A Group Counseling Program Based on Cognitive-Behavioral Theory: Enhancing Self-Efficacy and Reducing Pessimism in Academically Challenged High School Students

2.1 SE

Albert Bandura’s pioneering work on SE theory in the 1970s is particularly relevant to this discussion. Bandura proposed that individuals’ actions and persistence are driven by their beliefs in their ability to perform the behaviors necessary to achieve desired outcomes. These beliefs evolve over time through various experiences and have a profound impact on psychological adjustment and the effectiveness of interventions (Bandura, 1993). According to Bandura (1997a), SE is not an innate characteristic but rather develops through learning experiences that begin in childhood and continue throughout life. The development of SE is shaped by the dynamic interaction between environmental factors, personal traits, and behavior (Pajares, 1996).

In line with Bandura’s theoretical framework, the development of SE is shaped by four primary sources, as outlined by Elliot, Kratochwill, and Travers (2000). The first source, mastery experience, arises from an individual’s direct encounters; successful outcomes generally bolster SE, while repeated failures tend to undermine it. The second source, vicarious experience, refers to the learning that occurs through observing others’ successful performances, providing social models for behavior to emulate. The third source, verbal persuasion, involves external feedback and discussions that reinforce an individual’s belief in their abilities through affirmation and verbal encouragement. Finally, the emotional state plays a vital role, as positive emotions enhance performance and contribute to stronger SE beliefs.

A heightened level of SE has been shown to positively correlate with increased motivation, goal achievement, and sustained efforts toward goal attainment (Bandura, 1997b). This relationship highlights the critical role SE plays in enhancing an individual’s ability to set, pursue, and persist in achieving objectives. Bandura (1997b) also emphasized the significant influence of SE on psychological adjustment. A strong sense of SE empowers individuals by giving them a sense of control over their behavior, environment, and ability to face life challenges, leading to greater satisfaction and happiness (Maddux, 2000).

In contrast, individuals with low SE are more prone to depressive tendencies, as Bandura (1997b) pointed out. This vulnerability to depression stems from a perceived inability to effectively confront life’s challenges, leading to feelings of inadequacy.

In summary, SE plays a pivotal role in shaping various aspects of human personality, influencing cognition and behavior. Its impact extends to motivation (Rossi, Trevisol, dos Santos-Nunes, Dapieve-Patias, & Von Hohendorff, 2020), overall well-being (Milam, Cohen, Mueller, & Salles, 2019), psychological adjustment (Kohno et al., 2010), and optimism or pessimism (Umstattd, McAuley, Motl, & Rosengren, 2007), underscoring its multidimensional significance in the human experience.

2.2 Pessimism

Pessimism, defined as a negative outlook on future expectations, represents a harmful personality trait that adversely affects various life activities and general perspectives (Seligman, 1995). In contrast to optimism, pessimism is associated with a worldview marked by lethargy, illness, and fatigue (Al-Hakkak, 2001). Seligman (1995) argued that pessimism arises from an individual’s tendency to consistently interpret circumstances and events negatively, often expecting failure as a foregone conclusion in multiple areas of life. As a result, pessimists frequently experience a pervasive sense of negativity and a diminished sense of control over their environment, leading to emotional distress and impaired coping abilities (del Valle & Mateos, 2008). Empirical research further supports the strong link between pessimism and depressive symptoms, such as heightened anxiety and a reduced sense of control over situations (Chang, Maydeu-Olivares, & D’Zurilla, 1997; del Valle & Mateos, 2008).

2.3 Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) as an Intervention for SE and Pessimism

CBT is a well-established, empirically supported psychotherapeutic intervention that targets maladaptive cognitive and behavioral patterns underlying various psychological disorders (Beck, 2011; Hofmann, Asnaani, Vonk, Sawyer, & Fang, 2012). Rooted in the cognitive model, CBT posits that dysfunctional thought processes (e.g., pessimistic appraisals, low SE) contribute to emotional distress and maladaptive behaviors, which can be modified through structured therapeutic techniques (APA, 2017). Originally developed for depression (Beck, 1967), CBT has since demonstrated efficacy across a broad spectrum of conditions, including anxiety disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder, and chronic stress (McKay et al., 2015; NIMH, 2023). Given its structured, goal-oriented framework, CBT is particularly well-suited for addressing SE deficits and pessimistic cognitive styles in adolescents – a population characterized by heightened neuroplasticity and vulnerability to emotional dysregulation (McLaughlin et al., 2015; Steinberg, 2014).

2.4 Therapeutic Mechanisms of CBT

CBT employs a collaborative, psychoeducational approach in which therapists assist clients in identifying and restructuring cognitive distortions (e.g., overgeneralization, catastrophizing) while simultaneously implementing behavioral modifications (Beck, 2011). The core techniques of CBT include: (1) Cognitive restructuring, a process of evaluating evidence for and against maladaptive beliefs (e.g., “I will never succeed”) and replacing them with balanced, empirically grounded alternatives. (2) Behavioral activation, a strategy aimed at counteracting avoidance behaviors by systematically increasing engagement in goal-directed and rewarding activities (Dimidjian, Barrera, Martell, Muñoz, & Lewinsohn, 2011). (3) Problem-solving training enhances coping skills by breaking challenges into manageable components and developing actionable solutions (D’Zurilla & Nezu, 2010).

These mechanisms collectively foster improvements in SE – defined as an individual’s belief in their capacity to execute behaviors necessary for goal attainment (Bandura, 1997a) – while mitigating pessimistic future expectancies (Scheier & Carver, 1992).

2.5 CBT in Enhancing Self-Efficacy and Reducing Pessimism

A growing body of research supports CBT’s role in augmenting SE and attenuating pessimistic cognitive styles. For instance, structured CBT interventions have been shown to significantly improve SE among adolescents by reinforcing adaptive self-beliefs and reducing cognitive distortions (Al-Hamad, 2020; Cancilliere, Fryc, & Flannery-Schroeder, 2023). Similarly, CBT-based programs effectively reduce pessimism by modifying negative attributional biases and enhancing problem-solving skills (Ay & Okanli, 2022; Moloud, Saeed, Mahmonir, & Rasool, 2022). These findings align with broader meta-analytic evidence underscoring CBT’s transdiagnostic utility (Hofmann et al., 2012), particularly in populations where maladaptive cognition exacerbates emotional and behavioral dysfunction.

2.6 Related Works

Psychological research on adolescents highlights variability in SE levels. For example, Abdullah and Al-Zaq (2022) and Hayajneh, Melhem, Al-Shraideh, and Al Momani (2022) reported moderate SE levels among adolescents. Additionally, Xu, Wang, Chen, Sun, and Ma (2022) found that low SE can be improved through targeted training programs. Pessimism also appears to be prevalent among adolescents, particularly those from disadvantaged backgrounds (Jha et al., 2017; Shek, 2005). As a result, there has been an increased focus on developing and implementing interventions aimed at enhancing students’ capabilities. Notably, efforts to improve SE among secondary school students have gained considerable attention (Al-Hamad, 2020). For instance, Niehaus, Rudasill, and Adelson (2011) designed a training program that effectively enhanced students’ academic SE, motivation, and achievement. Similarly, Abu-Zreik and Jaradat (2013) developed a counseling program that reduced procrastination and increased SE in participants compared to a control group. Furthermore, Oikawa and Sakamoto (2014) observed a rise in SE and a decrease in depression levels among students in an experimental group.

However, there is a scarcity of research examining the impact of a CBT-based program on simultaneously enhancing SE and reducing pessimism. Therefore, the current study aims to test this hypothesis.

2.7 Problem Statement

Based on the theoretical background presented above, SE is essential for individual success, as higher levels are linked to increased personal effectiveness and achievement. In childhood, SE is crucial for cultivating characteristics that positively shape future aspirations and career decisions. In contrast, pessimism can obstruct students’ adaptation to the educational environment, hindering their ability to thrive academically and socially.

At different educational stages, particularly during secondary education, students face numerous challenges related to adolescence, career prospects, familial expectations, and societal pressures associated with achieving success and excellence. This transitional period not only serves as a preparatory phase for future endeavors but also highlights the importance of high school students possessing elevated levels of SE. To address the complex challenges these students encounter, the implementation of psychological counseling programs – whether preventive, developmental, or therapeutic – becomes imperative. Acknowledging the essential role of these programs in promoting mental health and cognitive stability, group counseling initiatives have shown a significant impact in reducing emotional distress during this critical developmental stage. Therefore, targeted counseling programs can effectively reshape students’ experiences and perspectives.

Given these considerations, the present research problem focuses on testing the following hypotheses:

H₁: There are statistically significant differences in the SE scores of the experimental group between pre- and post-measurements.

H₂: There are statistically significant differences in the pessimism scores of the experimental group between pre- and post-measurements.

H₃: No statistically significant differences were found in the SE scores between the posttest and the follow-up test.

H₄: No statistically significant differences were found in the pessimism scores between the posttest and follow-up test.

3.1 Participants

The study included 32 high school students (18 males, 14 females) from Ajloun Governorate in Jordan, aged between 15 and 17 years (M = 16.2, SD = 0.6), all of whom had experienced academic failure during the second semester of the 2022–2023 academic year. Participants were recruited based on their scores on validated scales, identifying those with the lowest levels of academic SE and highest levels of pessimism. Students were drawn from three public secondary schools and were free from any diagnosed psychological disorders.

3.2 Measures

The self-efficacy scale (SES) utilized in this study was developed by Mahmoud (2020), who translated the instrument into Arabic using multiple internationally recognized scales as references, followed by a back-translation process to ensure the accuracy and validity of the translation. The scale comprises 31 items categorized into four dimensions: perseverance (Per.), benefit from previous experiences (BPE), self-confidence (SC), and keenness to perform the task (KPT). To ensure the reliability of the scale, a pilot study was conducted with a sample of 30 students drawn from the same population but distinct from the main study sample. The internal consistency of the scale was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha, yielding coefficients of 0.78, 0.81, 0.83, and 0.85 for the respective dimensions, and an overall scale reliability of 0.94. This indicates a high level of reliability for the SES in measuring the targeted dimensions among participants. Responses were collected using a 3-point Likert scale, where 1 indicated “never” and 3 indicated “always.” Levels of SE were categorized as follows: low (1–1.66), medium (1.67–2.33), and high (234–3).

The pessimism scale (PS) employed in this investigation was adapted from the original pessimism/optimism scale developed by Dember, Martin, Hummer, Howe, and Melton (1989) and later modified for the Arab demographic by Al-Dasouki (1998) who translated the instrument into Arabic followed by a back-translation process to ensure the accuracy and validity of the translation. This adaptation involved translating items into Arabic and adjusting or omitting those deemed unsuitable for Arab culture. The revised scale comprises 32 items specifically designed to assess tendencies toward pessimism. Internal consistency was evaluated using Cronbach’s alpha, resulting in a high coefficient of 0.96, indicating substantial internal reliability and alignment with the research objectives. The participants responded using a 4-point Likert scale, where 1 indicated “never” and 4 indicated “always.” Levels of pessimism were categorized as follows: low (1–1.99), medium (2–2.99), and high (3–4).

3.3 Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy Training Program

The counseling program implemented for the experimental group during the second semester of the academic year 2022/2023 was conducted online and comprised twelve 60-min sessions, with two sessions held per week over a span of 6 weeks. The overarching goals of the program were to enhance academic SE and diminish levels of pessimism among the participants. It contains the following sessions:

First Session (Introduction and Trust Building)

Objective: Establish trust and familiarity among the counselor and group members.

Content: Introduction to the program, its objectives, and initial acquaintance-building activities.

Second Session (Concept Exploration)

Objective: Define the concepts of SE and pessimism through discussions, dialogues, and lectures.

Content: In-depth exploration and understanding of the key concepts.

Third Session (Emotional Control)

Objective: Increase awareness of emotions and impart skills for regulating and controlling them.

Content: Activities focused on emotional intelligence and control.

Fourth Session (Self-Monitoring)

Objective: Explore the impact of self-monitoring on personal organization and effectiveness.

Content: Discussions and exercises related to self-monitoring.

Fifth Session (Self-Evaluation)

Objective: Understand the application of self-evaluation and its influence on SE and pessimism.

Content: Activities and discussions centered on the concept of self-evaluation.

Sixth Session (Self-Reinforcement)

Objective: Implement self-reinforcement techniques and identify appropriate reinforcement strategies.

Content: Practical exercises on self-reinforcement and its implications.

Seventh Session (Self-Talk)

Objective: Enhance SC through verbal persuasion and positive self-talk.

Content: Strategies and discussions aimed at developing positive internal dialogue.

Eighth Session (Problem Solving)

Objective: Develop problem-solving skills and choose appropriate alternatives from various options.

Content: Problem-solving scenarios and decision-making exercises.

Ninth Session (Cognitive Structure Modification)

Objective: Identify logical and illogical beliefs and replace negative self-statements with positive ones.

Content: Exploration of cognitive restructuring techniques.

Tenth Session (Learning from Experiences)

Objective: Analyze successes and failures in previous situations for future application.

Content: Reflection on past experiences and their implications.

Eleventh Session (Perseverance)

Objective: Train in patience and perseverance in task completion and facing challenges.

Content: Exercises and discussions focused on cultivating perseverance.

Twelfth Session (Conclusion and Reflection)

Objective: Review and wrap up the counseling program and encourage application of acquired skills in daily life.

Content: Participants share their experiences, discuss program effectiveness, and receive encouragement for ongoing skill application.

3.4 Research Design

Experimental Group (E): O₁ → X → O₂ → O₃

Control Group (C): O₁ → → O₂ → O₃

Where

• O₁ = Pretest measurement (SE and pessimism)

• X = Experimental treatment (CBT-based counseling program)

• O₂ = Posttest measurement

• O₃ = Follow-up measurement (e.g., 4 weeks after posttest)

3.5 Data Analysis

The data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS, Version 23). Prior to hypothesis testing, descriptive statistics, including means, standard deviations, medians, skewness, and kurtosis, were calculated to examine the distribution and central tendencies of the variables: academic SE and pessimism. To assess the effectiveness of the CBT-based counseling program, a multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) was conducted to evaluate the intervention’s effects across three time points (pretest, posttest, and follow-up). Additionally, effect sizes, specifically Cohen’s d and partial eta squared (η ²), were computed to determine the magnitude of the treatment effects. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05, and all tests were two-tailed.

3.6 Procedures

The study progressed through several key phases. After identifying the research problem, psychometrically sound scales were carefully developed, and their properties were rigorously assessed. Following this, a comprehensive training program was designed. Prior to implementation, necessary approvals were obtained from the school administration. During the screening stage, scales were randomly distributed to 145 high school students. After scoring the tests, 32 students who scored the lowest on the SE scale and the highest on the PS were selected for participation. Parental consent and student assent were obtained prior to participation. Students were randomly assigned to either the experimental group (n = 16), which participated in a 12-session counseling program grounded in cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), or the control group (n = 16), which did not receive any intervention during the study period. The study adhered to the ethical standards of the 1989 Helsinki Declaration and was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Department of Educational Psychology and Counseling at The Hashemite University (Approval No. 6/10/2022/2023). To determine the appropriate statistical tests, the data were assessed for normality. Table 1 presents the relevant values:

The results indicate that the Shapiro–Wilk test’s statistical significance values are greater than the alpha level (α ≤ 0.05) for SE, suggesting a normal distribution for this variable. However, pessimism does not meet this criterion. Nonetheless, according to the central limit theorem, given that the study sample size exceeds 30 observations, parametric tests can still be applied (Hahs-Vaughn & Lomax, 2012). Therefore, parametric tests were used for data analysis.

Participants were randomly assigned to either the experimental or control group. To verify group equivalence, a multivariate analysis of variance was conducted to compare the groups on SE sub-dimensions, and a t-test was used for pessimism. The results are presented in the following Table 2 for the SE variable:

The analysis revealed no significant differences between the experimental and control groups across the SE sub-dimensions, indicating that the groups were equivalent before the intervention. Regarding the differences in pessimism, t-test analysis (t(1, 30) = −1.768, p > 0.087) showed no significant differences between the experimental and control groups across the pessimism.

The program was executed in a designated classroom, with the experimental group receiving detailed information about program objectives and implementation instructions on the inaugural day. The initial session served a foundational purpose, focusing on building trust and establishing a positive counseling relationship between the counselor and the group members. Subsequent sessions concentrated on imparting CBT counseling techniques, utilizing various exercises such as discussions, dialogues, self-monitoring, role-playing, cognitive reconstruction, irrational thinking cessation, problem-solving, modeling, reinforcement, feedback, and assigned homework. The twelfth session functioned as a closing session, involving a swift review of counseling group experiences. During this session, participants discussed their individual experiences, assessed the program’s alignment with expectations, and collectively summarized the key takeaways from the counseling sessions.

Continuous evaluations were conducted after each session to gauge participant benefits, and a post-test was administered upon program completion. The program concluded in accordance with its predetermined structure.