Gender and Family Stereotypes in a Photograph: Research Using the Eye-Tracking Method

3.1 Research Design

The methodology of this study draws on previous studies of visual perception conducted on historical caricatures and historical photographs, which used a mixed research design combining qualitative and quantitative methods (Labischová, 2015, 2018, 2019, 2024a,b). As in the previous studies, this study used a computer-based test with a Tobii TX300 Eye Tracker device and Tobii Studio software. The photograph used in the test depicted a family with four members, and subjects were asked a series of 11 questions (see below). The data were analysed using research methods that had been verified in previous studies:

1. Audio recording analysis. An audio recording of the test subjects’ answers was made. A literal transcript was then produced, and the answers were evaluated using open and axial coding and data categorization; based on an analysis of the coded text, a categorial system was proposed consisting of 6 main categories and 19 subcategories. The individual codes were also quantified in terms of absolute frequencies. The quantified data were then compared, and a qualitative analysis of the verbal responses was also carried out.

2. Visualized data analysis. The analysis focused on the visual data recorded by the Eye Tracker device (heatmaps, gaze opacity gaze plots) and also on selected statistical data, primarily the duration (in seconds) of the subjects’ answers to individual questions.

3. Immediately after the completion of the test, feedback was collected from the subjects via structured interviews in order to identify which of the questions had been more difficult to answer (or to understand) and focusing on a didactic evaluation of the applicability of the set of questions for primary school pupils.

The visual basis for the test was a photograph of a family of four preparing food and drink at a table. This particular photograph was selected for a number of reasons. It depicts an ordinary everyday situation, but it also offers room for imagination and thinking about the meanings and social relationships whose social perception may be influenced by gender and family stereotypes and notions of “typical” gender roles and their enactment within the family (Figure 1).

Figure 1

The photograph of a family (the visual basis for the research test). Source: Pexels.com/August de Richelieu.

A set of 11 questions was devised for the purposes of the study. These questions were displayed in sequence on a computer monitor while the photograph remained constantly visible. The task assigned to the subjects was to observe the photograph and the questions carefully and to answer the questions orally. No time limit was set for the answers, and the subjects were able to spend as long as they wanted on each question.

The questions were as follows:

1. What is depicted in the photograph?

2. Describe all the details of the photograph.

3. Which people do you see in the photograph? Describe them.

4. What occasion is depicted?

5. Where does the family live (which country, city × village, apartment × house)?

6. What mood is there in the photograph?

7. How old are the children and what are they doing?

8. Who is the woman in the photograph and what is her profession?

9. Who is the man in the photograph and what is his profession?

10. Is this a common situation in a home? Give reasons.

11. What is unusual in the photograph, and why?

The first question is not didactically structured; it focuses on the subjects’ general orientation and their first impressions of the photograph. For the purposes of the study, it was important whether the subjects’ answers contained gender and family stereotypes even when simply looking at the photograph. The ten subsequent questions focused on various individual aspects of the photograph; here, the key role was played by the subjects’ imagination and the connection between their answers and various pre-concepts concerning a “typical” family and an everyday situation in home life (preparing food and drink, probably for a family breakfast). The photograph was chosen deliberately because the skin colours of the man and the women appear different at first sight. Additionally, the children are a boy and a girl, and the man is not depicted as entirely passive. The emotional dimension is also important (i.e. the general mood of the photograph), as are any incongruities with established gender and family stereotypes (the identification and explanation of any unusual features).

The research was conducted in November 2022 at the eye-tracking laboratory of the Faculty of Education, University of Ostrava (Czech Republic). The test was conducted on 29 students (16 males, 13 females, aged 19–24) from the civic studies primary school teacher training programme, studying civic studies in combination with another degree subject (Czech language, English language, mathematics, information science, technical education, physical education, art education, music education). All participants in the study were future teachers and students enrolled in teacher education programs.

The average duration of a test was 10–15 min per subject. All the students were given prior instructions on the testing, and eye calibration was carried out. The specific purpose of the study was not disclosed to the participants; only general objectives were communicated. The questions in the test were phrased neutrally to avoid targeting specific gender stereotypes, which could potentially be influenced by socially desirable responses. Participants were not informed that the image was of an American family. The study aimed to focus on specific gender roles within the household.

The research respected ethical principles with general validity in social and pedagogical research. The subjects signed an informed consent form agreeing to undertake the eye-tracking measurement. They were informed about the research aims and process, and the stipulated conditions and rules were strictly observed. The entire study was strictly anonymous (the names given in this article have been changed), and the research data were duly protected.

4.1 Audio Recording Analysis

Based on the transcription and analysis of subjects’ answers to the questions asked during the test and the subsequent open and axial coding, a categorial system was devised to express the conceptual structure of the students’ verbal responses (Table 1).

All the main categories and subcategories in the system presented above were quantified. Graph 1 shows the frequency of the specific codes within individual subcategories. The highest frequency of codes was recorded in the category PF (the description of elements in the photograph), which was the focus of question no. 2.

Graph 1

Occurrence of codes by subcategory (absolute frequencies).

The subjects’ answers to the test questions were then analysed in qualitative terms. The first research aim was to determine which gender and family stereotypes were present in the comments made by the future civic studies teachers when interpreting the photograph.

With relation to the family event category, the subjects mentioned the time, location, and the designation of the event. All the subjects stated that the event took place in the morning; several respondents stated that it must be a weekend because the entire family would only be able to eat breakfast together at the weekend. The respondents mentioned a house (only rarely an apartment) not in the Czech Republic; the most frequently stated location was an American suburb. The students differed in their opinions on whether this was an ordinary everyday situation. The most frequent answer was that it was not an ordinary everyday situation, or that it was ordinary only in America but they would like it to be ordinary in their own families too. Some of the students compared the scene to their own experiences.

It’s not often that a family gets together for an event, perhaps with the exception of Christmas, I don’t think it’s currently an ordinary situation, but I’d really like it to be. (student Andreas)

The description of elements in the photograph focused on the people depicted, their appearance, their outward behaviour, their activities, the food, and other objects. The most frequent answers mentioned a complete family (mother, father, two children), and only occasionally were the respondents not sure about the relationships between the people depicted in the photograph. When describing the people’s appearance, the test subjects most frequently mentioned the man’s skin colour, as well as clothes, hair, and accessories, often in considerable detail (nails, tidy or messy hair, the colour and rumpled parts of clothing, etc.). Some of the answers contained gender-stereotyped perceptions of the people’s appearance, e.g. mentioning the man’s pink or salmon-coloured T-shirt or the woman’s unironed blouse.

With regard to the adults, the answers emphasized their activity in preparing the breakfast, while the children were described as passively watching and waiting. Although one answer stated that the children were learning the cooperative behaviour of their parents, the prevalent view was that the woman was merely assisting the man.

A happy mum and dad, the children are watching them cooperate. (student Alena)

Experiences and relationships were described both from the perspective of the individual people’s moods and also in terms of the family as a whole. The photograph made a very positive impression on the students, who viewed the family as complete, functional, happy, and financially secure. The people were characterized as smiling, happy, content, and enjoying a moment together. It was evident that the students consider a complete family to be normal and usual; this is at odds with reality – according to data from the Czech Statistical Office, the 2021 divorce rate in the Czech Republic was 39.7% (CZSO, 2021b).

It’s an ordinary household, because it’s the family all together, because the parents aren’t divorced. (student Karin)

When speaking about the other characteristics of the people, the test subjects focused mainly on gender differences in the perception of men and women. The smallest number of characteristics was given when describing the woman; the respondents almost exclusively mentioned her age (younger than the man), defined her role in the family (wife and mother), and in one case mentioned her religion (suggested by the fact that her face is not covered).

I think the woman in the photograph is the mother of those two and probably the wife, although she doesn’t have a ring. (student Tamara)

When describing the man, the respondents mentioned his age (older than the woman) and skin colour, as well as repeatedly mentioning masculine characteristics (strength, size, muscles, head of the family, success).

He seems to me like a strong guy. (student Andreas)

In the case of the children, some of the respondents were not certain whether they were a girl and a boy or two girls. The test subjects also found it difficult to guess their age, with answers ranging from 4 to 13. A number of gender stereotypes also appeared in relation to the children. For example, there was an assumption that the girl was artistically inclined, while the boy was athletic. Several statements were also gender-burdened:

The young lady is looking at probably her mother spreading the bread. (student Frank)

A relatively large number of answers concerned the parents’ professions. A very wide range of professions was given both for the man and the woman, from low- to high-status positions. Here too, certain gender stereotypes related to social inequality were observed. Positions with higher social status were more frequently ascribed to the man (businessman, company manager, company owner), while the woman was more frequently assigned assistant positions (secretary). The woman was much more frequently associated with caring professions (preschool teacher, teacher, nurse, paramedic, doctor, working with people), or her role in the private sphere was emphasized (mother, wife, homemaker). In one case, a respondent used the masculine forms of the adjective and noun when identifying a caring profession with high social status (general practitioner). In general, the woman was associated with unequal professional positions (secretary × manager, nurse × doctor). It is noteworthy that the man’s happiness was attributed to his professional success.

The man … seems to me like a company manager, I don’t know what type of company, he gives the impression of being successful, smiling. (student Karin)

The overall characterization of the photograph focused on its overall mood, authenticity, and any unusual features. As well as expressing the opinion that the photograph gave a general positive impression (pleasant, relaxed atmosphere, harmony), the students also mentioned social topics (equality, multiculturalism).

I think nowadays it’s increasingly common for situations like this to happen at home – one reason is that equality is starting to be … I think nowadays it’s simply a normal situation. (student Aneta)

Some of the respondents noted that the photograph did not seem entirely authentic, describing it as too ideal and stating that it gave an artificial impression and that aesthetic improvements had been made to it.

It looks so harmonious, almost artificial, because elsewhere the morning is more kind of stressful. That all four of them have gathered together. (student Tamara)

Unusual features mentioned by the test subjects were the white kitchen, the very tidy kitchen, the lack of plates or appliances, and differences in food preferences (avocado for breakfast).

The combination of foods looks a bit strange, as I’ve never seen anybody eat avocado with toast. (student Frank)

The second aim of the research was to identify any differences in the quality of the students’ perception, analysis, and interpretation of the photograph depending on the form of the questions asked. From a didactic perspective, it is important for the interpretation of visual material to be guided by a didactically structured catalogue of questions that encourage pupils to observe the material more closely and think about various aspects of the visual text.

As illustrated in Table 2, when participants answered the didactically structured questions (numbers 2–11), they produced a significantly higher number of codes compared to their responses to the more open-ended question (number 1). The responses to question 1 were generally superficial, focusing mainly on the individuals, objects in the photograph's central area, and a basic description of the situation.

It is evident from Table 2 that when responding to the didactically structured questions (nos 2–11), the test subjects gave substantially higher frequencies of codes when compared with the didactically unstructured question (no. 1). The answers to question no. 1 were generally rather superficial, restricted mainly to the people depicted, the objects in the central part of the photograph, and the general designation of the situation. Some of the respondents noted the evidently good mood of the people. As the answers to question no. 2 show, an emphasis on detailed description leads to a more thorough observation of the photograph. A similar result was found with the questions focusing on the description of the people and their activities, the identification of the situation depicted, the location of the scene, the estimated ages of the children, the possible professions of the adults, and any unusual features of the photograph; all these questions encourage respondents to use their imagination more and to interpret the photograph on a deeper level.

4.2 Visualized Data Analysis

The visualized data obtained from the measurements using the Eye Tracker device were generated, analysed, and compared. Heatmaps and gaze opacity maps were used to express the intensity of test subjects’ gaze on individual areas of the photograph, and gaze plot maps captured the course and frequency of fixations, saccades, and regressions.

The second research aim was to compare the quality of perception of the photograph when answering the didactically unstructured question (no. 1) and the didactically structured questions (nos 2–11). The most significant differences were found when comparing question 1 with questions 2 and 11.

It is evident from Figure 2 that when answering the general question “What is depicted in the photograph?,” the students’ gaze focused almost exclusively on the faces of the people in the photograph (most of all on the face of the boy, who is standing in the middle), and also on the objects in the central part of the photograph (the milk bottle and the toast); this corresponds with the verbal answers given by the test subjects. This finding is even more clearly visible in Figure 3, where a large part of the photograph remained essentially unnoticed (shown in black).

Figure 2

Heatmap (all respondents) – question no. 1.

Figure 3

Gaze opacity map (all respondents) – question no. 1.

Differences are shown in Figure 4 (the heatmap for question no. 2), showing that the respondents looked at the entire area of the photograph in considerable detail (the parts shown in colours).

Figure 4

Heatmap (all respondents) – question no. 2.

In the case of the didactically structured questions, the test subjects’ behaviour depended on the formulation of the question. While questions 2 and 11 encouraged subjects to observe the entire photograph with great care, the other questions focused on specific aspects of the situation (e.g. location, mood, or activities), so the students’ gaze focused on individual parts of the image.

This is demonstrated in Figure 5, which shows the gaze plots for the student Emma when responding to question no. 6 “What mood is there in the photograph?” The plot shows that the respondent attempted to determine the mood from the facial expressions of the individual people and their gestures (smiles).

Figure 5

Gaze plot map (student Emma) – question no. 6.