worry, and aggravation. Students’ emotional states even interfere with memory and learning (Tyng, Amin, Saad, & Malik, 2017). Adolescents require assistance in managing their own emotions and those of others (Raimundo, Marques-Pinto, & Lima, 2012). This support might be given by coworkers at work, teachers and students at school, or parents at home (Schonert-Reichl, 2017). SEL is the study of life skills such as managing oneself, relating to others, and working efficiently. SEL aims to help individuals recognize their feelings and create coping strategies for themselves (Bierman et al., 2010). SEL encourages people to maintain healthy relationships and to develop empathy and compassion for others in social situations (Duarte et al., 2018). This process is predicated on the knowledge that learning occurs most effectively in the setting of supportive relationships that provide learning opportunities that are stimulating, interesting, and meaningful (Denham & Brown, 2010; Farrington et al., 2019). Hence, SEL is a teaching method that helps students identify, control, and communicate the social and emotional facets of their lives to function well in the outside world and take care of their daily responsibilities (CASEL, 2015).

SEL teaches students to be aware of their feelings and manage them, develop empathy for others, and establish positive goals to be able to initiate and maintain positive and meaningful relationships with others. They can make smart decisions, take responsible actions, and deal with the consequences of their choices. This requires teaching, understanding, and exercising of these capacities. The SEL approach, as outlined by Elbertson, Brackett, and Weissberg (2009), emphasizes competencies essential for navigating life successfully. These include (a) self-awareness, (b) self-management, (c) social awareness, (d) relationship skills, and (e) responsible decision-making as articulated by CASEL (2012).

The goal of SEL programs is the development of five fundamental social and emotional competencies. First, self-management is the ability to define and track objectives for oneself and others, control impulses and emotions to manage stress, and motivate oneself to keep going after challenges by appropriately expressing feelings. Second, social awareness is the capacity to understand and sympathize with the viewpoints of others; it is the understanding and appreciation of the similarities and contrasts between individuals and groups. Third, self-awareness is the ability to recognize and understand one’s feelings, interests, and strengths and maintain a steady sense of self-confidence. Fourth, relationship skills include preventing, managing, and constructively resolving interpersonal conflict; asking for assistance when necessary; and building and sustaining fulfilling relationships based on collaboration and resistance to improper social pressure (CASEL, 2005).

SEL competencies encompass children’s capacities to effectively manage developmentally appropriate tasks by recognizing and regulating emotions, understanding others’ perspectives, setting prosocial goals, problem-solving, and employing interpersonal skills (CASEL, 2005). Research has shown that SEL skills in young people are linked to a wide array of developmental outcomes, including improvements in mental health, academic performance, behavior, and physical well-being (Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnicki, Taylor, & Schellinger, 2011). Multiple SEL models have been developed to highlight the core dimensions of these competencies (Zins et al., 2004). These models typically include interconnected intrapersonal, interpersonal, and cognitive skills, each of which plays a unique role in supporting students’ academic progress and social development across different educational stages (DePaoli, Atwell, & Bridgeland, 2017).

Longitudinal research shows that students with social–emotional skills and capacities are more likely to be successful in their future life and academic endeavors. They can complete high school, continue to go to college, and get a decent job (Hawkins, Kosterman, Catalano, Hill, & Abbott, 2008). Another study in the US proved that SEL promotes students’ academic achievement and career success. It has therefore received attention at the local, state, and federal levels, with their policies now supporting children’s SEL in various settings (Jones, Greenberg, & Crowley, 2015). Consequently, children’s SEL education is considered a public health issue, and policymakers are advised to accommodate SEL in the educational system (Greenberg, Domitrovich, Weissberg, & Durlak, 2017; Jones et al., 2015).

For students, learning has some personal elements. Individuals tend to learn more easily if the material is personally meaningful for them. The learning process is also a “meaning-making process,” which has some personal significance for them. Therefore, the learner will be easily and intrinsically motivated, and the retention rate will be longer and broader. To promote learning and long-term retention of the material and maximize student engagement, emotional aspects should be carefully taken into account while designing educational courses (Durlak et al., 2011; Shen, Wang, & Shen, 2009). There is a significant amount of research evidence showing that social–emotional skills can also be taught and measured accurately. These skills can enhance positive development, contribute to eliminating problematic behaviors, improve students’ academic achievements and performance in different tasks, improve citizenship capacity, and promote health-related information and behaviors (Durlak et al., 2015).

French (2020) reports that teacher failures in SEL negatively affect students’ SEL and work production. Similarly, other researchers have argued that teacher preparation programs have not adequately trained teachers for future careers and recommended SEL for preservice teacher training programs (Raimundo et al., 2012). Teachers who receive SEL training communicate better with their students, have more effective classroom management strategies, and experience greater well-being (Dusenbury & Weissberg, 2017). Furthermore, teachers’ social–emotional well-being affects students’ achievement and success (Kamei & Harriott, 2021). Shonert-Reichl (2017) describes three main component frameworks for SEL: learning context, which is the school environment; student SEL; and teacher SEL. These factors influence each other and function together.

Wheeldon‐Reece (2021) mentions the effectiveness of SEL programs for adolescent middle school students. Similarly, Mahoney et al. (2021) provide an extended review and argue that SEL is effective for K-12 education (“K-12” is an abbreviation often used in the United States, Canada, and other countries to refer to the publicly funded school grades before college, ranging from kindergarten to 1st through 12th grade). Paolini (2020) provides the rationale and shows how SEL could be used to prepare children for future careers. He also mentions the necessary social skills in his literature review. SEL is used to develop positive interactions and behaviors in students (Khazanchi et al., 2021; Kim & Faith, 2020). Some authors argue that SEL can be effectively used in peer bullying and cyberbullying prevention and intervention programs, because it increases students’ understanding and social skills (Smith & Low, 2013).

1.2 School-Based Strategy Centered on SEL and Cyberbullying

In response to the growing concern about bullying and cyberbullying, educational institutions are increasingly adopting a school-based strategy centered on SEL. This comprehensive approach views the entire school community – including faculty, staff, students, and families – as integral to fostering change and embeds SEL principles into daily activities and engagements. SEL competencies encompass children’s abilities to manage developmentally significant tasks proficiently and ethically. These abilities are demonstrated through applying interpersonal skills, establishing prosocial goals and problem-solving strategies, recognizing and regulating emotions, and appreciating others’ perspectives (CASEL, 2005). According to abundant research, the SEL competencies of adolescents are associated with various psychological, educational, behavioral, and physical outcomes (Durlak et al., 2011).

Among the five domains of the SEL framework, research has underscored significant associations between four domains – self-management, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision-making – and adolescents’ experiences of bullying victimization. For instance, drawing from self-reported survey data obtained from 2,832 students in grades 4–12, Nickerson, Fredrick, Allen, and Jenkins (2019) discovered that students’ perceptions of SEL instruction in their schools and their competencies across these four domains were inversely correlated with their perceptions of school-based bullying and their encounters with bullying victimization. Additionally, a study involving 455 middle school students from Portugal et al. (2018) investigated the longitudinal links between the five subdimensions of SEL competencies and students’ experiences with cyberbullying over a period of 1 year. Their findings suggested that students involved in any form of bullying (as bullies and victims) showed declining trends in self-control and social awareness. Notably, victims and bully-victims demonstrated a more pronounced decrease in self-esteem and relationship skills compared to bullies during the same timeframe. Although Coelho and Marchante (2018) provide insight into how different SEL competencies relate to cyberbullying victimization, their research focuses solely on middle school students in Portugal. There is yet to be a comprehensive study examining the relationship between SEL competencies and cyberbullying victimization among adolescents in the US, even though US school-based SEL programs have integrated these competencies to address cyberbullying (Durlak et al., 2011).

According to Sawchuk (2021), school counselors who implement SEL incorporate academic learning components to foster stronger relationships and concentrate on promoting school cohesion through the integration of lesson models that enhance students’ experiences. In their research, Yang, Chen, Lin, and Chan (2021) examined the experiences of 16,237 adolescents from 43 Delaware schools concerning the four fundamental SEL competencies, school climate, and cyberbullying. A negative association was found between a positive school climate and cyberbullying victimization, while a positive association was found between social awareness, decision-making, and self-management (Yang et al., 2021). Additionally, they discovered that relationship skills were not correlated with the cyberbullying victimization experiences of students. Similarly, effective outcomes were reported by school counselors who incorporated SEL components into their practice, according to Stevens (2021). School counselors can therefore reasonably conclude that the SEL program is an efficacious intervention for combating cyberbullying and fostering a positive school environment. Educational counselors who implement this program can contribute to the mitigation of cyberbullying by instructing pupils on how to develop an understanding of the consequences of cyberbullying, acquiring appropriate technology skills, and cultivating mental health awareness regarding differences (Jones, Campbell, Haugen, & Sutter, 2020). School counselors can use the various competencies included in SEL programs to instruct students in self-management techniques, advocacy, communication, and decision-making (Stevens, 2021).

The foundation of SEL programs is the idea that common risk factors influence a variety of problem behaviors and that rigorous academic experiences and supportive relationships are the keys to achieving optimal learning (Moore, 2017). The primary objectives of SEL are the cultivation of self-control, empathy, friendship abilities, and personal accountability (Lerner, Lerner, von Eye, Bowers, & Lewin-Bizan, 2011). According to Lewkowicz (2007), educators can mitigate students’ grievances by addressing their needs constructively and positively while promoting SEL. This approach enhances the productivity of instructional time and encourages the prevention of disruptive behaviors and the growth of students’ character and academic achievements. A good school atmosphere is therefore essential for adolescents to acquire, practice, and hone SEL skills (Yang et al., 2018). It allows them to connect with others, witness and model desired behaviors, and socially interact with peers (Catalano et al., 2004; Denham, 2003; Yang et al., 2018). However, despite being recommended as integrated parts of a school-based bullying reduction approach, there is a dearth of empirical research analyzing how SEL abilities and the school environment affect experiences of cyberbullying (Smith et al., 2008). It is crucial to comprehend how the school atmosphere and basic SEL abilities interact to influence cyberbullying within a school-based SEL strategy to guide cyberbullying prevention methods. It is also critical to investigate how SEL skills and cyberbullying experiences are mediated by the school environment and demographic variables, such as gender and grade level.

1.3 Social and Emotional Competencies and Cyberbullying

Even though there has been more research on cyberbullying in recent decades, the potential risks and preventive measures are still unknown. According to Gómez-Ortiz, Romera, and Ortega-Ruiz (2017), social and emotional competencies are emotional knowledge and skills that are successfully applied in prosocial interpersonal interactions and relationships. These include the expression, perception, comprehension, and management of emotions (Fernández-Berrocal, Cabello, & Gutiérrez-Cobo, 2017). Considering this, social and emotional competencies include the use of information, abilities, and attitudes to understand and control one’s own emotions as well as those of others. Empathy is also used to establish and preserve positive interpersonal connections and make responsible judgments (CASEL, 2015). Exploring the variables underlying bullying and cyberbullying remains a challenge due to limited knowledge in this area. One promising research area focuses on understanding the relationship between bullying behaviors and social and emotional competencies. This line of inquiry emerged following studies from Mayer and Salovey (1997) on emotional intelligence, which encompasses the ability to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotions in oneself and others. This expanded into a broader concept known as social and emotional competencies. Even several meta-analyses (Durlak et al., 2011; Sklad, Diekstra, Ritter, Ben, & Gravesteijn, 2012) and narrative reviews (Zych, Ortega-Ruiz, & Marín-López, 2017) have indicated correlations between higher levels of social and emotional competencies and decreased instances of aggressive and antisocial behavior.

Social and emotional competencies have been found to protect against engaging in cyberbullying (Busch, Laninga-Wijnen, van Yperen, Schrijvers, & De Leeuw, 2015; Cook, Williams, Guerra, Kim, & Sadek, 2010). Arce, Fariña, and Vázquez (2011) found that aggression and social skills were negatively correlated. Furthermore, research has shown that bullies have worse social competence and participate in less prosocial connections (Arsenio & Lemerise, 2001). In comparison to students who were not involved in bullying, Gómez-Ortiz et al. (2017) found that bullies, victims, and bully-victims had worse social adjustment and social efficacy. Furthermore, compared to their noninvolved peers, bullies and bully-victims demonstrated lower levels of prosocial behavior. In SEL, therefore, emotions are usually defined as internal, individual states that need proactive regulation to be channeled in socially constructive and beneficial ways. The main emphasis is mitigating or diffusing emotions that might result in impulsive behaviors (Yang et al., 2021). The literature on SEL often promotes the use of approaches such as expressing emotions via words, using visualization tools, or doing breathing or counting exercises. It is crucial to possess the ability to recognize, name, and discuss emotions (Gómez-Ortiz et al., 2017).

Various studies have highlighted a strong association between bullying and cyberbullying (Del Rey, Elipe, & Ortega-Ruiz, 2012; Wachs, 2012). However, it remains to be investigated whether there is also an overlap among risk and protective factors, such as social and emotional competencies, and emotional perception, expression, use, and regulation in both online and offline contexts. Romera, Cano, García-Fernández, and Ortega-Ruiz (2016) discovered that cyberbullies and cyberbully-victims reported lower self-perceived social competence than victims and uninvolved students. Furthermore, intervention programs targeting social competence have shown promise in reducing cyberbullying incidents (Garaigordobil & Martínez-Valderrey, 2014; Gradinger, Yanagida, Strohmeier, & Spiel, 2016). Additionally, Navarro et al. (2012) reported lower levels of social competence among cyber victims, suggesting their difficulty in forming satisfying and desirable relationships. Moreover, low perceived social self-efficacy was associated with cyber victimization, indicating victims’ struggles to engage in positive social interactions. Peer and emotional difficulties have been connected to involvement in both bullying and cyberbullying victimization (Lester & Cross, 2015). While only a small percentage of students reported being solely cyberbullied, it remains to be explored whether these emotional difficulties are associated with both cyber victimization and bullying victimization (Cross et al., 2015). Thus, there is still need for more research into the connections between cyberbullying and emotional–social content found online.

Numerous studies have demonstrated that social and emotional competencies differ by gender. Regarding social and emotional comprehension, adolescent females typically score higher than boys (Brackett, Mayer, & Warner, 2004; Welsh, Parke, Widaman, & O’Neil, 2001). Rosenberg et al. (2018) found that when presented with hypothetical conflict scenarios, females exhibited a more prosocial response than boys. Sandstrom and Cillessen (2003) discovered that females showed greater competence in their social and affective responses. Furthermore, Schoffstall and Cohen (2011) found that females exhibit higher levels of empathic concern and perspective-taking than boys. When examining the correlation between social and emotional competencies and other factors such as cyber victimization, it is therefore critical to consider gender to determine whether differences in social and emotional competencies predict variations in cyberbullying.

Literature has reported inconsistent findings concerning the social and emotional competencies of adolescents who engage in cyberbullying (Zych, Ortega-Ruiz, Muñoz-Morales, & Llorent, 2018). Social and emotional competencies were found to be lower among cyber perpetrators and cyberbullying/victims compared to uninvolved students (Gómez-Ortiz et al., 2017). Cyber victims’ social and affective competencies were comparable to those of uninvolved students (Romera et al., 2016). Research shows that a high level of social and emotional competencies protects adolescents from cyberbullying (Zych et al., 2018). It is therefore conceivable that an elevated degree of social and emotional competencies enhances interpersonal connections, thereby serving as a mitigating influence against engagement in cyberbullying (Marín-López et al., 2020).

CASEL’s five core SEL competencies framework

1. Self-Awareness

   Adolescents with high self-awareness show reduced impulsive online behaviors and increased empathy, lowering cyberbullying risks (Smith & Low, 2013).

2. Self-Management

   SEL interventions focused on emotional regulation significantly decreased incidents of cyber aggression (Mahoney, Durlak, & Weissberg, 2018; Nickerson et al., 2019).

3. Social Awareness

   Enhancing adolescents’ understanding and empathy through SEL contributes to fewer incidents of cyberbullying (Yang et al., 2021).

4. Relationship Skills

   Training programs emphasizing communication and conflict resolution significantly decrease cyberbullying victimization (Coelho & Marchante, 2018).

5. Responsible Decision-Making

   Students trained in responsible online behaviors exhibit notably fewer aggressive online actions (Smith & Low, 2013; Yang et al., 2021).

1.4 Patterns Across Studies: SEL and Cyberbullying Outcomes

The review of 83 empirical studies revealed consistent findings on the protective role of SEL in reducing cyberbullying perpetration and victimization. Research highlights that SEL interventions focusing on emotional regulation, empathy-building, and responsible online behavior contribute to a decline in cyberbullying incidents. Schools that implement structured SEL programs report improvements in peer relationships, conflict resolution, and digital citizenship awareness, all of which contribute to creating a safer online environment (Table 1).

1.5 Objective

This study aims to explore the relationship between social and emotional competencies and cyberbullying among adolescents. It seeks to determine how SEL influences cyberbullying behaviors, informs interventions and educational programs to reduce cyberbullying, and promotes positive online interactions. Its findings will support the development of comprehensive strategies to foster positive online environments and mitigate the harmful effects of cyberbullying on adolescents.

2.1 Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria

For this narrative review, studies were considered if they met the following criteria: (a) direct studies of social–emotional competencies, SEL programs, and either bullying or cyberbullying; (b) participants were aged up to 18 years, following the World Health Organization’s definition of adolescence (2018), and were drawn from a general population; (c) articles were restricted to those published in English or Turkish in peer-reviewed journals, reflecting the languages spoken by the authors. Exclusion criteria included (a) unpublished research, conference presentations, and presentations; (b) papers not addressing SEL, bullying, or cyberbullying as a primary focus. While these sources may yield high-quality research, the focus of the review was on peer-reviewed publications to maintain a consistent vetting process.

3.1 Understanding the SEL-Cyberbullying Relationship

Exploring social and emotional competencies presents a promising avenue for understanding the complexities of cyberbullying dynamics. The increasing integration of communication technology into daily life has brought the issue of cyberbullying to the forefront of public concern. Extensive research has highlighted the detrimental effects of cyberbullying on the psychosocial, academic, behavioral, and physical well-being of young people, particularly adolescents (Yang et al., 2018, 2021). In response to this pervasive issue, schools are increasingly turning to the school-based SEL approach as a key strategy in their efforts to combat bullying. This approach, which considers the entire school community as the unit of change, seeks to embed SEL principles into daily school interactions and practices involving staff, teachers, families, and students. The association between positive interpersonal connections, self-worth, and academic performance underscores the importance of cultivating social and emotional competencies in students. By fostering these skills, schools promote academic success and contribute to creating a supportive and constructive learning environment (Yang et al., 2018).

Research has demonstrated the effectiveness of SEL programs in improving students’ behaviors, skills, and attitudes, making them a promising approach for preventing bullying and cyberbullying (Mahoney et al., 2018). Integrating SEL into school curricula not only helps prevent bullying and cyberbullying, but also equips students with essential life skills (Legette, Rogers, & Warren, 2022). SEL programs stand out as effective tools in this regard. By promoting self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision-making, SEL programs empower students to navigate complex social situations and make positive choices in their interactions with others (Durlak et al., 2011). These skills serve as building blocks for more advanced social and emotional competencies as students progress through their education. Collaboration between educators, policymakers, and researchers is essential for developing evidence-based strategies that effectively address bullying and cyberbullying. By prioritizing SEL alongside academic instruction, schools can create safer and more inclusive environments where all students can thrive both academically and emotionally (Durlak et al., 2015).

SEL happens in a psychologically safe, caring, and supportive environment where students can freely participate and express themselves. This can occur in a well-managed and well-planned environment that supports students’ development and gives them plenty of opportunities to practice their newly learned skills (Sawchuk, 2021). Nickerson et al. (2019) and Yang et al. (2021) found significant associations between improved SEL competencies – such as self-management, social awareness, and responsible decision-making – and reductions in bullying and cyber victimization. Mahoney et al. (2018) and Smith and Low (2013) similarly identified that relationship-focused SEL modules and interactive workshops improve conflict resolution and positive online behaviors. Coelho and Marchante (2018) further supported the effectiveness of SEL by highlighting improved relationship skills and reduced cyber victimization among middle-school students. However, implementing manualized SEL programs in schools is difficult due to program costs, conflicting demands, and fixed content that cannot be adjusted to fit the needs of each classroom. Recent meta-analysis research shows that institution-based individualized SEL modules could be more effective (Lawson et al., 2019), because they are specifically organized to help administrators, teachers, and school counselors’ programs that are already a good fit for the needs of their student population (Jones et al., 2017).

While research has extensively explored traditional forms of bullying, such as physical, verbal, or relational, there is still much to learn about how schools can effectively leverage school-based SEL to address the unique challenges posed by cyberbullying. One potential avenue for future research is to investigate how specific elements of school-based SEL, such as promoting empathy, fostering positive relationships, and developing responsible decision-making skills, can be tailored to address the dynamics of cyberbullying (Lawson et al., 2019). Additionally, longitudinal studies could help elucidate the long-term effects of school-based SEL interventions on reducing the prevalence and severity of cyberbullying incidents. The literature has repeatedly shown that SEL could be effectively used in school settings to improve students’ academic and behavioral problems. Furthermore, SEL programs can also be effective tools in preservice teacher training programs.

3.2 Actionable Recommendations for Schools, Policy, and Research

3.3 Limitations

While substantial research supports the benefits of SEL in fostering positive behaviors and reducing bullying, several limitations remain. One of the most critical gaps is the lack of longitudinal studies, as most existing research examines short-term outcomes without assessing the sustained impact of SEL on students’ behavioral patterns over time. Without long-term evaluations, it remains unclear whether SEL programs lead to lasting changes in emotional regulation, interpersonal skills, and resilience against cyberbullying. Additionally, there is significant variability in SEL program implementation, with differences in school settings, teacher training, and student engagement influencing program effectiveness. Factors such as educational policies, socio-economic conditions, and cultural contexts further contribute to these discrepancies, making it difficult to establish a standardized approach to SEL-based cyberbullying prevention. Another key limitation is the limited focus on cyber-specific SEL strategies. Most SEL interventions are designed to address traditional forms of bullying, such as physical, verbal, and relational aggression, with fewer programs specifically tailored to the unique challenges of cyberbullying. Given the evolving nature of digital interactions, existing SEL frameworks require adaptations that incorporate digital conflict resolution, cyber resilience, and responsible online behavior. Addressing these limitations is crucial for optimizing SEL’s role in mitigating cyberbullying and ensuring its long-term effectiveness in diverse educational contexts.