The Mediating Effect of Optimism and Resourcefulness on the Relationship between Hardiness and Cyber Delinquent Among Adolescent Students
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Fahad Neda Alenezi
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Shahabuddin Bin Hashim
Abstract
There is growing interested in the role of psychological resilience in shaping adolescent students’ delinquent behaviours in secondary schools. In this article, using locus of control theory, we examine the role of psychological resilience in terms of hardiness, resourcefulness, and optimism in minimizing the occurrence of cyber delinquent behaviours of secondary school students in Saudi Arabia. We introduce optimism and resourcefulness as protective factors critical for adolescents engaging in cyber delinquent behaviour and conceptualize them as characteristics of individuals with an internal locus of control. This study examines the multiple mediation effects of optimism and resourcefulness in the relationship between hardiness and cyber delinquent behaviours. The structural equation modelling results confirm eight hypotheses and that optimism and resourcefulness mediate the relationship between hardiness and cyber delinquent behaviours. These findings demonstrate the multiple mediation effects of optimism and resourcefulness and the important role of hardiness, resourcefulness, and optimism in predicting cyber delinquent behaviour. We draw implications for theory, secondary schools, and policymakers.
1 Introduction
Cyber delinquent behaviour is an illegal and harmful behaviour associated with many mental health and psychological problems, thus threatening adolescents and society (Bae, 2017; Kim, 2021; Nam, 2021). Cyber delinquency causes low academic achievement, decreased school participation, harm to peers, a weak sense of belonging to the class, lower school self-satisfaction, and school commitment among adolescent students (Alotaibi, Furnell, Stengel, & Papadaki, 2016; Bae, 2017; Kim, 2021). Cyber delinquent behaviour among adolescents can consist of threatening messages or sexual images transmitted via email, cell phones, chat rooms, or instant messaging programs/social networking sites (Kim, 2021; Rokven, Weijters, Beerthuizen, & van der Laan, 2018).
To promote cyber delinquent behaviours, it is crucial to understand how the various psychological factors affect cyber delinquent behaviours. Psychological resilience has been a subject of growing interest in recent years, particularly in relation to the challenges faced by adolescents in their daily lives. Specifically, resilience is the ability to recover quickly from adversity and can help adolescents cope with stress and dangers in their daily lives (Glowacz & Born, 2014; Liu et al., 2018; Papatraianou, Levine, & West, 2014). Resourcefulness, optimism, and hardiness are identified as distinct factors contributing to psychological resilience (Ayala & Manzano, 2018; Manzano & Ayala, 2013; Singh & Yu, 2010; Wu, Wang, Lee, Lin, & Guo, 2019). They are all related constructs that contribute to individuals’ ability to cope with negative life events and improve their well-being (Ayala & Manzano, 2014). Additionally, these qualities are interconnected and have an impact on multiple facets of an individual’s overall welfare and capacity to effectively deal with difficulties (Chykhantsova, 2023) but there is a lack of research on how these factors are related specifically in the context of cyber delinquent behaviours. Thus, this article attempted to answer the following question: What is the impact of resourcefulness, optimism, and hardiness on cyber delinquent behaviours? What are the interrelationships between hardiness, resourcefulness, and optimism?
Psychological research has postulated the significance of hardiness by proposing that hardy individuals possess the ability to respond and endure when confronted with danger and excessive demands (Ayala & Manzano, 2014; Potard, Madamet, Huart, El Hage, & Courtois, 2018), thereby potentially impacting adolescents’ delinquent conduct on the Internet. However, a limited number of studies have also empirically demonstrated that hardiness is inclined to safeguard individuals from exposure to depression (Alfred, Hammer, & Good, 2014), delinquent behaviour (Kehinde & Tolulope, 2019), and bullying conduct (Hamre et al., 2020). Recent research with army soldiers as participants has demonstrated that hardiness might impact depression using mediators such as avoidance coping (Bartone & Homish, 2020), yet insufficient attention has been devoted to cyber delinquent behaviours. These findings suggest that hardiness can serve as a stress resilience resource in highly demanding environments. However, it should be noted that the specific relationship between hardiness and cyber delinquent behaviours through optimism and resourcefulness was not directly addressed in the studies provided. Further research is needed to explore this potential mechanism. This study suggests that optimism and resourcefulness as internal locus of control traits enable individuals to endure and overcome adversity and is a key mediating mechanism of the relationship between hardiness and cyber delinquent behaviours. Hence, it addresses our research question: How can hardiness minimize cyber delinquent behaviours through optimism and resourcefulness? Accordingly, the specific hypotheses of the present article are as follows:
Hypothesis 1. Hardiness is negatively related to cyber delinquent behaviour.
Hypothesis 2. Hardiness is positively related to optimism.
Hypothesis 3. Hardiness is positively related to resourcefulness.
Hypothesis 4. Optimism is negatively related to cyber delinquent behaviour.
Hypothesis 5. Optimism mediates the relationship between hardiness and cyber delinquent behaviour.
Hypothesis 6. Resourcefulness is negatively related to cyber delinquent behaviour.
Hypothesis 7. Resourcefulness is positively related to optimism.
Hypothesis 8. Resourcefulness mediates the relationship between hardiness and cyber delinquent behaviour.
This study contributes in two ways to this article. First, it offers a theoretical contribution to the literature by providing a better understanding of the relationship between hardiness and cyber delinquent behaviours. It also examines how hardiness enhances optimism and resourcefulness, leading to a reduction in cyber delinquent behaviours. Second, it sheds light on the multiple mediation effects of optimism and resourcefulness in bridging the connection between hardiness and cyberdelinquent behaviour. As a result, this study offers schools and educators a systematic approach to minimize the tendency of students to engage in cyber delinquency behaviours. The study specifically targets twelfth-grade students, as previous research suggests that studying the role of resilience factors in adolescent school students will contribute significantly to knowledge in the field of cyber delinquency (Kim, 2021; Kowalski, Giumetti, Schroeder, & Lattanner, 2014).
2 Literature Review
2.1 Prevalence of Cyber Delinquency in Adolescents
Cyber delinquency in adolescence has become a growing concern in recent years, but it has not been extensively studied (Kim, 2021; Kowalski et al., 2014). Cyber delinquency is a prevalent and relatively new risk phenomenon among adolescent students committed through electronic media as the applications and uses of information technologies are growing exponentially (Joshi, Stubbe, Li, & Hilty, 2019; Kim, 2021). It is a comprehensive concept that includes severe forms of abuse such as cyberbullying, cyber piracy, cyber-assault, cyber violence, and cyber harassment (Brunton-Smith & McCarthy, 2016; Kerstens & Veenstra, 2015). Revenge porn, a type of cyberbullying, is a harmful phenomenon that involves the nonconsensual sharing of sexually explicit images and videos (Rood & Schriner, 2022). It can have detrimental effects on the victims’ careers and livelihoods. It can lead to lifelong mental health consequences, damaged relationships, and social isolation. Exposure to revenge porn can also result in the violation of human rights, such as dignity, personal rights, and freedom, for children and adolescents (Sechi, Cabras, & Sideli, 2023).
Information technologies allow adolescents to access information and participate in peer-group activities by default instantly. This is especially true for children and adolescents who have grown up with the internet environment as an essential part of their daily lives. It is recognized as a significant social issue and concern of developing countries across Europe and the United States (Bae, 2017) However, two recent studies (Marret & Choo, 2017; Zych, Ortega-Ruiz, & Del Rey, 2015) have revealed that among young people in the form of harassment ranges from 5.5 to 72%, in the form of cyberbullying ranges from 6.5 to 72% and cyber aggression ranges 20–40% (Álvarez-García, Barreiro-Collazo, Núñez, & Dobarro, 2016). These studies have demonstrated that the rise in the phenomenon of cyber delinquency among teenagers can be linked directly to the growing utilization of the Internet, the convenient accessibility of this technological medium, and the accumulation of psychological motivations that adolescents find difficult to overcome in their day-to-day lives, ultimately leading to an escalation in the occurrence of cyber delinquency (Álvarez-García et al., 2016; Marret & Choo, 2017; Zych et al., 2015).
The first form relates to cyber delinquency as cyberbullying which is increasingly identified with problematic social and psychological consequences for middle- and high school students because these have always been the traditional contexts in which bullying occurs worldwide (Gündüz, Akgün, & Özgür, 2021). Adolescents who practice cyberbullying behaviour in the community are defined as “cyberbullying,” while those who experience this behaviour are defined as “online victims” (Kalender, Keser, & Tugun, 2019). It is also described as the use of electronic mediums such as mobile phones, e-mails Internet chats, social media, and personal blogs to harass, threaten, embarrass, or target another person who cannot defend him/herself (Ferrara, Ianniello, Villani, & Corsello, 2018). Cyberbullying, in general, includes posting ill-motivated messages, creating fake accounts to posting images and videos online about a person (such as a student) that is often conducted anonymously (Saladino, Eleuteri, Verrastro, & Petruccelli, 2020).
Cyber delinquency can be carried out among adolescents in schools. For example, a recent survey conducted with 627 adolescents from schools in northern Portugal shows that 63.1% reported being involved in cyber-aggression, with 31.1% admitting to being victim perpetrators (Vale, Pereira, Gonçalves, & Matos, 2018). Similarly, a study by the Internet and Security Agency (KISA) revealed that about 14% of the respondents (N = 3,000) from middle and high school students reported experiences of cyber delinquency during the past year, while 19% reported cyberbullying victimization experiences. For example, in Saudi Arabia, a study by Al-Zahrani (2015) found that 27% of students have committed cyberbullying at least once or twice. This finding is further supported by Al-Qarni and Khader (2018), who reported that cyber delinquent behaviours among Boyo’s students are double that of traditional deviant behaviour. More importantly, research findings have shown that cyber delinquency, i.e. cyberbullying, causes sadness, anger, frustration, embarrassment, loneliness, fear, even depression, and suicidal thoughts, drug abuse problems (Eroglu, Akbaba, Adigüzel, & Peker, 2014; Marret & Choo, 2017). Thus, cyber delinquency is not just the result of individual behaviours but is influenced by psychological resilience, beliefs, and thinking patterns.
2.2 The Importance of Psychological Resilience in Adolescence
Psychological resilience reflects the ability of individuals to adapt, bounce back, cope successfully, overcome significant stress or adversity, and deal actively with life’s challenges (Fletcher & Sarkar, 2013; Wu et al., 2019; Yates, Tyrell, & Masten, 2015). It is also related to the ability of an individual to develop and mobilize the resources they can use in the face of adverse circumstances, which is a vital growth strategy for adolescents in managing crises (Ayala & Manzano, 2014; Navrady et al., 2018). The importance of psychological resilience has also been emphasized in the literature as an essential tool for (1) helping adolescents become more resilient (Van der Hof & Koops, 2011), (2) adapting positively to life circumstances (Sisto et al., 2019), and (3) they remain strong and even thrive in the face of the difficulties and challenges they face (Fletcher & Sarkar, 2013). The resilience of an individual is a multifaceted process encompassing various dimensions, wherein hardiness, resourcefulness, and optimism emerge as distinctive and independent factors that impact one’s ability to withstand adversity, despite their interrelatedness (Ayala & Manzano, 2014, 2018; Connor & Davidson, 2003; Singh & Yu, 2010; Wu et al., 2019). Furthermore, it represents a collection of personal traits that can effectively counteract the delinquent behaviors exhibited by adolescents (Kehinde & Tolulope, 2019; Mansouri, Mousavi-Nasab, & Shamsodini Lori, 2015).
The capability of resilience and healing from the dangers of cybercrime is also present. Additionally, it can prevent adolescents from engaging in criminal and delinquent behaviour (Glowacz & Born, 2014). Moreover, it plays a crucial role in mitigating the risks associated with cyberbullying (Hinduja & Patchin, 2017). Specifically, psychology researchers have investigated the role of psychological resilience capabilities in preventing adolescents from engaging in negative behaviours such as offline delinquent behaviour (Mansouri et al., 2015), antisocial behaviours (Glowacz & Born, 2014), and cyberbullying (Hinduja & Patchin, 2017; Kabadayi & Sari, 2018).
According to resilience theory (Richardson, 2002), adolescents with lower levels of resilience are more likely to engage in cyber delinquent behaviours than those with high levels of resilience. In particular, the theory suggests that adolescents cannot distance themselves from engaging in deviant behaviours online if they have the strong hardiness, resourcefulness, and optimism to deal with major changes, adversity, and risks (Duchek, 2018; Wu et al., 2019). Therefore, our study used hardiness, resourcefulness, and optimism to represent the resilience construct. On the other hand, the three-factor models (i.e. hardiness, resourcefulness, and optimism) have become a leading model for studying resilience factors in the psychological field (Ayala & Manzano, 2014; Singh & Yu, 2010; Wu et al., 2019).
2.3 Theoretical Framework and Hypotheses Development
2.3.1 Locus of Control Theory (LCT)
The LCT was derived from Rotter’s (1990) experiment in social learning theory in the 1950s as an initial attempt to explain and predict human behaviour and the factors affecting it (Kehinde & Tolulope, 2019; Lefcourt, 2014). Rotter (1990) postulated that individuals with an internal locus of control believe they can control important events in their lives, less vulnerable to pressure and anxiety because of their high resilience and hardiness. Findings from various research suggest those individuals with an inner control centre typically exhibit personal responsibility, participatory skills, problem-solving skills, psychological resilience, desired choices, self-efficacy, and altruism, which enable them to endure and overcome adversity (Joo, Joung, & Sim, 2011; Kehinde & Tolulope, 2019; Ojedokun, 2011). Conversely, individuals with an external locus of control are more likely to believe that external forces, such as fate, opportunity, and luck, influence affairs in their lives and do not have control over events or influence (Claeys, Cauberghe, & Vyncke, 2010). Begum and Saikia (2022) found that adolescents with an internal locus of control had a 35% lower probability of developing internet addiction compared to those with an external locus of control. Agaj (2016) suggests that individuals with an external locus of control are more likely to engage in violent behaviours. Therefore, it can be inferred that adolescents with an external locus of control may be more inclined to engage in online behaviour, including Internet addiction and potentially aggressive or violent behaviours. This article examined the relationship between hardiness, resourcefulness, optimism, and cyber delinquent behaviours, as well as the mediating role of optimism and resourcefulness. Underpinning this research is the LCT (Rotter, 1990). The theory suggests that individuals can control events that may affect them through internal and external locus of control characteristics (Claeys et al., 2010).
An individual with an internal locus of control may not condone the delinquent act because he/she assumes his work responsibilities, while an individual with an external control may participate in a delinquent act that is likely to negate joy and harmony in the community (Kehinde & Tolulope, 2019; Ojedokun, 2011). Also, internal individuals generally believe that they are primarily responsible and in control of what happens to them and demonstrate learned resourcefulness, self-efficacy, optimism, and toughness, all of which are linked to specific coping styles (Lazarus, 1993). In the context of online behaviour, Bennett, Goldstein, Gathright, Hughes, and Latner (2017) found that adolescents with an internal locus of control exhibit better mental health and overall adjustment patterns, including home, social, emotional, educational, and health adjustment domains. These individuals have an internal locus of control, perceiving outcomes as resulting from their behaviour. They are more likely to use problem-focused coping, approaching stress as a problem to be solved and actively taking steps to deal with it (Grandhi, Prajapati, & Chintalapuri, 2022).
Gianakos (2002) and Ng, Sorensen, and Eby (2006) posited that individuals with an internal locus of control tend to balance behaviours to react to a problem more constructively, such as actively looking for solutions rather than relying solely on emotional support from an external locus of control. Rębisz, Jasińska-Maciążek, Grygiel, and Dolata (2023) demonstrated that the emotional dimension plays a crucial role in cyberbullying, as indicated by the significance of emotional self-regulation, which decreases the occurrence of cyberbullying. Other noteworthy factors include assertiveness, impulsive reaction to limited internet access (which enhances the likelihood of participating in cyberbullying), and apprehension of peers (which diminishes its frequency). Consequently, the significance of pro-social behaviour (which hinders involvement) and peer support (which encourages participation) highlights the second vital dimension of cyberbullying, namely group mechanisms. Moreover, Buddelmeyer and Powdthavee (2016) also supported the assertion that individuals with an internal locus of control are positively related to waste-better prevention behaviours than individuals with an external locus of control.
2.3.2 Optimism and Resourcefulness as Traits of Individuals with an Internal Locus of Control
In this article, we suggest that optimism and resourcefulness are characteristics of individuals with an internal locus of control (Rotter, 1990) and are critical to delinquency behaviour, according to LCT. Rotter (1975, 1990) postulated that individuals with an internal locus of control tend to return the outcome of events to their control as they believe in persistence and perseverance in the face of failure, and the results of their actions are the results of their capabilities. Through the ability to think about positive outcomes, they are less prone to feelings of stress and anxiety, tend to find alternatives to the right behaviours, struggle better with life’s stress, control their emotions, and tend to assert themselves (April, Dharani, & Peters, 2012). Hence, individuals with a strong internal locus of control tend to have psychological resilience to regulate their behaviours in the cyber. They tend to balance behaviours to react to a problem more constructively and actively seek solutions rather than rely solely on emotional support (Gianakos, 2002; Ng et al., 2006). Optimistic individuals cannot only maintain a positive attitude in difficult situations but also deal with uncertainty regarding outcomes (Betts, Metwally, & Gardner, 2019; Carver, Scheier, & Segerstrom, 2010). Micheletto et al. (2022) have shown that individuals with an internal locus of control tend to display optimistic beliefs about online behaviours and perceive themselves as less likely to experience risks compared to others. This finding suggests that individuals with an internal locus of control and optimistic outlook may engage in online behaviour with a sense of confidence and resilience. Hence, optimism is associated with positive emotions that help individuals achieve mental health goals, stress response, and wellbeing (Chen, Su, Ren, & Huo, 2019; Glasø & Notelaers, 2012). Moreover, optimistic individuals operate against the impact of threats and traumatic events resulting from cyber delinquency (Snyman & Loh, 2015). On the other hand, resourcefulness reflects a collection of acquired abilities, resources, and skills that enable an individual to influence and overcome difficult circumstances they will face reasonably.
To deal positively with specific challenges, they are less exposed to depression (Ayala & Manzano, 2014). Based on this, we argue that developing individuals’ internal locus of control characteristics (Rotter, 1990) through hardiness promotes the development of one’s optimism and resourcefulness. Optimism individuals are active, tend to control the various adverse situations, and can better cope with the problem-facing and more optimism (Abdollahi, Talib, Yaacob, & Ismail, 2015; Ayala & Manzano, 2014). Thus, optimism is an essential internal locus of control trait that can be fostered through hardiness to better respond to difficult situations (Mazzetti, Vignoli, Petruzziello, & Palareti, 2019) and overcome individual behaviours such as cyber delinquents. We also argue that resourcefulness is critical to using more effective coping strategies (Cowden, Fuller, & Anshel, 2014) and lower levels of aggressive behaviour (Ronen & Rosenbaum, 2010).
By implementing programs to train for hardiness in schools, adolescent students may create conditions for resourcefulness to emerge. Hence, resourcefulness through hardiness is important in promoting resilience outcomes, acting as a protective resource to reduce the negative influence of bad actions (Cowden et al., 2014). Integrating these relationships into a model helps us understand the mechanism underlying cyber delinquency. As a result, the present study could potentially propose that cyber delinquency may stem from the trait of hardiness, which is manifested through optimism and resourcefulness. To clarify, hardiness can effectively and with keen interest manage encounters with cyber delinquent behaviour by altering the levels of optimism and resourcefulness.
2.3.3 Hardiness and Cyber Delinquent Behaviour
This article defines hardiness as a psychological resilience involved in the individual’s ability to adequately and interestedly not be easily frustrated when facing an adverse situation and achieve socio-psychological adaptation (Ayala & Manzano, 2014). We focus on hardiness because it plays a critical role in helping individuals maintain balance during those difficult times, allowing for increased mental and physical health and wellbeing and reduced risk-taking behaviours, i.e. cyber delinquency (Kehinde & Tolulope, 2019). In the relationship between hardiness and cyber delinquency behaviour literature, studies have been conducted across several populations, including Guard soldiers (Bartone & Homish, 2020), women with breast cancer (Tadayon, Dabirizadeh, Zarea, Behroozi, & Haghighizadeh, 2018), and female students (Mansouri et al., 2015). These studies provide evidence supporting that individuals with higher personal hardiness have lower depression levels and delinquency behaviour.
Previous studies have also found that individuals with high hardiness had to adapt quickly to adversity (Hidayat & Sahrudin, 2016), had better mental health, higher quality of life (Alfred et al., 2014), and were less depressed (Nezhad & Besharat, 2010). Teo, Nguyen, Trevelyan, Lamm, and Boocock (2021) argue that those high in hardiness are less likely to experience bullying than those who are low in hardiness. However, to the best of our knowledge, there is no empirical research on the impact of hardiness on cyber delinquent behaviours. Hence, we suggest that individuals with high degrees of hardiness are less likely to engage in cyber delinquent behaviour than individuals with lower hardiness. Based on LCT, such hardy individuals have internal control and can deal with the pressures of adversity and thus are less involved in cyber delinquent behaviours (Rotter, 1990). Wilcox (2023) supports this idea, showing that personality traits such as self-control and self-esteem play a significant role in predicting cyber delinquency. The idea is that individual enduring propensities and online activities work in tandem to predict adolescent cyber offending. Another study by Joo, Lim, Cho, Jung, and Choi (2013) found that low self-control predicts participation in cyber offending and victim-offending, but has a weak relationship with cyber victimization. These findings suggest that individual enduring propensities, such as self-control, can influence involvement in cyber delinquent behaviours. Overall, the research supports the idea that certain personality traits, like hardiness, can help individuals deal with the pressures of adversity and reduce their involvement in cyber delinquency.
Hypothesis 1. Hardiness is negatively related to cyber delinquent behaviour.
2.3.4 Hardiness and Optimism
In terms of optimism, hardiness is the psychological resilience associated with the ability of individuals to influence their life situation to continue participating in the activities and purpose of life while increasing self-worth in life (Alfred et al., 2014; Mazzetti et al., 2019; Nezhad & Besharat, 2010). Erbes et al. (2011) reported that hardy individuals have an inner locus of control, which means that they feel in control of their lives and circumstances, act according to those beliefs, and display more self-efficacy, optimism, conscience, and positive emotions. Özdemir and Bektaş (2021) conducted a study in which they discovered that the sub-dimensions of self-efficacy and locus of control scales had a significant predictive effect on the likelihood of individuals becoming cyberbullies or victims. Additionally, they found that the sub-dimension of protective healthcare and family relationships had a significant impact on the likelihood of individuals becoming both cyberbullies and cyber victims. Furthermore, the study revealed that peer relationships and interpersonal factors played a significant role in predicting an individual’s cyberbully status. Specifically, Abdollahi, Talib, Yaacob, and Ismail (2014) and Abdollahi et al. (2015) found that hardy individuals are more optimistic than individuals with low hardiness and more flexible in facing problems. Similarly, Maddi (2002) found that high hardiness displayed positive self-efficacy, which they demonstrated in positive optimism. In other words, the more optimistic a person is, the more significant the influence of the control centre on hardiness will be (Vasiliu, 2017). Specifically, the LCT views that individuals with an internal locus of control believe that outcomes of events have resulted from their actions. Thus, adolescent students with an internal locus of control such as hardiness would take responsibility for their actions, be more optimistic, and put personal effort into avoiding engaging in cyber delinquent behaviour.
Hypothesis 2. Hardiness is positively related to optimism
2.3.5 Hardiness and Resourcefulness
In terms of resourcefulness, Cowden et al. (2014) suggest that there are similar properties of hardiness and resourcefulness that may indicate a correlation between the two constructs. Delahaij, Gaillard, and van Dam (2010) point out that hardy individuals use rationality-based copying methods rather than emotional-based copying methods (Bartone & Homish, 2020), thus enhancing psychological resourcefulness. Additionally, more hardy individuals are more apt to use the resources at their disposal in challenging and threatening situations and reinforce adaptive behaviours (Mazzetti et al., 2019). Properly using resources is also an element of resourcefulness (Ayala & Manzano, 2014). Cowden et al. (2014) suggest a significant positive relationship between mental toughness (e.g. hardiness) and learned resourcefulness means that mental toughness may include self-efficacy as a form of coping with adversity akin to learned resourcefulness. Additionally, hardy individuals show a high degree of resourcefulness (Ayala & Manzano, 2018; Maddi & Harvey, 2006). If individuals possess a high level of hardiness according to the LCT, they exhibit a strong sense of control rather than helplessness, commitment rather than alienation, and view challenges as opportunities rather than threats, which ultimately grants them greater control over their own lives (Srivastava & Dey, 2020).
Hypothesis 3. Hardiness is positively related to resourcefulness.
2.3.6 Optimism and Cyber Delinquent Behaviour
Optimism can be seen as a personality trait that is relatively stable and is negatively related to cyberbullying (Snyman & Loh, 2015). Specifically, individuals who possess optimism will be more resilient and less affected by cyberbullying (Patchin & Hinduja, 2010). Research has indicated that individuals who enjoy a high degree of optimism have a less tendency to experience cyberbullying than those with a lower level of optimism (Betts et al., 2019). Optimism is negatively related to cyber delinquent behaviour because it is highly associated with developing individuals’ self-awareness and distancing themselves from disorder (Fletcher & Sarkar, 2013). Optimistic individuals usually have a better internal locus for control beliefs, more problem-focused confrontation, and more adaptive adaptation (Darshani, 2014). In other words, optimistic individuals tend to have a better internal locus of control and are more likely to engage in problem-focused confrontation and adaptive adaptation. They also tend to view the problem of cyber delinquency as controllable and are less adversely affected by cyber delinquent behaviours. Likewise, an optimistic individual who expects positive outcomes is more likely to view the problem of cyber delinquency as controllable and thus less adversely affected by cyber delinquent behaviours. This belief supports the common belief that individuals tend to think of themselves as invulnerable, i.e. optimistically biased about the situation, thus affecting their attitude toward taking preventive measures due to inappropriate risk perception or overconfidence (Alnifie & Kim, 2023).
Hypothesis 4. Optimism is negatively related to cyber delinquent behaviour.
2.3.7 Hardiness, Optimism, and Cyber Delinquent Behaviour
Previous research has demonstrated that optimism plays a mediating role between several variables; for example, between a sense of coherence and wellbeing between cyberbullying and job outcomes (Snyman & Loh, 2015), between shyness and subjective wellbeing (Liu et al., 2018). Snyman and Loh (2015) indicated that individuals who possess optimism would be more hardiness and less affected by cyberbullying in the workplace. Furthermore, hardy individuals tend to reformulate stressful situations, leading to more optimism and, thus, adopting more effective coping strategies and focusing on the problem rather than an avoidance approach (Mazzetti et al., 2019). Based on the rationale above and the current literature showing that hardiness can precede optimism (Maddi, 2002; Mazzetti et al., 2019; Snyman & Loh, 2015) and optimism is negatively related to cyberbullying (Betts et al., 2019; Snyman & Loh, 2015). Hardiness has a significant indirect effect on cyber delinquent behaviour, and this effect is influenced by the mediating effect of optimism. Highly hardy individuals are more likely to have greater optimism, which in turn diminishes cyber delinquency behaviour. In addition, adolescents with internal control factors exhibit strong resilience when confronted with challenging circumstances and readily adjust to adversity. This can be observed in their organized behaviour and thoughts, indicating that adolescents who consistently display resilience are less prone to engaging in cyber delinquency behaviour. This aligns with the LCT theory, which suggests that resilience enhances adolescents’ ability to adapt to various events and situations (Hidayat & Sahrudin, 2016). Wilcox (2023) suggests several personality traits and online computer activities are significantly related to cyber delinquency. Moreover, these activities often mediate the effects of propensity as measured by personality factors, e.g. optimism. Overall, findings support the idea that individual enduring propensities and online activities work in tandem to predict adolescent cyber offending.
Hypothesis 5. Optimism mediates the relationship between hardiness and cyber delinquent behaviour.
2.3.8 Resourcefulness and Cyber Delinquent Behaviour
In addition to optimism, cyber delinquent behaviour may be impacted by resourcefulness. Resourcefulness refers to a set of resources, abilities, and cognitive skills. An individual has to control various formal or informal events and then apply skills in dealing with stress when facing adverse situations (Ayala & Manzano, 2014). These adequate skills include greater self-confidence, self-direction, feeling better, and problem-solving methods to deal with stressful situations (Eroglu et al., 2014; Li, Theisen, Seo, & Sibley, 2018; Manzano & Ayala, 2013). A highly resourceful adolescent can use resourceful skills to effectively reduce or eliminate damage from stress and control negative thoughts and feelings; thus, he/she may succeed in achieving the mental health goal (Guo, Zauszniewski, Liu, Yv, & Zhu, 2019; Wang et al., 2015). Although there are studies presenting evidence that highly resourceful individuals experienced less aggressive depression (Ronen & Rosenbaum, 2010), social loneliness and self-blame (Li et al., 2018), and stress (Wang et al., 2015). Drawing from LCT, individuals with higher levels of resourcefulness are likely to deal with various adversities they face in their lives and act in a way that ensures their success and wellbeing (Manzano & Ayala, 2013). Additionally, certain personality traits and online activities are associated with cyber delinquency, with online activities often mediating the effects of personality factors (Sechi et al., 2023). These findings highlight the importance of understanding the relationship between resourcefulness and cyber delinquent behaviour, as it provides insights into the pathways through which individuals may adopt delinquent or problematic behaviour.
Hypothesis 6. Resourcefulness is negatively related to cyber delinquent behaviour.
2.3.9 Resourcefulness and Optimism
Regarding optimism, Eroğlu et al. (2014) found that learned resourcefulness was positively related to optimism. It was found that individuals with high resourcefulness are more likely to use optimism and less likely to use impotence and submission when dealing with stress. This suggests that resourceful individuals use optimism based on their assumption that they can improve situations(Hellriegel & Slocum, 2007). This also shows that resourceful individuals use optimism based on their assumption that they can improve situations. In other words, highly resourceful individuals possess self-help skills, including self-control, problem-solving, and belief in their ability to deal effectively with adversity.
Hypothesis 7. Resourcefulness is positively related to optimism.
2.3.10 Hardiness, Resourcefulness, and Cyber Delinquent Behaviour
Hardiness can impact resourceful individuals to handle stress, use cognitive processes to control emotions and behavioural responses, and improve their stress-induced psychological functioning (Li et al., 2018). Based on previous research, resourcefulness plays a protective buffer role in reducing the harm of stress and dealing actively with the challenges of life (Graber, Pichon, & Carabine, 2015; Hinduja & Patchin, 2017), and it was a protective mediator between perceived stress and depression (Guo et al., 2019). However, the relationship between resourcefulness, hardiness, and cyber delinquent behaviours among adolescents has not been tested, and whether resourcefulness acts as a mediating variable between them has not been confirmed. Hence, we argue that hardiness can reduce the likelihood of an individual engaging in cyber delinquent behaviour through developing resourcefulness by providing help to cope with stressful situations (Cowden et al., 2014), and the ability to control emotions may be effective in reducing perceived stress (Zauszniewski, Bekhet, & Suresky, 2008). An increase in hardiness through interventions will increase resourcefulness outcomes such as controlling emotions and coping with adversarial situations, reducing negative behaviours (Bartone & Homish, 2020; Cowden et al., 2014). Drawing from LCT theory, there is evidence to suggest that resourcefulness in individuals could be a psychological resilience trait that mitigates the effect of hardiness on cyber delinquent behaviour. The studies indicate that personal resources, such as primary and secondary abilities, play a significant role in the formation and development of hardiness (Chykhantsova, 2023). Additionally, personality traits such as resourcefulness and online activities are significantly related to cyber delinquency, with online activities often mediating the effects of propensity as measured by personality factors (Wilcox, 2023).
Hypothesis 8. Resourcefulness mediates the relationship between hardiness and cyber delinquent behaviour.
3 Methodology
3.1 Sample and Procedures
The data collected in this study were from adolescent students of twelfth grade from 42 secondary schools located in Hafar Al-Batin city in Saudi Arabia (200 Males and 186 Females) aged 17–18 years. We chose Hafar Al-Batin City as a study location since Hafar Al-Batin City in the eastern region continues to have the highest issues registered in the courts due to cybercrime, according to the Ministry of Justice (2018). Upon ethical approval, we sent out hard copy surveys to participants to complete with the assistance of the teachers, trained assistants, and the school guidance counsellors in the sampled schools. The schools have been chosen based on availability and accessibility. The data were collected for 2 months to minimize the impact of common method variance (CMV) (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003). The survey took approximately 15 min for each student to complete. Participants were recruited using the purposive sampling technique. Specifically, the cover letter summarized this study’s aim and offered instructions on how to answer the survey. The cover letter also informed participants that their participation was safe, secrecy, voluntary, and confidential and that they could withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. Participants are required to meet the following two criteria. The two criteria for this study were that participants must be registered for the secondary school year 2019/2020 in grade 12 and be engaged in cyber delinquent behaviours during the previous 3 months. Participants were recruited from various secondary schools, including boys and girls. According to G*Power analysis, a study with three predictors requires a minimum sample size of 119 participants to be sufficiently powered. Our sample of N = 386 participants adequately satisfies this criterion.
3.2 Measure
3.2.1 Cyber Delinquent Behaviour (CYD)
Cyber delinquent behaviour was measured using the shortened 12-item Cyber-aggression Questionnaire for Adolescents Scale (CYBA scale) developed by Álvarez-García et al. (2016). Using a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree), participants’ responses to the extent they agree or disagree with each item are assessed. An example of cyber delinquent behaviour is, “I have teased someone with offensive or insulting comments on social networks,” “I have taken photos or video recordings of sexual or suggestive content without consent,” and “I have shared them using a mobile phone or the internet,” and “I have passed myself off as someone else on the internet, posting comments under his/her name as if I were him/her?”, The Cronbach alpha for the cyber delinquent behaviours scale in this study was 0.92, indicating strong internal consistency reliability.
3.2.2 Hardiness, Optimism, and Resourcefulness
Hardiness, optimism, and resourcefulness were measured using Resilience Scale (CD-RISC-19 questions; Connor & Davidson, 2003). Hardiness was measured with seven items. An example of items: “I can deal with whatever comes my way.” Seven items of this scale were adapted to measure optimism (e.g. “even when things look hopeless, I do not give up”). Like the other two resilience factors, the CD-RISC is used to measure resourcefulness using five items (e.g. “I can adapt when changes occur”). Participants reported their level of agreement using a 5-point Likert scale from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree. This scale demonstrated good internal consistency and construct validity (Ayala & Manzano, 2014, 2018). All subscales of the resilient demonstrated high reliability in this study.
3.3 Data Analysis
In this study, we used PLS-SEM with Smart PLS 3.0 to determine the mediating role of optimism and resourcefulness in the association between hardiness and cyber delinquent behaviours of adolescents. Smart PLS 3.0 is a comprehensive software program with an intuitive graphical user interface that helps analyse priming procedures and emphasizes the relevance of coefficient of determination (R 2), path coefficients, and blindfolding based on Q 2 value (Sarstedt, Hair, Cheah, Becker, & Ringle, 2019). The PLS-SEM software was chosen because the current research is exploratory with LCT and resilience theory. It has been suggested that PLS-SEM path modelling should be used if the research is directed at a prediction or an extension of an existing theory (Hair, Howard, & Nitzl, 2020). The measurement model was tested first to assess whether its indicators represented each latent variable underlying the measures. If the measurement model is satisfactory, the structural model can be tested using the bootstrap resampling estimation in SmartPLS 3.0.
Moreover, as we have introduced optimism and resourcefulness as key mechanisms operating between hardiness and cyber delinquent behaviours, we decided to use bootstrapping procedures in SmartPLS 0.3 to test the significance of the mediation effect. Following the suggestions of Memon, Hwa, Ramayah, and Ting (2018) and Rungtusanatham, Miller, and Boyer (2014), we generated 5,000 bootstrapping samples with 386 data with a 95% confidence interval calculated by setting the indirect effects at 0.5 and 95%. If 95% CI (confidence interval) based on the SmartPLS estimates for the mediation effect does not include zero, the mediation effect occurs when the indirect effect is statistically significant at the .05 level. Further, there is no need to use complete and partial mediation when developing a mediation hypothesis. This is because of the inability to practically measure all intermediate variables in a single model without errors in social science and business research.
4 Results
4.1 Preliminary Analyses
Before undertaking data analysis, the descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation; SD) and correlations of variables with the help of the SPSS 25.0 version are presented in Table 1. As can be observed in Table 1, there was a significant correlation between all the study’s variables. At the same time, the correlation coefficients between the exogenous constructs were below the suggested threshold values of 0.90 or more, which ruled out multiple collinearities to some extent. Beforehand, we ensured that our data did not bias the regression results. We used the indicator’s values’ variance inflation factor (VIF) to detect multicollinearity problems. The results in Table 1 showed that the VIF value generated for all exogenous constructs below the standard criteria as <3.3 means no multicollinearity issue in the present study. Moreover, we used principal components factor analysis to test for the effect of CMV (Podsakoff et al., 2003). The results indicated that the items accounted for 31% of the total variance for the study, suggesting that CMV was not a pervasive problem.
Descriptive statistics and correlations
| Mean | SD | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | VIF | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Cyber delinquent | 3.796 | 0.5973 | 1 | ||||
| 2. Hardiness | 2.481 | 0.5960 | −0.202 | 1 | 1.113 | ||
| 3. Optimism | 2.683 | 0.7260 | −0.248 | 0.221 | 1 | 1.239 | |
| 4. Resourcefulness | 2.774 | 0.5734 | −0.220 | 0.295 | 0.422 | 1 | 1.239 |
N = 386. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (two-tailed). Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed).
4.2 Measurement Model
We tested the reliability and validity of the scale using the measurement model in PLS-SEM via SmartPLS 3.0. The reliability of each construct was tested using Cronbach’s alpha (CA) and composite reliabilities (CR). In the reliability analysis, from the results in Table 2, it can be observed that the CA and the CR values for constructs of cyber delinquent, hardiness, optimism, and resourcefulness were more significant than 0.70, which indicates good internal consistency (Hair, Hult, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2021) Moreover, we tested the convergent validity of the scale by factor loading and average variance extracted (AVE). The literature has shown that the factor load should be greater than 0.70 even though the value 0.60 remains acceptable, and the AVE values must be at least equal to 0.50 or higher, indicating that, on average, a construct accounts for more than half of the variance of its indicators (Hair et al., 2021).
Summary of exploratory measurement model results
| Item | Loading | CA | Composite reliability | AVE | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cyber delinquent | CYD1 | 0.626 | 0.92 | 0.93 | 0.526 |
| CYD2 | 0.676 | ||||
| CYD3 | 0.753 | ||||
| CYD4 | 0.724 | ||||
| CYD5 | 0.727 | ||||
| CYD6 | 0.703 | ||||
| CYD7 | 0.698 | ||||
| CYD8 | 0.698 | ||||
| CYD9 | 0.703 | ||||
| CYD10 | 0.788 | ||||
| CYD11 | 0.808 | ||||
| CYD12 | 0.781 | ||||
| Hardiness | HAR1 | 0.851 | 0.935 | 0.947 | 0.719 |
| HAR2 | 0.852 | ||||
| HAR3 | 0.860 | ||||
| HAR4 | 0.816 | ||||
| HAR5 | 0.883 | ||||
| HAR6 | 0.868 | ||||
| HAR7 | 0.804 | ||||
| Optimism | OPM1 | 0.897 | 0.974 | 0.979 | 0.867 |
| OPM2 | 0.951 | ||||
| OPM3 | 0.942 | ||||
| OPM4 | 0.942 | ||||
| OPM5 | 0.966 | ||||
| OPM6 | 0.926 | ||||
| OPM7 | 0.894 | ||||
| Resourcefulness | RES1 | 0.899 | 0.902 | 0.927 | 0.719 |
| RES2 | 0.839 | ||||
| RES3 | 0.868 | ||||
| RES4 | 0.790 | ||||
| RES5 | 0.838 |
This study measures all items with a five-point likert scale. Cyber delinquent = CYD, Hardiness = HAR, Optimism = OPM, Resourcefulness = RES.
From Table 2, the factor loadings of all items were between 0.626 and 0.966, demonstrating a close relationship between items and constructs and that the questionnaire conforms to the requirements of convergent validity. Regarding the AVE, Table 2 shows that the scores of all constructs in this study were higher than the recommended minimum value of 0.50. This further indicates that the scale meets the requirement of convergent validity. To assess the discriminant validity of the scale, the Heterotrait–monotrait (HTMT) ratio of correlations as a new approach was used.
Table 3 shows that HTMT values were less than 0.85 or 0.90. This indicates that the scale as a whole meets the criteria for discriminant validity (Kline, 2011). Overall, the reliability and validity of this study scale can meet the requirements of further research.
Discriminant validity (HTMT criteria 0.85)
| CYD | HAR | OPM | RES | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| CYD | ||||
| HAR | 0.215 | |||
| OPM | 0.265 | 0.231 | ||
| RES | 0.243 | 0.322 | 0.45 |
4.3 Structural Model
The first phase of structural model analysis involved measuring the direct relationships between variables, as shown in Table 4 and Figure 1. In hypothesis 1, hardiness was predicted to be negatively related to cyber delinquent behaviour. Results of the PLS-SEM analysis suggest that the relationship between hardiness and cyber delinquent behaviour was significant, β = −0.122, t = 2.396, p < 0.01, 95% CI = −0.208, −0.042). Thus, this result provided support for H1. In Hypothesis 2, it was predicted that hardiness is positively related to optimism. Results from the PLS-SEM analysis suggest that the relationship between hardiness was significantly positively related to optimism, β = 0.105, t = 2.448, p < 0.001, 95% CI = 0.034, 0.174; these results supported Hypothesis 2.
The direct and indirect effects
| B | SD | t | p values | 5.00% | 95.00% | f 2 | VIF | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| HAR → CYD | −0.122 | 0.051 | 2.396 | 0.008 | −0.208 | −0.042 | 0.015 | 1.114 |
| HAR → OPM | 0.105 | 0.043 | 2.448 | 0.007 | 0.034 | 0.174 | 0.012 | 1.101 |
| HAR → RES | 0.302 | 0.049 | 6.177 | 0.000 | 0.224 | 0.384 | 0.101 | 1.000 |
| OPM → CYD | −0.191 | 0.054 | 3.518 | 0.000 | −0.281 | −0.103 | 0.033 | 1.242 |
| RES → CYD | −0.125 | 0.053 | 2.351 | 0.009 | −0.213 | −0.041 | 0.014 | 1.298 |
| RES → OPM | 0.398 | 0.041 | 9.702 | 0.000 | 0.331 | 0.465 | 0.179 | 1.101 |
| HAR → OPM → CYD | −0.020 | 0.01 | 1.916 | 0.028 | −0.039 | −0.005 | ||
| HAR → RES → CYD | −0.038 | 0.017 | 2.166 | 0.015 | −0.069 | −0.012 | ||
| R 2 for CYD = 0.107 | R 2 for OPM = 0.195 | R 2 for RES = 0.091 | ||||||
| Q 2 for CYD = 0.050 | Q 2 for HAR = 0.035 | Q 2 for RES = 0.160 | ||||||
Optimism and resourcefulness mediating the relationship between hardiness and cyber delinquency.
As indicated in Table 4, the effect size for the hardiness on optimism was 0.012, which can be considered small, following Cohen’s (2013) guideline. In Hypothesis 3, it was predicted that hardiness is positively related to resourcefulness. Consistent with Hypothesis 3, results from the PLS-SEM analysis suggest that the relationship between hardiness and resourcefulness was significantly positively related β = 0.302, t = 6.177, p < 0.001, 95% CI = 0.224, 0.384, and accounted for 09% of the variance resourcefulness, f 2 (0.101) which is a small effect, p < 0.001. Hence, this result provided support for H3.
In Hypothesis 4, it was hypothesized that optimism was negatively related to cyber delinquent behaviour. Results of the PLS-SEM analysis indicated that the relationship between optimism and cyber delinquent behaviour was significant, β = −0.191, t = 3.518, p < 0.001, 95% CI = −0.281, −0.103, and thus, Hypothesis 4 is supported. While f 2 = 0.033, it would be considered a small effect based on standards for effect sizes.
Regarding the relationship between resourcefulness and cyber delinquent behaviour (Hypothesis 6), the result indicated that resourcefulness was negatively related to cyber delinquent behaviour, β = −0.125, t = 2.351, p < 0.001, 95% CI = −0.213, −0.041. In Hypothesis 7, it was predicted that resourcefulness is positively related to optimism. The effect size (f 2 = 0.179) results indicated a medium effect based on standards. In support of Hypothesis 7, the results from the PLS-SEM analysis indicated that resourcefulness was significantly positively related to optimism, β = 0.398, 95% CI = 0.331, 0.465, t = 9.702, and p < 0.001, and both hardiness and resourcefulness uniquely explained 19.5% of the variance in optimism. Thus, this result succeeded in supporting H2 and H3. In summary, the results showed that hardiness, optimism, and resourcefulness were significant predictors of cyber delinquent behaviour and explained in variance R 2 = 0.107 (10.7%).
4.4 Mediating Effect of Optimism and Resourcefulness
Table 4 shows the indirect effects and their associated 95% confidence intervals. As shown in Table 3, hardiness exerted significant indirect effects on cyber delinquent behaviour via optimism and resourcefulness. The results indicated that the bootstrapped indirect effects of hardiness on cyber delinquent behaviour via optimism (β = −0.02, t = 1.916, p < 0.05, 95% CI = −0.039, −0.005) and resourcefulness (β = −0.038, t = 2.166, p < 0.5, 95% CI = −0.069, −0.012) were significant since the 95% confidence interval did not straddle zero, providing support for H5–H9, respectively. This finding supports mediation as the direct effect of hardiness on cyber delinquent behaviour. Therefore, the relationship between hardiness and cyber delinquent behaviour was mediated by optimism and resourcefulness.
5 Discussion
This study investigated the significance of hardiness, optimism, and resourcefulness in cyber delinquent behaviour and extended the previous literature by investigating the multiple mediation effects of optimism and resourcefulness in the impact of hardiness on cyber delinquent behaviour. Building upon prior investigations (Betts et al., 2019; Mansouri et al., 2015; Ronen & Rosenbaum, 2010), the correlation between hardiness, optimism, resourcefulness, and delinquent behaviour becomes evident.
In Hypothesis 1, it was predicted that hardiness is negatively related to cyber delinquent behaviour. In terms of direct relationships between hardiness and cyber delinquency, the findings indicate that those who displayed higher levels of hardiness were less involved in cyber delinquent behaviour. Such findings provide preliminary evidence that personality traits such as hardiness is distinctively related to cyber delinquent behaviour, consistent with some previous research on cyber delinquency. The results indicated a significant negative relationship between audacity and cyber delinquent behaviour due, likely, to their superb coping skills when encountering a stressful challenge, thus preventing negative consequences such as cyber delinquency (Cowden et al., 2014; Mazzetti et al., 2019). The present results support Glowacz and Born’s (2014) and Mansouri et al.’s (2015) findings indicating that high-hardy adolescents are less likely to engage in delinquency behaviour. This was also affirmed by Hamre et al. (2020) that individuals with high degrees of hardiness are more likely to accept direction and thus exhibit fewer bullying behaviours.
Furthermore, the results showed that hardiness is positively related to optimism (Hypothesis 2) and resourcefulness (Hypothesis 3), which related psychological characteristics of adolescents may partly explain. Greater hardiness in computer-based social activities and cyber activity is associated with greater levels of optimism and resourcefulness. This finding is consistent with the literature linking hardiness to positive psychological outcomes and adaptive coping strategies (Rothschild-Varibrus, Fritzsche, & Korzhenevskyi, 2020). Although very few studies have explored the link between hardiness and optimism, studies conducted by Abdollahi et al. (2015) and Cowden et al. (2014) implied that adolescents with high hardiness tend to have high optimism and learned resourcefulness.
In Hypothesis 4, it was predicted that optimism is negatively related to cyber delinquent behaviour. Our results support this hypothesis as the relationship between optimism and cyber delinquent behaviour did reach significance. This suggests that optimism is negatively related to cyber delinquent behaviour, as it can contribute to risk perception biases and poorer psychological well-being. This indicates that an increase in optimism could translate into low negative behaviours such as cyber delinquency. The result of this study is consistent with the theory of resilience (Richardson, 2002), showing that individuals’ behaviour is greatly influenced by motivations such as optimism that drive them toward distancing themselves from disorder. The result also agreed with the study of Betts et al. (2019), which emphasized that individuals who enjoy a high degree of optimism are usually more successful in dealing with the risks of using technology. They can promote positive outcomes even in the presence of cyber delinquency experiences. As a result, more optimistic individuals expect positive and favourable outcomes in any given situation (Carver et al., 2010).
It was predicted in Hypothesis 5 that optimism mediates the relationship between hardiness and cyber delinquent behaviour. Our results indicated that optimism mediated the relationship between hardiness and cyber delinquent behaviour. It appears that optimism, resilience, and cyber delinquent behaviour are interdependent. According to the results, adolescents who exhibit positive optimism are more likely to feel in control of their environment and have more confidence in their capacity to overcome challenges. Stated differently, optimistic outlooks on life and the future enhance resilience, or the capacity to cope with adversity and challenging situations. This finding indicates that resilience elements related to optimism traits, besides hardiness, may contribute to cyber delinquent behaviour. Personal traits contributing to cyber delinquent behaviour include impulsivity, dysfunctional moral principles, beliefs, and lack of self-control (Rokven et al., 2018). Furthermore, personal factors such as perceived stress, self-esteem, anger, involvement, internet usage time, and peer attachment (Bae, 2017; Joo et al., 2011; Kim, 2021) can also contribute to cyber delinquent behaviour. Our findings suggest that while hardiness does affect adolescents’ cyber delinquent behaviour level, adolescents may also be affected by other resilience/or personal issues such as optimism. These results reinforce the importance of optimism (i.e. positive attitudes towards challenging situations and the ability to use mistakes as an opportunity to learn) through hardiness as a factor in decreasing cyber delinquent behaviour (Mansouri et al., 2015). Tseng et al. (2022) demonstrated that having an internal locus of control facilitates the perception of behavioural control, subjective norms, and attitudes. This perception, in turn, leads to an increase in cyber entrepreneurial intention. Additionally, their study revealed that cyber entrepreneurship education plays a crucial role in moderating the relationship between attitudes and intention, as well as between subjective norms and intention. Interestingly, it was found that cyber entrepreneurship education has a negative moderating effect on the relationship between perceived behavioural control and intention. Educators can create different curricula by developing hardiness in their students, such as not being easily frustrated when facing difficult situations and striving to achieve their goals (Ayala & Manzano, 2014).
As for the relationship between resourcefulness and cyber delinquent behaviour, a special result was found that resourcefulness was negatively related to cyber delinquent behaviour (Hypothesis 6). This means that adolescents seem to be resourceful; they can able to adapt when changes occur, and they close and secure relationships. Besides that, adolescents may have adequate resources as well as actively use their minds to deal with the various adversities they face in their lives, both of which influence how they cope with challenging circumstances. Therefore, adolescent students with high resourcefulness might not perceive such delinquent behaviours. Furthermore, the results of the Guo et al. (2019) and Wang et al. (2015) study showed that adults with higher resourcefulness are less depressed. This finding was consistent with the theory of resilience. Individuals with high resourcefulness can often take positive actions in adversity because they have higher resources, abilities, and skills to control the various adverse situations (Manzano & Ayala, 2013). Moreover, the results supported the prediction that resourcefulness is positively related to optimism (Hypothesis 7). Similar results have also been demonstrated in previous studies, suggesting that resourceful individuals had significantly higher optimism levels than those less resourcefulness (Eroglu et al., 2014). Finally, resourcefulness was predicted to mediate the relationship between hardiness and cyber delinquent behaviour (Hypothesis 8). The results explain how resourcefulness and hardiness are associated and how this could affect cyber delinquent behaviour. It appears that adolescents’ hardiness has a significant influence on their resourcefulness in maintaining their physical and mental well-being as well as their capacity to correct cyber delinquent activity. The study’s results suggest that resourcefulness mediated the relationship between hardiness and cyber delinquent behaviour. This indicates that cyber delinquent behaviour may not be solely influenced by hardiness. In other words, there may be other contributing factors such as parent relationship, the influence of peers, self-worth and confidence, knowledge, and awareness, time spent with peers, access to technology, levels of parental supervision, and low self-control which can affect an adolescent’s cyber delinquent behaviour (Lee & Holt, 2020). Understanding this result is by considering the concept of resourcefulness as an adaptive mechanism, which refers to the capabilities and experiences of adolescents that they must be able to reasonably influence and overcome the difficult circumstances they will face. In this respect, through educational programs, adolescents’ hardiness can improve, which has a significant role in increasing resourcefulness.
6 Conclusion
This study investigated the intricate relationship between hardiness, resourcefulness, optimism, and cyber delinquent behaviours while exploring the mediating role of optimism and resourcefulness in this context. This article significantly contributes to the evolving literature on cyber delinquent behaviour in adolescents, specifically focusing on twefth-grade high school students. While prior research has suggested that qualities such as hardiness, optimism, and resourcefulness offer protection against delinquent behaviours, particularly cyberbullying, this study takes an empirical approach to explore their influence on cyber delinquency. Through the utilization of multiple mediation mechanisms, the study elucidates the pathways through which optimism and resourcefulness impact cyber delinquency, drawing on the guidance of LCT theory and resilience principles. The research underscores the potential of cultivating optimism and resourcefulness via hardiness traits to mitigate cyber delinquency among adolescents, thus contributing to the growing literature on online hardiness and cyber behaviour.
The practical implications of this study are noteworthy for secondary schools, educators, and policymakers. The research underscores the significance of nurturing optimism and resourcefulness in adolescents through cultivating hardiness traits to address cyber delinquency. The findings advocate for the integration of optimism, hardiness, and resourcefulness within classroom activities, fostering problem-solving skills, resilience, and resistance to manage cyber delinquency, benefiting all genders effectively. Educators’ utilization of hardiness resources can empower adolescents to counteract negative emotions associated with cyber delinquency, thereby promoting positive behaviour changes. Policymakers are encouraged to endorse school campaigns and provide teacher training on hardiness resources, facilitating students’ adept navigation of cyber delinquency.
However, it is crucial to acknowledge two limitations of this study. First, reliance on self-reported data for assessing adolescents’ cyber delinquent behaviour introduces the potential for social desirability bias and CMV. Efforts were made to mitigate these concerns through clear instructions, ensuring anonymity during data collection, and enhancing scale items. Future researchers could employ alternative measures, such as multiple time-point assessments of cyber delinquency, to enhance objectivity and comprehensiveness. Second, the study’s scope was limited to the perspectives of adolescents who experienced cyber delinquency. Expanding the analysis to encompass both perpetrators and victims across various online platforms could provide a more comprehensive understanding of cyber delinquent behaviour. In sum, this study underscores the pivotal role of hardiness in fostering optimism and resourcefulness among adolescents, ultimately predicting cyber delinquent behaviour. These findings deepen our insight into the psychological resilience conferred by hardiness, particularly in the context of adolescent students who spend a significant portion of their time in secondary school.
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Funding information: The authors confirm that the presented research article has no funding sources.
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Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and consented to its submission to the journal reviewed all the results, and approved the final version of the manuscript. This manuscript was prepared with the participation and contribution of all authors with equal effort until the completion of this work.
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Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.
Appendix
| Variable | Scale items |
|---|---|
| Hardness | HAR1: I can deal with whatever comes my way |
| HAR2: I believe I can achieve my goals, even if there are obstacles | |
| HAR3: Having to cope with stress can make me stronger | |
| HAR4: I am able to handle unpleasant or painful feelings like sadness, fear, and anger | |
| HAR5: I am not easily discouraged by failure | |
| HAR6: I think of myself as a strong person when dealing with life’s challenges and difficulties | |
| HAR7: I can make unpopular or difficult decisions that affect other people if it is necessary | |
| Resourcefulness | RES1: I am able to adapt when changes occur |
| RES2: I have at least one close and secure relationship that helps me when I am stressed | |
| RES3: Past successes give me confidence in dealing with new challenges and difficulties | |
| RES4: When there are no clear solutions to my problems, sometimes fate or God can help | |
| RES5: During times of stress/crisis, I know where to turn for help | |
| Optimism | OPM1: Even when things look hopeless, I don’t give up |
| OPM2: I try to see the humorous side of things when I am faced with problems | |
| OPM3: Under pressure, I stay focused and think clearly | |
| OPM4: I tend to bounce back after illness, injury, or other hardships | |
| OPM5: I prefer to take the lead in solving problems rather than letting others make all the decisions | |
| OPM6: I give my best effort no matter what the outcome may be | |
| OPM7: In dealing with life’s problems, sometimes you have to act on a hunch without knowing why |
Cyber Delinquent Behaviour Scale Items
| Original scale items |
|---|
| CD1: I have removed or refused another person on a contact list for a chat, social network, or instant messaging program, without him/her doing anything and only for being who he/she was |
| CD2: To annoy someone, I have called a mobile phone and deliberately did not respond when it was answered |
| CD3: I have posted real compromising photos or videos of a person on the internet without his/her permission to hurt him/her or laugh at him/her |
| CD4: I have made calls to insult or tease someone |
| CD5: I have teased someone with offensive or insulting comments on social networks |
| CD6: I have insulted someone using text messages (SMS) or instant messaging programs (e.g. WhatsApp) |
| CD7: I have taken photos or video recordings of sexual or suggestive content without consent, and I have shared them using a mobile phone or the internet |
| CD8: Using a mobile phone or the internet, I have shared compromising images or videos of another person that he/she took himself/herself of a sexual, suggestive, or provocative nature without his/her permission |
| CD9: I have pushed another person to do things that he/she did not want to do (whether or not he/she finally agreed to do it) by threatening to share intimate conversations or images of him/he |
| CD10: I have passed myself off as someone else on the internet, posting comments under his/her name as if I were him/her |
| CD11: I have passed myself off as someone else creating a false profile of the user (photo, personal information) with which I have insulted or ridiculed him/he |
| CD12: I have obtained another person’s password, and I have sent upsetting messages to an acquaintance as if they were from him/her to get him/her into trouble |
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- The Expression of Gratitude in English and Arabic Doctoral Dissertation Acknowledgements
- Subtexts of Most Read Articles on Social Sciences Citation Index: Trends in Educational Issues
- Experiences of Adult Learners Engaged in Blended Learning beyond COVID-19 in Ghana
- The Influence of STEM-Based Digital Learning on 6C Skills of Elementary School Students
- Gender and Family Stereotypes in a Photograph: Research Using the Eye-Tracking Method
- ChatGPT in Teaching Linear Algebra: Strides Forward, Steps to Go
- Partnership Quality, Student’s Satisfaction, and Loyalty: A Study at Higher Education Legal Entities in Indonesia
- SEA’s Science Teacher Voices Through the Modified World Café
- Construction of Entrepreneurship Coaching Index: Based on a Survey of Art Design Students in Higher Vocational Colleges in Guangdong, China
- The Effect of Audio-Assisted Reading on Incidental Learning of Present Perfect by EFL Learners
- Comprehensive Approach to Training English Communicative Competence in Chemistry
- The Collaboration of Teaching at The Right Level Approach with Problem-Based Learning Model
- Effectiveness of a Pop-Up Story-Based Program for Developing Environmental Awareness and Sustainability Concepts among First-Grade Elementary Students
- Effect of Computer Simulation Integrated with Jigsaw Learning Strategy on Students’ Attitudes towards Learning Chemistry
- Unveiling the Distinctive Impact of Vocational Schools Link and Match Collaboration with Industries for Holistic Workforce Readiness
- Students’ Perceptions of PBL Usefulness
- Assessing the Outcomes of Digital Soil Science Curricula for Agricultural Undergraduates in the Global South
- The Relationship between Epistemological Beliefs and Assessment Conceptions among Pre-Service Teachers
- Review Articles
- Fostering Creativity in Higher Education Institution: A Systematic Review (2018–2022)
- The Effects of Online Continuing Education for Healthcare Professionals: A Systematic Scoping Review
- The Impact of Job Satisfaction on Teacher Mental Health: A Call to Action for Educational Policymakers
- Developing Multilingual Competence in Future Educators: Approaches, Challenges, and Best Practices
- Using Virtual Reality to Enhance Twenty-First-Century Skills in Elementary School Students: A Systematic Literature Review
- State-of-the-Art of STEAM Education in Science Classrooms: A Systematic Literature Review
- Integration of Project-Based Learning in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics to Improve Students’ Biology Practical Skills in Higher Education: A Systematic Review
- Teaching Work and Inequality in Argentina: Heterogeneity and Dynamism in Educational Research
- Case Study
- Teachers’ Perceptions of a Chatbot’s Role in School-based Professional Learning
Articles in the same Issue
- Special Issue: Building Bridges in STEAM Education in the 21st Century - Part II
- The Flipped Classroom Optimized Through Gamification and Team-Based Learning
- Method and New Doctorate Graduates in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics of the European Innovation Scoreboard as a Measure of Innovation Management in Subdisciplines of Management and Quality Studies
- Impact of Gamified Problem Sheets in Seppo on Self-Regulation Skills
- Special Issue: Disruptive Innovations in Education - Part I
- School-Based Education Program to Solve Bullying Cases in Primary Schools
- The Project Trauma-Informed Practice for Workers in Public Service Settings: New Strategies for the Same Old Objective
- Regular Articles
- Limits of Metacognitive Prompts for Confidence Judgments in an Interactive Learning Environment
- “Why are These Problems Still Unresolved?” Those Pending Problems, and Neglected Contradictions in Online Classroom in the Post-COVID-19 Era
- Potential Elitism in Selection to Bilingual Studies: A Case Study in Higher Education
- Predicting Time to Graduation of Open University Students: An Educational Data Mining Study
- Risks in Identifying Gifted Students in Mathematics: Case Studies
- Technology Integration in Teacher Education Practices in Two Southern African Universities
- Comparing Emergency Remote Learning with Traditional Learning in Primary Education: Primary School Student Perspectives
- Pedagogical Technologies and Cognitive Development in Secondary Education
- Sense of Belonging as a Predictor of Intentions to Drop Out Among Black and White Distance Learning Students at a South African University
- Gender Sensitivity of Teacher Education Curricula in the Republic of Croatia
- A Case Study of Biology Teaching Practices in Croatian Primary Schools
- The Impact of “Scratch” on Student Engagement and Academic Performance in Primary Schools
- Examining the Structural Relationships Between Pre-Service Science Teachers’ Intention to Teach and Perceptions of the Nature of Science and Attitudes
- Validation of the Undesirable Behavior Strategies Questionnaire: Physical Educators’ Strategies within the Classroom Ecology
- Economics Education, Decision-Making, and Entrepreneurial Intention: A Mediation Analysis of Financial Literacy
- Deconstructing Teacher Engagement Techniques for Pre-service Teachers through Explicitly Teaching and Applying “Noticing” in Video Observations
- Influencing Factors of Work–Life Balance Among Female Managers in Chinese Higher Education Institutions: A Delphi Study
- Examining the Interrelationships Among Curiosity, Creativity, and Academic Motivation Using Students in High Schools: A Multivariate Analysis Approach
- Teaching Research Methodologies in Education: Teachers’ Pedagogical Practices in Portugal
- Normrank Correlations for Testing Associations and for Use in Latent Variable Models
- “The More, the Merrier; the More Ideas, the Better Feeling”: Examining the Role of Creativity in Regulating Emotions among EFL Teachers
- Principals’ Demographic Qualities and the Misuse of School Material Capital in Secondary Schools
- Enhancing DevOps Engineering Education Through System-Based Learning Approach
- Uncertain Causality Analysis of Critical Success Factors of Special Education Mathematics Teaching
- Novel Totto-Chan by Tetsuko Kuroyanagi: A Study of Philosophy of Progressivism and Humanism and Relevance to the Merdeka Curriculum in Indonesia
- Global Education and Critical Thinking: A Necessary Symbiosis to Educate for Critical Global Citizenship
- The Mediating Effect of Optimism and Resourcefulness on the Relationship between Hardiness and Cyber Delinquent Among Adolescent Students
- Enhancing Social Skills Development in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: An Evaluation of the “Power of Camp Inclusion” Program
- The Influence of Student Learning, Student Expectation and Quality of Instructor on Student Perceived Satisfaction and Student Academic Performance: Under Online, Hybrid and Physical Classrooms
- Household Size and Access to Education in Rural Burundi: The Case of Mutaho Commune
- The Impact of the Madrasati Platform Experience on Acquiring Mathematical Concepts and Improving Learning Motivation from the Point of View of Mathematics Teachers
- The Ideal Path: Acquiring Education and Gaining Respect for Parents from the Perspective of Arab-Bedouin Students
- Exploring Mentor Teachers’ Experiences and Practices in Japan: Formative Intervention for Self-Directed Development of Novice Teachers
- Research Trends and Patterns on Emotional Intelligence in Education: A Bibliometric and Knowledge Mapping During 2012–2021
- Openness to Change and Academic Freedom in Jordanian Universities
- Digital Methods to Promote Inclusive and Effective Learning in Schools: A Mixed Methods Research Study
- Translation Competence in Translator Training Programs at Saudi Universities: Empirical Study
- Self-directed Learning Behavior among Communication Arts Students in a HyFlex Learning Environment at a Government University in Thailand
- Unveiling Connections between Stress, Anxiety, Depression, and Delinquency Proneness: Analysing the General Strain Theory
- The Expression of Gratitude in English and Arabic Doctoral Dissertation Acknowledgements
- Subtexts of Most Read Articles on Social Sciences Citation Index: Trends in Educational Issues
- Experiences of Adult Learners Engaged in Blended Learning beyond COVID-19 in Ghana
- The Influence of STEM-Based Digital Learning on 6C Skills of Elementary School Students
- Gender and Family Stereotypes in a Photograph: Research Using the Eye-Tracking Method
- ChatGPT in Teaching Linear Algebra: Strides Forward, Steps to Go
- Partnership Quality, Student’s Satisfaction, and Loyalty: A Study at Higher Education Legal Entities in Indonesia
- SEA’s Science Teacher Voices Through the Modified World Café
- Construction of Entrepreneurship Coaching Index: Based on a Survey of Art Design Students in Higher Vocational Colleges in Guangdong, China
- The Effect of Audio-Assisted Reading on Incidental Learning of Present Perfect by EFL Learners
- Comprehensive Approach to Training English Communicative Competence in Chemistry
- The Collaboration of Teaching at The Right Level Approach with Problem-Based Learning Model
- Effectiveness of a Pop-Up Story-Based Program for Developing Environmental Awareness and Sustainability Concepts among First-Grade Elementary Students
- Effect of Computer Simulation Integrated with Jigsaw Learning Strategy on Students’ Attitudes towards Learning Chemistry
- Unveiling the Distinctive Impact of Vocational Schools Link and Match Collaboration with Industries for Holistic Workforce Readiness
- Students’ Perceptions of PBL Usefulness
- Assessing the Outcomes of Digital Soil Science Curricula for Agricultural Undergraduates in the Global South
- The Relationship between Epistemological Beliefs and Assessment Conceptions among Pre-Service Teachers
- Review Articles
- Fostering Creativity in Higher Education Institution: A Systematic Review (2018–2022)
- The Effects of Online Continuing Education for Healthcare Professionals: A Systematic Scoping Review
- The Impact of Job Satisfaction on Teacher Mental Health: A Call to Action for Educational Policymakers
- Developing Multilingual Competence in Future Educators: Approaches, Challenges, and Best Practices
- Using Virtual Reality to Enhance Twenty-First-Century Skills in Elementary School Students: A Systematic Literature Review
- State-of-the-Art of STEAM Education in Science Classrooms: A Systematic Literature Review
- Integration of Project-Based Learning in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics to Improve Students’ Biology Practical Skills in Higher Education: A Systematic Review
- Teaching Work and Inequality in Argentina: Heterogeneity and Dynamism in Educational Research
- Case Study
- Teachers’ Perceptions of a Chatbot’s Role in School-based Professional Learning
