The Role of Meaningful Work, Work Engagement, and Strength Use in Enhancing Teachers’ Job Performance: A Case of Indonesian Teachers

2.1 Self-Determination Theory (SDT) as the Underpinning Theory

This study is based on SDT proposed by Deci and Ryan (1985) and Van den Broeck, Vansteenkiste, De Witte, Soenens, and Lens (2010). SDT emphasizes that individual behavior, including work behavior, is driven by the fulfillment of basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Ryan & Deci, 2017). In the context of work, fulfilling these needs contributes to increased motivation, WE, and individual performance. Individuals who exhibit autonomous “goal-directed behavior” tend to produce higher-quality behavior (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Therefore, the constructs studied in this research – MW, WE, and SU – are grounded in the three main elements of SDT: autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

In this study, MW is understood as work that provides greater meaning, purpose, and contribution to individuals. MW plays a role in meeting basic needs in SDT, particularly concerning the relatedness aspect. When teachers recognize that their work positively impacts students and national development, they feel connected to their social environment and gain confidence that their work is meaningful (Mani & Mishra, 2021). Moreover, when teachers perceive their work as meaningful, they are motivated to engage with their work, gaining greater control (autonomy) over how it is performed. MW also enhances teachers’ self-confidence in their abilities and competencies, ultimately encouraging them to use their strengths or self-potential (SU) optimally (Peterson & Seligman, 2004). Thus, the primary proposition of this study, based on SDT, is that MW fosters a sense of connectedness to a larger purpose and work community, which contributes to increased WE and SU, ultimately impacting JP.

2.2 MW and JP

MW is defined in the field of occupational psychology as the perceived return on investment of emotional, physical, and cognitive energy after completing valuable and useful work (Kahn, 1990). Rosso, Dekas, and Wrzesniewski (2010) defined the perceived meaningfulness of a job as the level of job significance for the individual. In the context of the teaching profession, the job of a teacher is often characterized by high levels of stress, frequently exacerbated by teacher shortages, leading to excessive teaching and administrative burdens, compounded by inadequate and support facilities (UNESCO, 2023). However, even in challenging conditions, the teaching profession is regarded as noble because it significantly impacts students, society, and the country, motivating teachers to teach earnestly (Korthagen, 2014; Wong & Liu, 2024).

Teachers derive a sense of meaning from their daily interactions with students and from witnessing their students’ successes, such as resilience in school graduation (Lavy & Ayuob, 2019; Lavy & Bocker, 2018). MW involves the interconnection between one’s self-perception of meaningfulness and its impact on others (Steger, Dik, & Duffy, 2012). Four factors contribute to MW: (1) alignment with organizational values and mission; (2) nature of the tasks (e.g., significance, goals, and clarity); (3) positive collegial relationships; and (4) occupational confidence, such as perceiving one’s work as a vocation (Fouché, Rothmann, & van der Vyver, 2017).

JP is behavior that demonstrates an employee’s ability to perform assigned work responsibilities (Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009; Koopmans, Bernaards, Hildebrandt, de Vet, & van der Beek, 2014). Tong (2018) demonstrated a positive and significant relationship between MW and JP, finding that when employees perceive their work as impactful, they perceive the work as meaningful, motivating them to enhance performance. Van Wingerden and Van der Stoep (2018) described the relationship between MW and JP as emerging when employees perceive that their work has significance, generating a connection to their work and its outcomes. This aligns with Allan, Batz-Barbarich, Sterling, and Tay’s (2019) view that individuals with perceived MW “feel better and work better.” Pavlish and Hunt (2012), Kong and Ho (2016), and Dubreuil et al. (2016) found that the perception of MW improved JP, although these studies were conducted in non-educational organizations. Notably, the teaching profession is widely viewed as noble work and is considered among professions of “divine calling” (Duffy, Blake, Autin, & Douglass, 2014); therefore, the effect of perceived MW on teachers’ JP warrants further investigation, leading to the following hypothesis.

H1: MW positively affects teachers’ JP.

2.3 MW and WE

Khan and Sheikh (2012) asserted that employees’ personal role engagement begins with meaningfulness, proposing it as an antecedent of engagement. From the perspective of human resource development, Alagaraja and Shuck (2015) demonstrated that meaningfulness is associated with high WE. WE is characterized by employees’ initiative toward achieving organizational success, demonstrated through strength, dedication, and work optimization (Lockwood, 2007; Schaufeli, Salanova, González-romá, & Bakker, 2002). May, Gilson, and Harter (2004) and Olivier and Rothmann (2007) contended that when employees perceive occupational meaningfulness, they engage in and commit to their work, reducing employee turnover, as they are less inclined to leave meaningful jobs.

One aspect of WE is positive emotions that enhance individuals’ enjoyment of work (Olivier & Rothmann, 2007). Enjoying work can manifest as enthusiasm, focus, and immersion, leading to a loss of track of time (Schaufeli & Salanova, 2010). This emotional involvement is posited to be related to the meaningfulness of work and refers to a subjective experience of emotions that individuals feel when achieving significant personal satisfaction based on the perception of their work as making an optimal contribution to an organization (Bailey et al., 2019). Van Wingerden and Van der Stoep (2017) asserted that WE is a consequence of MW, as this perception generates motivation and enthusiasm that lead to higher WE. Therefore, when employees perceive MW, they exhibit optimal WE (Van Wingerden & Van der Stoep, 2018). This leads to the following hypothesis.

H2: MW positively affects teachers’ WE.

2.4 WE and JP

Bakker and Demerouti (2007) proposed that optimal JP requires peak WE, characterized by a positive affective-motivational state of mind. Parker and Griffin (2011) asserted a similar view, contending that employees’ WE generates positive emotions, which enhance motivation to effectively complete and assume work responsibilities. Moreover, WE has positive effects, including joy, enjoyment, and enthusiasm, that enhance employees’ cognitive behaviors in the workplace (Bakker & Albrecht, 2018). A high level of WE positively impacts internal work autonomy, encouraging individuals to work more independently (Mani & Mishra, 2021).

WE is demonstrated by vigor, dedication, and absorption (Schaufeli et al., 2002). Employees with high WE are considered extremely loyal to their organizations, understanding the importance of their work and demonstrating a strong desire to contribute (Ismail, Iqbal, & Nasr, 2019). WE is also related to job demands being aligned with job descriptions and employee qualifications (Hakanen, Bakker, & Schaufeli, 2006). High job demands can reduce engagement, whereas abundant job resources without associated demands can also diminish engagement (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004; Schaufeli & Salanova, 2010; Schaufeli et al., 2002). The affective-motivational state of mind associated with WE produces improved cognitive function, intentions to perform work effectively, and readiness to improve performance (Fredrickson & Losada, 2005; Reijseger, Schaufeli, Peeters, & Taris, 2013). Additionally, Kahn (1990) described WE as self-expression through choices and decisions to be actively involved and work optimally. Accordingly, the following hypothesis applies.

H3: WE positively affects teachers’ JP.

2.5 The Mediating Role of WE

In the context of education, Lavy’s (2022) research explains that the sense of meaning teachers derive from their noble work encourages them to perform better. In Indonesia’s educational context, teaching is regarded as a noble profession, reflected in the slogan “digugu dan ditiru” (to be trusted and to be followed). However, this perception sharply contrasts with the level of appreciation teachers receive. As of 2023, the number of contract teachers has risen to 3.2 million, many of whom face precarious job conditions and extremely low salaries (USD $6–23 per month) (Huang et al., 2020; Nurhayati, 2019; Rachman, 2023). These conditions contribute to low teacher WE, as many must conserve energy for additional jobs to support their livelihoods. For example, a contract teacher named Alvi resorted to scavenging after teaching hours to make ends meet (Fatimah, 2024). This condition presents a challenge for theoretical validation regarding whether MW positively influences JP and how WE mediates this relationship.

The mediation effect of MW on JP through WE is supported by literature reviews and previous studies, where MW positively influences JP (Pavlish & Hunt, 2012; Tong, 2018). Van Wingerden and Van der Stoep (2018) asserted that JP improves when employees feel that their work is influential, impactful, and significant. When employees perceive their work as meaningful, they develop positive perceptions of their work and perform more optimally (Allan et al., 2019).

Studies have also found MW to positively affect WE (Alagaraja & Shuck, 2015; Khan & Sheikh, 2012; May et al., 2004). The perception of MW significantly increases gratification, leading to higher involvement in work (Bailey et al., 2019). WE has also been found to positively affect JP (Sekhar et al., 2017; Wollard & Shuck, 2011) through associated positive emotions, serving as a motivational boost to improve performance through focused work to achieve established targets (Parker & Griffin, 2011). These three variables have been determined to have an indirect relationship; therefore, a positive correlation exists between MW and JP through WE. This relationship has not been widely studied in educational organizations, presenting a novelty in this research that leads to the following hypothesis.

H4: MW positively affects teachers’ JP through WE.

2.6 MW and SU

SU is a concept in occupational psychology that seeks to identify and optimize employees’ talents and skills (Peterson & Seligman, 2004). This approach contrasts with most management practices, where supervisors focus on improving employees’ weaknesses through various techniques such as training and coaching (Luthans, 2002; van Woerkom, Oerlemans, & Bakker, 2016b). Asplund and Blacksmith (2011) share a similar perspective, asserting that employees experience optimal development when emphasizing the use of their natural talents, knowledge, and skills rather than correcting weaknesses.

SU can be defined as an individual’s ability to perform at their best (Buckingham & Donald, 2001) by identifying and utilizing their existing talents, knowledge, and skills (Asplund, Lopez, Hodges, & Harter, 2014). A similar perspective was proposed by Miglianico, Dubreuil, Miquelon, Bakker, and Martin-Krumm (2020), emphasizing that SU focuses on the strengths individuals possess to achieve optimal performance. By concentrating on inherent strengths, employees become more self-aware of their natural talents, enabling them to effectively manage and enhance their knowledge, improve their skills, align their values, and transform these attributes into strengths at work (Asplund & Blacksmith, 2011). Employee work performance, including the use of strengths, is influenced by their perceptions of work, which is a predictor of workplace behavior (Van Wingerden & Poell, 2017).

One predictor believed to affect SU in the workplace is MW (Van Wingerden & Van der Stoep, 2018), defined as the extent to which employees perceive their work as important and valuable, which can arise through alignment of organizational values, goals, and personal values and standards (Hackman & Oldham, 1975; May et al., 2004). For example, when teachers perform teaching assignments, they feel that they are helping students achieve their goals and that their work is important and valuable. When employees find their work and work environment meaningful, they are motivated to leverage and optimize their best strengths in performing their tasks (Van Wingerden & Van der Stoep, 2018; van Woerkom et al., 2016b) context leads to the following hypothesis.

H5: MW positively affects teachers’ SU.

2.7 SU and JP

SU is another factor affecting employees’ JP. Strengths are individual characteristics that enable employees to perform their best (Wood et al., 2011). When employees utilize their strengths at work, they experience energizing experiences that positively impact their performance (Peterson & Seligman, 2004; Wood et al., 2011). SU is also viewed as proactive behavior consciously employed for job fulfillment by individuals due to their awareness of their potential (Liu, van der Linden, & Bakker, 2022). Moreover, individuals feel authentic as they recognize and acknowledge their abilities, which motivates them to maximize performance and enables them to feel they are genuinely performing in an appropriate role at work (Dubreuil et al., 2014).

In the context of the teaching profession, Fernet, Guay, Senécal, and Austin (2012) and Fisher (2010) asserted that strengths relate to self-efficacy or burnout. Zwart, Korthagen, and Attema-Noordewier (2015) contended that leveraging strengths encourages teachers to act autonomously at work, fostering perceptions of adequate competence, self-efficacy, and relatedness, or the desire to interact and engage with others. Teachers who engage in SU in their work seek optimal approaches to educate students effectively (Zwart et al., 2015).

JP is closely related to the effective fulfillment of work tasks. Harzer and Ruch (2014) identified three important processes in the correlation of SU with JP: (1) SU fosters perseverance and self-regulation in task completion, (2) civic strength enhances tasks requiring human interaction in teams, and (3) work dedication encourages employees to seek new challenges and work assignments. Wood et al. (2011) found SU to be significantly associated with enhanced self-esteem, leading to improved performance. Dubreuil et al. (2014), Kong and Ho (2016), and van Woerkom et al. (2016a) found that SU positively affects employees’ JP and enables more efficient workload management. Accordingly, the next hypothesis follows.

H6: SU positively affects teachers’ JP.

2.8 The Mediating Role of SU

Studies have found MW to positively affect SU (Van Wingerden & Van der Stoep, 2018; van Woerkom et al., 2016b). Employees tend to engage their strengths when they find meaning in their work (Van Wingerden & Poell, 2017). The belief that their work will positively impact others or the organization encourages greater contributions (Lavy, 2022). Employees’ perceptions of the meaning and significance of their work influence their use of strengths (Van Wingerden & Van der Stoep, 2018). Research has also found SU to positively affect JP (Dubreuil et al., 2014; van Woerkom et al., 2016a). When individuals use their strengths, they feel energized, stronger, and more alive, expressing their true selves, which results in positive motivation and improved performance (Dubreuil et al., 2014; Linley, 2008).

Van Wingerden and Poell (2019) demonstrated that MW positively relates to employee performance in multiple interrelated ways through SU, leading to optimal JP. This suggests that the relationship between MW and JP is more complex, with several influencing factors, such as SU serving as a mediator in the relationship between MW and JP, enhancing the impact of MW on JP. This relationship has not been widely studied in educational organizations, introducing one of the novelties in this research, which leads to the final hypothesis.

H7: MW positively affects JP through teachers’ SU.

3.1 Design

This research was conducted using a cross-sectional study design applying partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). This method has the advantage of not requiring the research data to meet classical assumption tests when research data are not obtained randomly, in accordance with the characteristics of this study (Hair, Risher, Sarstedt, & Ringle, 2019; Hair, Hult, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2022). The PLS-SEM method is also suitable for achieving the objectives of this study in analyzing latent variables, as each relevant construct requires indicators to be measured (Bartholomew, Knott, & Moustaki, 2011). The latent variables in this study include MW as an exogenous variable and JP as an endogenous variable, whereas WE and SU have dual roles as exogenous and endogenous variables, as both constructs are also considered mediating variables. Additionally, PLS-SEM is suitable for exploratory research where the aim is to test a model to explore predictive relationships between constructs (Hair et al., 2019, 2022).

3.2 Participants

This study focuses on the population of private high school teachers in Jakarta, Indonesia, considering the similarities in school characteristics. The selection of one region was based on the consideration that collecting data from multiple regions would pose challenges in terms of school characteristics and diverse educational landscapes, given Indonesia’s significant disparities. Therefore, the results of this study can be generalized only in the context of private high school teachers in Jakarta, as the sample reflects the population in the region. However, these findings cannot be generalized to the entire teacher population in Indonesia due to significant disparities in the quality of teaching staff, students’ socio-economic backgrounds, and school infrastructure and facilities that vary greatly between regions.

This study employed a convenience sampling method, entrusting online questionnaires to teacher representatives in schools who then distributed them to their colleagues (but not through snowball sampling). This method was chosen because the researcher did not have access to a complete list of all teachers in the population, making non-random sampling techniques the most practical solution (Creswell, 2003). Additionally, this method allows the involvement of teachers who are willing to participate voluntarily, which can increase the response rate. Convenience sampling is also consistent with the PLS-SEM approach used in this study, as PLS-SEM is more flexible regarding data distribution and does not require classical assumptions such as normality or homogeneity of variance (Hair et al., 2019, 2022). This research was conducted with a population of 6,131 private high school teachers in Jakarta, Indonesia (DKI Jakarta provincial government, 2018), with a sample of 392 teachers. This sample size aligns with Krejcie and Morgan’s (1970) recommendation that a population of 6,000 requires a minimum representative sample size of 361. To ensure that the data obtained remain representative, this study applies bootstrapping with 5,000 observations to enhance the reliability of the estimates and strengthen the validity of the analysis results (Hair et al., 2019, 2022).

3.3 Measures

The questionnaire was in Indonesian to ensure that the respondents understood the questionnaire items. All questionnaire items were examined for statistical validity, with a rule-of-thumb loading factor of >0.7 and an average extracted variance (AVE) of >0.5 (Hair et al., 2019, 2022). The questionnaires included questions regarding JP, MW, WE, and SU, and each variable was measured using a Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The constructs of this study were measured by a questionnaire which was adapted with reference to the theories and previous research to obtain conceptual definitions and dimensions/indicators (Carpenter, 2018). Established or existing questionnaires from previous studies underwent content validation through expert review, involving specialists in organizational behavior in education and linguistic experts. This process ensured that the questionnaire items were relevant to the context of teachers in Indonesia. Irrelevant items were removed or modified to enhance validity. Below are the details of the measurements.

JP was measured using five items divided into four indicators – (1) have a good quality of work, (2) use time efficiently, (3) collaboration skill with colleagues, and (4) have initiative at work (Harjanti & Todani, 2019). Some example items are “I complete assignments on time” and “I take the initiative to perform tasks without having to be ordered first.” The item “I feel the completion of work assignments will be better if done together” was removed because, as teachers, many tasks must be completed individually, particularly in teaching and administrative work. Conversely, a new item was added: “I am flexible in accepting various changes in the organization,” as teachers’ work is highly dynamic, especially in adapting to students’ needs and daily interactions. The Cronbach’s α reliability coefficient for this variable is 0.811.

MW was measured using five items divided into four indicators – (1) interpreting the work positively, (2) deeming the work worthy, (3) self-motivation, and (4) behaving positively (WAMI scale following Fouché et al., 2017; Steger, Littman-Ovadia, Miller, Menger, & Rothmann, 2013). Some example items are “I understand that my work makes a positive impact in the world” and “The work I do has a positive influence on the lives of others.” The item “I have discovered work that has a satisfying purpose” was also removed. The word “satisfying” is difficult to apply in the Indonesian context, given the low level of teacher welfare. Although their work serves a meaningful purpose professionally, the term satisfaction could cause confusion. Similarly, the item “I have found a meaningful career” was eliminated because, while teaching is considered a noble and valuable profession, career progression for teachers in Indonesia is still not widely regarded as positive. The Cronbach’s α reliability coefficient for this variable is 0.851.

WE was measured with five items divided into three indicators – (1) enthusiastic at work, (2) high dedication at work, and (3) absorption at work (Schaufeli & Salanova, 2010). Some example items are “I am enthusiastic to complete my work” and “I am focused when I am working.” The item “I am immersed in my work” was replaced with “Time flies when I’m focused at work” because the word immerse is difficult to translate literally into Indonesian. Additionally, the items “I am proud of the work that I do” and “My job inspires me” were removed, as they closely resemble the MW construct and could cause multicollinearity. The Cronbach’s α reliability coefficient for this variable is 0.824.

SU was measured with seven items divided into four indicators – (1) energized, (2) behave proactively, (3) take advantage of their potential, and (4) do their best at work (Dubreuil et al., 2014; Govindji & Linley, 2007; Wood et al., 2011). Some example items are “I demonstrate the best ability that I have” and “I spent most of my time at work by doing what I am good at doing.” Items such as “I use my strengths to get what I want out of life,” “I always play to my strengths,” “Using my strengths comes naturally to me,” and “My life presents me with lots of different ways to use my strengths” were also deleted, as they were too general and not specifically related to work, particularly in a school setting. Instead, the item “I contribute my most creative ideas for the benefit of the school” was added. The Cronbach’s α reliability coefficient for this variable is 0.908.

3.4 Data Analysis

The data analysis was divided into descriptive and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics analyze respondents’ profile data and the means and standard deviations of the constructs used. In addition, a common method bias analysis was conducted using Harman’s single-factor test with SPSS 2.5 software to ensure that the research results were not the result of questionnaire artifacts.

This study’s inferential statistical analyses referred to PLS-SEM rules and were conducted using SmartPLS 4.0 software. PLS-SEM analysis involves two stages that include the measurement model (outer model) and the structural model (inner model) (Hair et al., 2019, 2022). The outer model focuses on the validity and reliability of the data. The rule of thumb for the loading factor is >0.7 and AVE is >0.5 (Hair et al., 2019, 2022). For reliability, Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability were used with a rule of thumb of >0.7 (Hair et al., 2019, 2022). Discriminant validity was examined using the heterotrait monotrait (HTMT) ratio test with a rule of thumb of <0.85 (Henseler, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2015). The inner model focuses on the relationship between constructs that measure the independent variables’ effect on the dependent variable (Hair et al., 2019, 2022). The first analysis applied a multicollinearity test with a rule of thumb of <5.0 and continued with the determinant coefficient R squared (R ²) test (Hair et al., 2019, 2022). The final analysis is hypothesis testing with path coefficient and bootstrapping values.

1. Ethical consideration: This research was approved through research ethics testing carried out by the Institute for Research and Community Service of Surya Institute, Indonesia. The study was conducted using a survey method with a questionnaire for teachers. Respondents’ involvement in the study was voluntary, without compensation or coercion, and was conducted protecting respondents’ anonymity. The researchers provided respondents with sufficient and clear information regarding the purpose of data collection for research and scientific publication. Informed consent was obtained from all respondents.

4.1 Descriptive Statistics

Table 1 presents the respondents’ profile data, including gender, employment status, age, and teaching experience. The respondents were predominantly female teachers with permanent schoolteacher status. Most respondents were aged 20–29 years, followed by those aged 30–39 years. More than half of the respondents had less than 5 years of teaching experience.

4.2 Common Method Bias

A full-collinearity test (outer model) was conducted to ensure that respondents’ answers were not the result of research instrument artifacts suggesting common method bias. The rule of thumb for this test is VIF < 5.0 (Hair et al., 2019, 2022). The test results reveal that all items have VIF < 5.0, indicating no common method bias. The details of the common method bias test results are presented in Table 2.

4.3 Outer Model

The outer model tests how each indicator relates to latent variables to assess the validity and reliability of construct-forming descriptors (Hair et al., 2019, 2022). This test examined convergent and discriminant validity and tested reliability using composite reliability and Cronbach’s alpha (Hair et al., 2019, 2022). The results indicate that the factor loading values of all items are >0.70, ranging from 0.703 to 0.854, indicating the validity of the descriptors of each construct (Hair et al., 2019, 2022). Moreover, the AVE value of all constructs is >0.50, meaning that each item meets the convergent validity requirements (Hair et al., 2019, 2022). The Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability of all constructs were >0.70, indicating that each construct is reliable (Hair et al., 2019, 2022). The results of the convergent validity and reliability tests are presented in Table 3.

In the outer model, a discriminant validity test is also conducted to ensure the uniqueness of each construct (Hair et al., 2019, 2022). The discriminant validity test used an HTMT ratio with a rule of thumb <85% (Henseler et al., 2015). The results of the discriminant validity test show that all constructs have a value of below 0.85% and are thus valid. Details of the discriminant validity test results are presented in Table 4.

4.4 Inner Model

The structural or inner model estimates the relationships between the constructs. The inner model test was performed employing the VIF value, the R ² value, and the path coefficient obtained through bootstrapping. The first examination is the multicollinearity test, which ensures that all constructs are independent and unique (Hair et al., 2019, 2022). To pass the multicollinearity test, the result should be <5.00 (Hair et al., 2019, 2022). Based on the VIF values presented in Table 5, all variables are <5.00; therefore, the relationship between the exogenous variables is not high, and there is no multicollinearity.

The next test is hypothesis testing, which was conducted by determining the path coefficient value and assessing the significance of bootstrapping through p-value <0.05 and t-statistics value >1.96 (Hair et al., 2019, 2022). H1 was rejected because although MW had a positive effect on JP, this effect was not significant (β = 0.066, p = 0.120). In contrast, MW positively affected WE, with a significant value (β = 0.710, p = 0.000), confirming H2. MW was also found to have a significant positive effect on SU (β = 0.566, p = 0.000), validating H5. WE also had a positive effect on JP (β = 0.315, p = 0.000), confirming H3. Finally, SU was found to have a positive and significant effect on JP (β = 0.467, p = 0.000); thus, H6 is also accepted. The results of the path coefficient between the exogenous and endogenous variables are presented in Table 6.

4.4.1 Mediating Effect

This study also tested the mediation hypotheses (H4 and H7) of WE and SU variables in the relationship between MW and teachers’ JP (Table 7). The results indicated that WE mediated the effect of MW on JP (β = 0.223, p = 0.000). In the first hypothesis, the path coefficient value is greater than the direct effect of MW on JP (β = 0.066, p = 0.120). Moreover, SU also mediated the effect of MW on JP (β = 0.264, p = 0.000), which is also higher than the first hypothesis.

Table 7

Mediation hypothesis test

Hypothesis		β	STDEV	T-Stat	p-Value	Result
Code	Path
H4	MW → WE → JP	0.223	0.043	5.195	<0.001	Supported
H7	MW → strengths use → JP	0.264	0.042	6.322	<0.001	Supported

To validate the success of mediation, the variance accounted for (VAF) test was conducted by dividing the value of the indirect effect by the total effect (direct and indirect effects) (Hair et al., 2019, 2022). Three VAF criteria include no mediation (VAF < 20%), partial mediation (20% VAF 80%), and full mediation (VAF > 80%) (Hair et al., 2019, 2022) results of the VAF calculation confirmed that both intervening variables had partial mediating power. The calculation of the VAF value for H4 and H7 is as follows:

H 4 = 0.223 0.289 = 0.77 = 77 % ( partial mediation ) ,

H 7 = 0.264 0.330 = 0.80 = 80 % ( partial mediation ) .

The next test is the coefficient of determination test, which assesses the extent to which exogenous variables influence endogenous variables (Hair et al., 2019, 2022). This test is also performed to determine the goodness of fit of the research model (Hair et al., 2019, 2022). The categorization of coefficient of determination is divided into three levels based on R ² values: 0.25 (weak), 0.50 (moderate), and 0.75 (substantial) (Hair et al., 2019, 2022). The data presented in Table 6 show that the R ² of JP and WE are high, at >50%, indicating that the research model is appropriate for predicting the two endogenous variables. The table indicates that 58.5% of the JP variable is explained by MW, SU, and WE variables, while the remaining 41.5% is explained by other variables, and 50.4% of the WE variable is explained by the MW variable, with the remaining 49.6% explained by other variables. These two results confirm the validity of the research model. Conversely, regarding the SU variable, the influence of MW is acceptable but not as large as that of the other variables, with only 32% of its variance explained by MW (Table 8).

Table 8

Coefficient determinant test (R ²)

Variable	R-square adjusted
JP	0.585
Strength use	0.320
WE	0.504

In addition to measuring the determinant coefficient, it is also important to conduct an effect strength test (f ²) to evaluate the contribution of independent variables, namely MW, SU, and WE to the dependent variable JP in the structural model. The Q ² predictive relevance test is also carried out to assess the extent to which the structural model or exogenous construct can predict endogenous variables. The calculation of f ² and Q ² has a rule of thumb of 0.02 (small), 0.15 (moderate), and 0.35 (high) (Hair et al., 2019). Details of the calculation of f ² and Q ² are presented in Tables 9 and 10.

Table 9

Effect size (f ²)

	f 2 JP	Effect size	f 2 SU	Effect size	f 2 WE	Effect size
MW	0.005	Very small	0.470	Large	1.014	Large
SU	0.277	Medium	—	—	—	—
WE	0.092	Small	—	—	—	—

Table 10

Predictive relevance (Q ²)

	SSO	SSE	Q 2	Predictive power
JP	1960.000	1324.049	0.324	Large
MW	1960.000	1960.000	0.000	None
SU	2744.000	2183.760	0.204	Moderate
WE	1960.000	1384.630	0.294	Moderate

Based on the effect size test (f ²), it is concluded that the SU variable has the highest effect size on JP compared to other constructs, although the strength of the effect is classified as medium. Meanwhile, the MW construct has a low effect size on JP but has a high effect size on both endogenous SU and WE. This is understandable because the direct influence value of MW on JP is very small, but it increases with the mediation of SU and WE.

Based on the predictive power (Q ²) test, the JP construct has high predictive power because it is above 0.35. The SU and WE constructs have moderate predictive power (Q ²) because they are above 0.15, while MW has no predictive power (Q ²) at all. This is understandable because the direct influence value of MW on JP is very small, but it increases with the mediation of SU and WE (Table 11).

Table 11

Importance-performance map analysis (IPMA)

	Importance (total effects)	Performance (index value)	IPMA result
MW	0.553	76.114	High importance, high performance
SU	0.467	71.925	Moderate importance, high performance
WE	0.315	70.297	Low Importance, high performance

Based on the results of the IPMA calculation, it can be concluded that MW is the most important construct and demonstrates good performance, making it very important to maintain in the model. SU has moderate importance and good performance, so it does not require high priority for improvement. In contrast, WE has low importance and fairly good performance, suggesting it can be overlooked or does not require special attention. However, both SU and WE serve as mediating variables in the research model, playing a crucial role in enhancing the influence of MW on JP. Therefore, despite their lower importance, their high performance increases the indirect influence of MW on JP.

Based on the results of the hypothesis tests, Figure 1 illustrates that the path coefficients and R ² values were constructed.

Figure 1

Research model with path coefficients (source: the authors).

According to the path coefficient values in Table 6, the following three structural equations were derived:

(1) WE = 0.710 MW + 0.496 e ,

(2) SU = 0.566 MW + 0.680 e ,

(3) JP = 0.066 MW + 0.315 WE + 0.467 SU + 0.415 e .

5.1 The Relationship between MW, WE, and JP

This study examined the direct effect of MW on teachers’ JP, while also investigating the mediating roles of WE and SU in relation to MW and teachers’ JP. The aim was to address the issue of suboptimal quality in Indonesian teachers’ JP by constructing a research model to predict the factors influencing teacher JP in Jakarta, Indonesia, which could be beneficial for future assessments and informed strategic policy initiatives (Huang et al., 2020; Ministry of Education, Culture, Research and Technology of Indonesia, 2021; Schleicher, 2019; UNESCO & UNICEF, 2021).

The results indicated that the direct effect of MW on teachers’ JP (H1) was the smallest, at 0.066. Although MW is recognized as a positive influence, this relationship was not significant when generalized to the research population of senior high school teachers in Jakarta. In larger populations, MW does not appear to affect JP, which is noteworthy as it contradicts previous research findings that identified a positive effect of MW on JP (Allan et al., 2019; Han et al., 2020; Li et al., 2015; Van Wingerden & Van der Stoep, 2018).

The teachers in this study indicated engagement in MW, as revealed by descriptive statistics indicating overall average agreement on the MW variable questionnaire items. The respondents believed that their jobs positively impact the world, agreeing that their work has a noble purpose and positively influences others. Referring to Arts (2020), teachers felt proud of their work because it serves the noble goals of helping children grow and learn and contributing to the nation’s future. The teachers also agreed that their work positively impacts their environment, aligning with Steger et al. (2012), who explained that MW involves the perceived interconnection of its impact on oneself and others.

The low result of MW’s influence on JP is further confirmed by the low effect size f ² and Q ² which are also low. However, the IPMA result showed that MW is a highly important construct. This indicates that the MW variable, as a standalone construct, is crucial but not strong enough to influence teacher performance. Although teachers rated their work as meaningful, MW was not found to enhance JP in this study’s context. This is because JP encompasses many constituent factors, including task and contextual performance, which refer to performance related to job features and the environmental context (Sørlie, Hetland, Bakker, Espevik, & Olsen, 2022). Thus, teachers’ personal perceptions of the meaningfulness of their work tend to relate more to task performance, as it is directly connected to teachers’ job descriptions and qualifications in addition to the contributions made (Borman & Motowidlo, 1993; Sørlie et al., 2022). Within schools and educational institutions, where the teaching profession is often undervalued – characterized by high workloads and low salaries (Huang et al., 2020; Rachman, 2023), is likely that MW does not exert a strong direct influence on JP. Nevertheless, MW alone is insufficient as a motivator for teachers to enhance their performance. Additional variables are necessary to strengthen the effect of MW on JP (Sørlie et al., 2022; Van Wingerden & Poell, 2019).

Conversely, MW was found to have a positive and significant effect on WE (H2) for the study population. This finding aligns with previous studies indicating that MW affects WE (Kaur & Mittal, 2020; Van Wingerden & Poell, 2019). When teachers perceive their work as meaningful, they experience positive feelings of personal accomplishment, enhancing their desire to be more actively involved (Bailey et al., 2019; Olivier & Rothmann, 2007). Additionally, the contribution and positive impact of teachers’ work raise motivation and enthusiasm, resulting in high WE (Van Wingerden & Van der Stoep, 2017). Therefore, this study demonstrates that when teachers feel their work is meaningful, it leads to high WE. This is consistent with Hoole and Bonnema (2015), who revealed that when individuals perceive their job as meaningful, it can result in high WE. This supports the R ² result indicating that MW explains 50.4% of teachers’ WE.

WE also has a significant positive effect on JP (H3). This result aligns with findings from Ahmed, Rehman, Ali, Ali, and Anwar (2018), Sekhar et al. (2017), and Wollard and Shuck (2011), who assert that WE positively affects JP. The teachers demonstrated enthusiasm for their work and focused their full attention. Furthermore, they were willing to accept challenges in the workplace to explore their potential, such as trying new learning methods and strategies. This positive working attitude reflects teachers’ affective-motivational state of mind, which provides a motivational boost and elicits high enthusiasm for engaging in optimal work performance (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007; Parker & Griffin, 2011). WE is also related to job demands that align with job descriptions and employee qualifications (Hakanen et al., 2006). High job demands can reduce engagement, while an abundance of job resources without attending to demands can also reduce engagement (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004; Schaufeli & Salanova, 2010; Schaufeli et al., 2002). This indicates that teachers experience the flow of WE when they feel their work is meaningful and their associated duties are appropriate.

This study also aimed to address the lack of investigation into the mediating role of WE in education within the literature. The significant influence of MW on WE and the effect of WE on JP impact the success of the mediating relationship among the three variables, as related to H4, as evidenced by the value of the power of partial mediation revealed. Bailey et al. (2019) explained that when teachers educate students, provide assessments, and contribute to their learning development, they perceive their work as valuable and impactful. This, in turn, increases their enthusiasm, motivation, sense of challenge, and desire to engage more deeply in their work. When teachers find their work meaningful and strive to be more engaged, they will exhibit greater enthusiasm and motivation to improve performance (Allan et al., 2019; Tong, 2018; Van Wingerden & Van der Stoep, 2018). This finding demonstrates that MW alone does not necessarily influence JP but requires support from WE in the form of absorption, dedication, and vigor (Schaufeli & Salanova, 2010; Sørlie et al., 2022).

5.2 The Relationship between MW, SU, and JP

This study also examined the relationship between MW and SU (H5), finding that MW has a positive and significant effect on SU. This result is congruent with previous studies indicating that when individuals perceive MW, they often demonstrate SU to express their abilities in performing their work (Sekhar et al., 2017). When teachers perceive their work as meaningful, they exhibit SU in their behavior, thinking, and energy shared with colleagues in fulfilling their duties (Linley, 2008). This study confirms the findings of Van Wingerden and Van der Stoep’s (2018) demonstration that MW affects SU.

Teachers apply their best abilities only when they perceive their work positively, including its meaning and contribution (Van Wingerden & Poell, 2017). They believe their work has noble value and impacts the environment and the world by contributing to community education (Arts, 2020). This perception encourages teachers to work diligently to meet optimal targets by applying their strengths in completing assigned duties, such as teaching, assessing students’ work, counseling, and sharing best practices and ideas in school meetings (Van Wingerden & Van der Stoep, 2018; van Woerkom et al., 2016b).

SU was also found to have a positive and significant effect on JP (H6). These results correspond with those of Van Wingerden and Van der Stoep’s (2018) assertion that when an employee applies their best abilities, it results in high JP. This finding also supports the conclusions of Dubreuil et al. (2014) that SU positively affects JP. Moreover, Peterson and Seligman (2004) and Wood et al. (2011) explained that employees who apply SU in their work experience energizing experiences that support optimal performance.

The teachers in this study acknowledged the need to acquire the skills required to conduct their assigned work and produce optimal JP, aligning with Lopez and Louis (2009), who asserted that the SU process for teachers occurs when they consciously and systematically endeavor to demonstrate their optimal potential and value in their work. Such tasks include teaching, designing and implementing curricula, managing students, and solving problems. The teachers also confirmed that they utilize their abilities to conduct their work and overcome challenges. This aligns with Harzer and Ruch’s (2014) assertion that employees will be dedicated to navigating challenges and tasks at work with SU. When individuals use their talents and abilities, they often feel more energized, stronger, and more alive, expressing their true selves, which results in optimal performance at work (Dubreuil et al., 2014; Linley, 2008). This suggests that schools should motivate and support teachers in identifying and demonstrating SU to improve JP.

This study also sought to address the lack of investigation into the mediating role of SU in education. The significant influence of MW on SU and the effect of SU on performance impact the efficacy of SU in mediating the effect of MW on teachers’ JP. This is confirmed by the path coefficient value, which is higher than the direct effect, indicating partial mediating power (H7). This aligns with the assertions of Van Wingerden and Poell (2019), Sørlie et al. (2022), and Van Wingerden and Van der Stoep (2018) that the relationship between MW and JP is complex and requires a combination of other variables, including SU.

When teachers feel that their work is meaningful, the inclusion of other factors can motivate SU, leading them to strive to meet well-defined work targets (Van Wingerden & Van der Stoep, 2018). The teachers in this study agreed that they have meaningful jobs, prompting them to consciously apply their best abilities and continually seek to improve their potential through participation in training and various educational activities and new learning methods that could enhance their performance (Lopez & Louis, 2009).

5.3 Theoretical Implication

This study significantly contributes to the existing literature by expanding our understanding of the dynamics of teacher performance in the education sector. Previous studies have primarily focused on non-educational organizational contexts; thus, this study offers a new perspective more relevant to the school environment. The findings highlight that MW, while not directly affecting JP, is still an important factor in enhancing work quality. This implies that MW serves as a foundation for fostering WE and SU, which ultimately drive improved teacher performance.

The theoretical implication of this study is the necessity of considering MW as an integral part of the conceptual model of teacher performance in the education sector. Although its direct influence on JP may be low, MW plays a crucial role in facilitating WE and SU, both of which are key factors in enhancing teacher performance. This study also emphasizes the importance of interventions designed to improve MW among teachers, such as providing opportunities for professional development, recognizing their contributions, and involving them in work-related decision-making. Thus, this study provides a strong theoretical basis for developing more effective strategies to enhance teacher performance by increasing MW, WE, and SU.

5.4 Managerial Implication

School management, particularly in Jakarta, needs to enhance teachers’ perceptions of MW, WE, and SU to improve their performance. Schools can strengthen MW by actively appreciating teachers’ achievements through awards and incentives and by internalizing the school’s vision and mission through annual orientation programs or retreats. Providing awards, incentives, and communicating the school’s vision and mission can help teachers find meaning in their work, which in turn improves MW (Deci & Ryan, 2000). To enhance WE, schools must ensure that the tasks assigned align with teachers’ qualifications, avoid excessive workloads, and balance job demands with available resources (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). For example, schools should not give a teaching load exceeding 24 h per week (the minimum limit for obtaining incentives) and should discuss additional tasks with teachers before implementing policies. Building collegial relationships among teachers can also improve WE, so schools are advised to hold regular meetings, sports activities, or joint recreational events.

Regarding SU, schools need to assist teachers in recognizing and utilizing their potential. The teacher recruitment process should involve professional psychological assessments to assess interests and talents (Mathis, Jackson, Valentine, & Meglich, 2016), which is still rarely implemented in private schools in Indonesia. Additionally, schools should provide individualized training based on teachers’ needs to enhance their competencies in their respective fields. Teachers should also be encouraged to join learning communities, such as Subject Teacher Associations or internal school forums, to share experiences and improve their skills. Thus, enhancing MW, WE, and SU can effectively support teacher performance and the overall quality of education.