Influencing Factors of Work–Life Balance Among Female Managers in Chinese Higher Education Institutions: A Delphi Study
-
Shu Tang
,
Chee Pung Ng
Abstract
This research focuses on female managers and aims to explore the factors influencing work–life balance among female managers in Chinese higher education institutions (HEIs), while also ranking the importance of these factors within HEIs. The research is divided into five main sections and employs a two-round Delphi research method, utilizing expert discussions and opinions to thoroughly analyze the work–life balance challenges faced by female managers. The findings of the research reveal six primary dimensions that influence the work–life balance of female managers in Chinese HEIs. These factors, ranked in order of importance, are as follows: (1) family factors, (2) work-related factors, (3) cultural and social norms, (4) health factors, (5) self-management and personal skills, and (6) support and satisfaction. In conclusion, this research offers valuable recommendations for understanding and improving the work–life balance of female managers in Chinese HEIs, providing essential guidance for both these institutions and female managers in achieving a balanced development in their professional and personal lives.
1 Introduction
The COVID-19 pandemic has posed unprecedented challenges on a global scale, bringing attention to underlying concerns such as work–life balance and gender discrimination (Alon, Doepke, Olmstead-Rumsey, & Tertilt, 2020; Kaur, Balakrishnan, Chen, & Periasamy, 2022). The impact of this crisis is significant in China’s higher education sector, which comprises more than 3,013 institutions and employs an academic faculty of nearly 2 million full-time teachers (Kim, 2023; Ministry of Education, 2023). According to El Said (2021), female managers in the higher education sector in China face a convergence of these challenges. The COVID-19 pandemic necessitated a rapid shift from traditional in-person academic methods to online platforms, resulting in female managers facing distinct pressures (Aldossari & Chaudhry, 2021). Female managers encountered challenges in adapting to the new teaching paradigm, as they were influenced by long-standing patriarchal norms. These challenges were further compounded by increased domestic responsibilities, resulting in a blurred boundary between their professional and personal lives (Diego-Medrano & Salazar, 2021; Mavin & Yusupova, 2021).
The concept of work–life balance, which refers to the attainment of equilibrium between one’s professional and personal domains, holds particular relevance (Marques & Berry, 2021). In addition to their regular managerial responsibilities, female managers in the higher education sector frequently find themselves engaged in academic duties that extend beyond standard office hours (Park & Park-Ozee, 2020; Tsegay, Ashraf, Perveen, & Zegergish, 2022). These duties encompass tasks such as lesson planning, assignment grading, and various administrative responsibilities, which persist even during designated breaks (Love & Marshall, 2022; Wut & Xu, 2021). As a result, female managers in higher education faced greater challenges in achieving work–life balance (Wood, Oh, Park, & Kim, 2020).
The increase in the percentage of female managers in Chinese higher education to more than 30% in 2021 is a noteworthy development (Cao, 2022; Tang & Horta, 2021). However, the interconnection between work and family, which is deeply embedded in the traditional Chinese culture, presents considerable obstacles (Yang, 2022). The interplay between familial harmony and work dynamics is a recurring theme in scholarly literature (Purwanto, 2020). Although it was commonly believed that work–life balance performed better in the education sector, the actual situation was not necessarily so (Badri, 2019). Higher education institutions (HEIs) were currently facing stricter scrutiny and significant pressure (Hartman & Barber, 2020; Lee et al., 2022). In addition, the COVID-19 pandemic and the preexisting work–life tensions related to gender equality had exacerbated the issue (Yavorsky, Qian, & Sargent, 2021). With females assuming additional roles in education, school supervision, and other family responsibilities, the demand for remote work had significantly increased, posing greater challenges (Walters, Mehl, Piraino, Jansen, & Kriger, 2022).
The work from home strategy, which emerged as a response to the pandemic, aimed to mitigate the spread of the virus while maintaining productivity. However, this approach introduced a range of complexities (Daneshfar, Asokan-Ajitha, Sharma, & Malik, 2023; Oakman, Kinsman, Graham, Stuckey, & Weale, 2022; Sultana et al., 2021). Female academics, particularly those who are simultaneously managing their roles as mothers, experienced a disproportionate impact. The emergence of challenges stemming from the digital divide and logistical issues has resulted in an increased workload (Makura, 2022). The disparities have become increasingly evident among women, particularly those from marginalized backgrounds, thereby exacerbating the digital divide between privileged and underprivileged individuals (Roy & Mishra, 2022).
This research primarily focused on female managers and analyzed the factors influencing work–life balance (Poggesi, Mari, & De Vita, 2019). Through this research, the researcher hoped to assist female managers in Chinese HEIs in effectively managing the relationship between work and life, maintaining a balanced state in both areas, and achieving important benefits in terms of their professional development, job performance, and overall quality of life (Gandhi & Sen, 2021). This study focuses on answering these two research objectives:
To examine the factors that influence work–life balance among female managers in Chinese higher education institution.
To rank the identified factors that influence work–life balance among female managers in Chinese higher education institution.
1.1 Theoretical Underpinning
The factors influencing work–life balance among female managers in Chinese HEIs can be analyzed and understood through multiple theoretical frameworks (De Clercq & Brieger, 2021). These theories offer a comprehensive understanding of the factors that impact the successful integration of work–life balance among female managers in these institutions (Chaudhuri, Arora, & Roy, 2020).
According to the role theory, individuals play different roles in society, and these roles can bring about conflicts (Zhang, Moeckel, Moreno, Shuai, & Gao, 2020). Female managers in Chinese HEIs often juggle professional roles alongside family roles. These dual responsibilities might have conflicting demands and expectations, challenging their work–life balance (Adisa, Aiyenitaju, & Adekoya, 2021).
The work–family conflict theory focuses on the tensions between work and family roles (Allen, Manning, Longmore, & Giordano, 2019). This conflict can be categorized into two types: work interference with family and family interference with work (Lyu & Fan, 2020). For female managers in these institutions, conflicts between work and family can hinder their ability to maintain equilibrium, leading to stress and tension (Kara, Günes, & Tüysüzer, 2021).
The social support theory posits that social support is crucial for individuals’ psychological well-being and adaptability (Jolly, Kong, & Kim, 2021). For these managers, support from family, organizations, and society can enhance their capacity to balance work and family, thereby reducing work–life stress (Bartlett, Arslan, Bankston, & Sarabipour, 2021).
The self-efficacy theory underscores the influence of individuals’ confidence and assessment of their ability to complete specific tasks on their behavioral performance (Pekkala & van Zoonen, 2022). The self-efficacy of female managers in these institutions plays a pivotal role in their performance and efforts toward work–life balance (Tang, Ma, Naumann, & Xing, 2020). If they assess their abilities and resources positively and believe in their capability to manage both work and family effectively, they are more likely to strike a balance (Althammer, Reis, Van der Beek, Beck, & Michel, 2021).
These theoretical frameworks offer diverse perspectives and concepts to elucidate the challenges of work–life balance for female managers in Chinese HEIs. By integrating these theories, a more comprehensive understanding and solution to these challenges can be derived, providing enhanced support and development opportunities for these managers.
1.2 Literature Review
1.2.1 Chinese HEIs
Chinese HEIs refer to institutions established within China that provide higher education teaching and research (Ministry of Education, 2022). These institutions can include universities, colleges, research institutes, vocational schools, and other educational entities, covering various disciplinary fields (Feng, 2019). Chinese HEIs are typically managed and operated by national, provincial, municipal, or private organizations. They offer degree programs such as undergraduate, master’s, and doctoral education, as well as various continuing education programs.
In the past 20 years, Chinese higher education underwent an absolute expansion rate that was unparalleled anywhere else in the world (Yang, 2020). In 2022, the gross enrollment rate in higher education reached 59.6%, compared to only 9.8% in 2002 (Ministry of Education, 2023). When it came to establishing world class HEIs with a research focus, the emphasis lay not only on the expansion of these institutions but also on the quality of teaching (De Wit & Altbach, 2021). In 2004, the Higher Education Evaluation Center of the Ministry of Education was established, and the 5-year evaluation of undergraduate teaching was implemented as a key measure to enhance the teaching quality (Zhou, Zhou, & Zhou, 2019). The institutionalization of this teaching evaluation made it a top priority for HEIs, shifting the pressure onto teachers (Posselt, Hernandez, Villarreal, Rodgers, & Irwin, 2020).
Meanwhile, with the gradual saturation of the academic labor market, the admission criteria and promotion standards of Chinese HEIs were also rising (Mok & Marginson, 2021). In addition, compared to Western universities, Chinese HEIs demonstrated a noticeable tendency toward bureaucratization, which added extra pressure on faculty members (Bodenhorn, 2020). The teacher evaluation mechanisms were dominated by administrative powers and often contradicted academic logic (Vican, Friedman, & Andreasen, 2020). According to surveys conducted among faculty members in Chinese HEIs, administrative affairs were identified as the primary factor contributing to increased stress levels among teachers (Farmer, 2020). There exists a conflict and contradiction between the time perspective required for academic work and the time perspective reflected in administrative management, resulting in crises in the physical and mental health, professional identity, and academic innovation of faculty members in HEIs (Kruse, Hackmann, & Lindle, 2020).
1.2.2 Female Managers
Female managers referred to female who held managerial positions within an organization or institution (Birindelli, Iannuzzi, & Savioli, 2019). They were responsible for leadership, decision-making, and managerial tasks within the organization, and bore the responsibility of fostering teamwork, achieving objectives, and enhancing performance (Ali & Kamraju, 2023). Female managers held managerial positions in HEIs, such as department heads, supervisors, and administrative personnel (Bertrand, 2019). They were responsible for organizing and coordinating academic affairs, human resource management, budgeting, resource allocation, and other related tasks (Jahan, 2022).
According to Shekhar (2021), it was suggested that females tended to be more inclined toward communication, coordination, and building a harmonious team atmosphere to promote organizational development in the leadership process. By comparing and analyzing the management styles of male and female, differences in leadership styles between the sexes could be identified (Larsson & Alvinius, 2020). Male leadership styles were often more assertive, relying on coercive and transactional means to control subordinates, while female leadership styles were generally more gentle, relying on communication, leading by example, and motivation to guide subordinates (Mulawarman & Komariyah, 2021). Female leaders had certain advantages in talent utilization and talent management, while males tended to have advantages in strategic decision-making and crisis management (Offermann & Foley, 2020).
1.2.3 Work–Life Balance
Globally, work–life balance had become a worldwide trend (Noda, 2020). Particularly in HEIs, the tremendous societal advancements had brought about significant complexity in work–life balance (Saadat Hashimi, 2021). Female managers not only needed to manage their families but also their work, which often left them with little time to reflect on their career and sometimes neglected their personal life needs, leading to a dilemma between work pressures and family demands (Karakose, Yirci, & Papadakis, 2021). Therefore, work–life balance became one of the major challenges faced by most female managers (Bella & Chandran, 2019). Research indicated that there were differences in the work–life balance among females with different work backgrounds, fields, and positions (Jain, Jain, & Bansal, 2023). The role of motherhood posed a challenging factor in maintaining a balance between career and family (Uddin, 2021). Many female managers expressed that their HEIs lacked policies regarding work–life balance (Rawal, 2023). However, if mothers could maintain a good balance between life and work, they could focus more on raising their children properly and their personal career growth (Guy & Arthur, 2020).
The relationship between gender discrimination, male-dominated culture, and work–life stereotypes in Chinese HEIs is complex and influenced by historical, cultural, and societal norms. These elements collectively create a cyclical pattern of gender inequities that consistently impact the work–life balance of female managers in HEIs. In the Chinese society, men have traditionally been regarded as the main providers, while women have been assigned the role of caregivers (Li, 2020). Traditional expectations, particularly in academic environments, place significant pressure on women, requiring them to constantly juggle their professional aspirations and family responsibilities. This frequently results in a societal division where any departure from the established standard, such as a woman placing her career as a priority, can attract scrutiny and criticism.
Although existing research has examined the work–life balance challenges faced by female managers, further research is required to investigate the long-term effects of these challenges on their career development (Khan, Salamzadeh, Shah, & Hussain, 2021). Exploring factors such as promotion rates, job satisfaction, and career aspirations can provide insights into how work–life balance issues influence their professional growth (Ahmed & ElHaj, 2023).
2 Methods
2.1 Research Design
This research employed a two-round Delphi method as the research design to explore the factors influencing work–life balance among female managers in Chinese HEIs. The Delphi method involved soliciting opinions and feedback from the expert panel through carefully designed tools, such as questionnaires (Mohd Noor, Rasli, Abdul Rashid, Mubarak, & Abas, 2022; Olsen, Wolcott, Haines, Janke, & McLaughlin, 2021), to understand their perspectives on the factors influencing work–life balance among female managers in Chinese HEIs. The Delphi method was suitable for investigating topics characterized by divergent, ambiguous, or controversial views and serves as a viable alternative when direct empirical evidence was unavailable, as was the case in this research (Lippert, 2019).
2.2 Developing the Delphi Method Instrument
This research convened an expert panel of 40 experienced female managers from 25 Chinese HEIs. Participants were selected based on their work experience, specifically having held a managerial position for at least 5 years. This ensured they could offer pertinent insights and valuable data related to the research topic. In the first round of the Delphi method, their task was to identify and list the known factors that influence the work–life balance of female managers in Chinese HEIs. Experts received the questionnaire via email and were asked to provide their responses within a specified time frame. The responses from the experts were carefully analyzed to identify any repetitions or similarities in their answers (Drumm, Bradley, & Moriarty, 2022). Based on this analysis, a consolidated list of responses was compiled and used for the preparation of the second-round survey (Mitsuyama, Son, Eto, & Kikukawa, 2023).
The second round of the Delphi method was a critical step for refining and validating the insights gathered from the first round of expert opinions (Han, Kalantari, & Rajabifard, 2023). Building upon the initial feedback provided by the experts in the first round, the second round aimed to assess the level of consensus and prioritize the factors influencing the work–life balance of female managers in Chinese HEIs (Fink-Hafner, Dagen, Doušak, Novak, & Hafner-Fink, 2019). In the second-round evaluation, experts were asked to rank the importance of each dimension identified in the consolidated response list (Neumann, Tiberius, & Biendarra, 2022). These rankings enabled researchers to assess the relative importance of factors influencing the work–life balance of female managers in Chinese HEIs. The questionnaire employed a ranking method where experts assigned a numerical value or rank to each dimension to indicate their perceived level of importance (Soh & Martens, 2022). To ensure the accuracy of the rankings, each number could only be used once for each dimension, avoiding duplicate rankings that could introduce issues during the statistical analysis (Saihi, Ben-Daya, & As’ ad, 2023). This quantitative approach enabled a systematic evaluation and comparison of various factors, ensuring a more rigorous and objective analysis (Qureshi, Naseem, & Ahmad, 2023). Average rankings and group rankings were calculated based on the experts’ responses to provide valuable insights reflecting the collective opinion of the group (Durugbo, Al-Balushi, Anouze, & Amoudi, 2020).
Throughout the Delphi process, it was anticipated that some experts might drop out (Schmalz, Spinler, & Ringbeck, 2021). However, the effectiveness of the Delphi tool was maintained due to the iterative nature of the process, and each round built upon the results of the previous round to ensure continuity (Revez et al., 2020). This approach allows for the refinement and consensus-building process to continue even if some experts dropped out between the two rounds of surveys (Calleo, Di Zio, & Pilla, 2023).
2.3 Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance (W)
Kendall’s W coefficient was calculated to assess the level of consensus among participating experts regarding the identified factors (Tee et al., 2022). Kendall’s W was used to measure the degree of consistency among experts in ranking the elements. If the value of Kendall’s W was significant, it indicated that the experts had used similar criteria in assessing the importance of the factors, suggesting consensus among the expert group (Weiss et al., 2021). A Kendall’s W value close to 1 was expected, indicating strong consensus among the experts (Mubarak, Hatah, Aris, Shafie, & Zin, 2019). In addition, a low p-value below 0.05 indicates statistical significance and further supports the presence of consensus (Eze, Sofolahan, & Omoboye, 2023). These results indicated the consistency among the experts in assessing and ranking the factors (Kaveladze, Wasil, Bunyi, Ramirez, & Schueller, 2022).
3 Results
3.1 First Round of the Delphi Method
On June 14, 2023, this research invited 40 experts from different fields to participate in the Delphi method. To facilitate the experts and researchers, invitations were sent via email. The advantage of using email was its convenience and time-saving nature (Ingley, Singh, & Malkani, 2020). Only 21 experts responded positively to the invitation and agreed to participate in the first round of the Delphi method. Their profiles are displayed in Table 1.
Experts’ profile (N = 21 female managers)
| No. | Age | Experience (in years) | Position in CHEI | Background of CHEI |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| E1 | 46 | 19 | Associate Professor | Guiyang Institute of Information Science and Technology is a full-time private university approved by the Ministry of Education |
| E2 | 48 | 19 | Associate Professor | |
| E3 | 41 | 17 | Associate Professor | |
| E4 | 45 | 20 | Deputy Director General | Guizhou University is a provincial research university located in suburban Guiyang, capital of Guizhou, China |
| E5 | 46 | 20 | Lecturer | |
| E6 | 40 | 13 | Associate Professor | |
| E7 | 40 | 15 | Professor | Mingde College of Guizhou University is a full-time comprehensive college approved by the Guizhou Provincial People’s Government and the Ministry of Education |
| E8 | 38 | 11 | Lecturer | |
| E9 | 35 | 13 | Deputy Director General | |
| E10 | 38 | 12 | Associate Professor | Southwest University of Science and Technology is a provincial public university in Mianyang, Sichuan |
| E11 | 35 | 7 | Lecturer | Nanchong Vocational and Technical College is a full-time higher education institute. It is located in Nanchong city, which is the central city in the northeast of Sichuan province |
| E12 | 36 | 13 | Professor | East China Normal University is a comprehensive public research university |
| E13 | 42 | 20 | Associate Professor | Nanchang University is a public research university |
| E14 | 35 | 8 | Lecturer | College of Science and Technology of Guizhou University is a comprehensive full-day hosted by the new mechanism and model of Guizhou University and Guizhou Jetstar Air Travel Co., Ltd. Independent Undergraduate College |
| E15 | 37 | 9 | Professor | Jiamusi University is a multi-disciplinary university |
| E16 | 43 | 10 | Professor | Tsinghua University is a national public research university |
| E17 | 39 | 13 | Associate Professor | Xi ‘an University of Architecture and Technology is a multi-disciplinary university featuring civil engineering, environment and municipal administration, materials metallurgy and other related disciplines, with engineering and technology disciplines as the main subjects |
| E18 | 36 | 8 | Associate Professor | Chongqing University of Technology is a public research university in Chongqing |
| E19 | 27 | 5 | Lecturer | Tianjin University of Technology is a municipal public university |
| E20 | 27 | 5 | Director | Guizhou Engineering Vocational College is a higher vocational college of technology and engineering with communications as its characteristic |
| E21 | 38 | 12 | Subdean | Guizhou Institute of Technology is a provincial undergraduate university of science and technology that was established by the Ministry of Education and a member of the CDIO Engineering Education Alliance |
In the first round of the Delphi method discussion, the attending experts put forth 27 topics relevant to the research. These topics underwent careful review and synthesis (Pongruengkiat et al., 2023). Ultimately, these topics were categorized into six dimensions, covering various factors influencing the work–life balance among female managers in Chinese HEIs. Detailed classification results can be seen in Table 2.
Consolidation of Round One Delphi Findings
| No. | Dimensions | Themes |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Work factors |
|
| 2 | Cultural and social norms |
|
| 3 | Health factors |
|
| 4 | Family Factors |
|
| 5 | Self-management and personal |
|
| 6 | Support and satisfaction |
|
Based on the results of the discussions, six dimensions were identified, covering various factors influencing the work–life balance among female managers in Chinese HEIs. These dimensions include work factors, cultural and social norms, health factors, family factors, self-management and personal skills, and support and satisfaction.
Each dimension consists of a certain number of themes (Almaiah et al., 2022). Specifically, the work factors dimension comprised nine themes: work environment, job satisfaction, work ability, work stress, career development pressure, promotion opportunities, organizational culture, policies and support measures, and work flexibility. The cultural and social norms dimension consisted of five themes: work flexibility, traditional gender norms, gender discrimination, traditional social roles, and gender roles and societal expectations. The health factors dimension included four themes: physical health, mental health, emotion imbalance, and health imbalance. The family factors dimension covered four themes: family roles, work–family imbalance, family relations, and family responsibilities. Finally, the self-management and personal skills dimension contained three themes: personal skills and management abilities, self-management, and time allocation. The support and satisfaction dimension comprised two themes: social support and life satisfaction.
3.2 Second Round of the Delphi Method
On June 21, 2023, this research commenced the second round of the Delphi procedure. The responses from the experts who participated in the first round were compiled and categorized into six dimensions. The same set of experts was reconvened and tasked with ranking the various dimensions influencing the work–life balance among female managers in Chinese HEIs. They were instructed to rank the dimensions using numbers from 1 (most important) to 6 (least important). Furthermore, they were informed that each number should be assigned to only one factor to avoid interfering with statistical analysis (Babalola, Aigbavboa, & Thwala, 2022). According to Table 3, a total of 18 experts completed the ranking of the six dimensions in the second round of the Delphi method. This will provide valuable data for further analysis. Attrition is a common phenomenon observed in Delphi techniques, and attaining a zero attrition rate is an exceptionally rare occasion (Jandhyala, 2020).
Second Round of Delphi Method
| Experts | Work Factors | Cultural and Social Norms | Health Factors | Family Factors | Self-Management and Personal Skills | Support and Satisfaction |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| E1 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 5 | 6 |
| E2 | 6 | 4 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 5 |
| E3 | 4 | 2 | 6 | 3 | 5 | 1 |
| E4 | 5 | 1 | 4 | 2 | 6 | 3 |
| E5 | 2 | 1 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 3 |
| E6 | 2 | 1 | 6 | 3 | 5 | 4 |
| E7 | 2 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 1 | 6 |
| E8 | 1 | 6 | 3 | 4 | 2 | 5 |
| E9 | 4 | 3 | 6 | 1 | 2 | 5 |
| E10 | 3 | 1 | 5 | 2 | 4 | 6 |
| E11 | 4 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 5 | 6 |
| E12 | 1 | 5 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 6 |
| E13 | 6 | 4 | 2 | 3 | 1 | 5 |
| E14 | 1 | 5 | 3 | 2 | 4 | 6 |
| E15 | 4 | 5 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 6 |
| E16 | 3 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 5 | 6 |
| E17 | 4 | 6 | 5 | 1 | 3 | 2 |
| Mean | 3.29 | 3.35 | 3.59 | 2.35 | 3.65 | 4.76 |
| Group Rank | 2 | 3 | 4 | 1 | 5 | 6 |
Based on the data presented in Table 3, the average rankings of the six dimensions ranged from 2.35 to 4.76. The order of importance for the dimensions is as follows: family factors (2.35), work factors (3.29), cultural and social norms (3.35), health factors (3.59), self-management and personal skills (3.65), and support and satisfaction (4.76).
It is worth noting that based on a Kendall’s W value of 0.172 and a p-value of 0.012, the rankings among the experts participating in the second round are consistent. This implies that there is no need for a third round of the Delphi method, as sufficient consensus has been achieved.
4 Discussion
After completing the second round of research, Kendall’s coefficient of concordance (W) was used to measure the level of consensus among experts on the proposed dimensions. In the second round of the Delphi method, the calculated Kendall’s coefficient of concordance was 0.172, with a corresponding p-value of 0.012. These results indicated that the research achieved statistical significance in the second round (p-value less than 0.05).
Based on these findings, the order of importance for the six dimensions is as follows: (1) family factors, (2) work factors, (3) culture and social norms, (4) health factors, (5) self-management and personal skills, and (6) support and satisfaction. These results suggest that family factors are the most critical aspect affecting the work–life balance of female managers in Chinese HEIs. This implies that family factors are of great importance to female managers and significantly influence their job performance and life satisfaction.
4.1 Family Factors
Female managers’ work-life balance in Chinese HEIs is heavily influenced by family factors. These managers, who are deeply embedded in a spectrum of family roles, must navigate the dual pressures of professional identity and familial commitments. As Maheshwari (2021) emphasizes, their identities are not limited to their managerial roles; they also play the roles of wives, mothers, and daughters.
This fusion is more than just a personal preference; it is heavily influenced by societal and cultural expectations deeply rooted in the Chinese milieu. Regardless of their professional status, the cultural fabric frequently positions these women to meet family-centric needs, whether catering to children or attending to the elderly (Feng & Savani, 2020). This frequently leads to increased work-related stress, which strains their ability to manage their time effectively (Loziak, Fedáková, & Čopková, 2020). This balance is heavily influenced by the tone and quality of their family relationships. While harmonious family dynamics serve as buffers against professional strains, providing emotional sustenance and resilience (Sun, Zhou, Shao, Wang, & Sun, 2022; Wong, Lee, Teh, & Chan, 2021), strained familial relationships can exacerbate these difficulties, jeopardizing their work–life balance (Wei & Ye, 2022). The dominant theme of familial obligations is embedded in this. Chinese cultural values have traditionally ordained women as primary caregivers and the foundation of family structures (Li, 2020). Such roles, while admired, frequently come at the expense of their professional ambitions, draining their energy and requiring an inordinate amount of time (Adisa, Abdulraheem, & Isiaka, 2019; Akanji, Mordi, & Ajonbadi, 2020a). To overcome these obstacles, these managers employ refined time-management strategies, rely on extended family support, and implement a variety of stress-relieving measures (Tamunomiebi & Oyibo, 2020).
Addressing these complex issues necessitates multifaceted approaches. HEIs can play a critical role in challenging these entrenched norms and stereotypes by launching campaigns. They can foster an environment of understanding and recognition for these multifaceted roles by embracing flexible working patterns. Creating support structures, such as mentorship programs and peer support groups, can help these women even more. Fostering societal dialogues that emphasize shared familial obligations, in general, can help to rebalance and harmonize the work–life balance in these environments.
4.2 Work Factors
The work factors were identified as the second most important factor influencing the work–life balance of female managers in Chinese HEIs. A positive work environment in HEIs includes providing suitable facilities and resources, as well as fostering a supportive teacher community atmosphere (Jacob, Jegede, & Musa, 2021). Suitable work facilities and resources can offer necessary support to female managers, making their teaching and office work more comfortable and efficient (Aithal & Aithal, 2019). Convenient and adequate work facilities also reduce inconveniences and distractions at work, allowing them more time to focus on family and personal needs (Akuamoah-Boateng, 2020).
The increasing number of student enrollments presents significant challenges, particularly for female managers in higher education. An increase in student enrollment has various implications beyond larger class sizes. It leads to increased demands from students, greater workload for teachers, reduced preparation time, frequent schedule changes, increased paperwork, and potential shortages of teachers and resources (Wood, 2022). These elements have an impact on the operational aspects of an educational institution, either directly or indirectly. Female managers may experience heightened stress when dealing with the complexities of student enrollment. As class sizes grow, the need for effective communication becomes more crucial to address the individual needs of every student. Moreover, work schedules may result in unpredictable work hours, potentially conflicting with family obligations, particularly impacting women to a greater extent historically. Female managers may experience pressure to find solutions in an unsupportive or unsympathetic work environment due to potential resource shortages and the expectation to fulfill both professional and caregiving responsibilities. Female managers in Chinese HEIs are better equipped to deal with enrollment-related challenges when they have the necessary work skills. Romiani, Abili, Pourkaremi, and Farahbakhsh (2021) emphasized the significance of key competencies such as professional knowledge, leadership abilities, communication abilities, and teaching proficiency. Exemplifying excellence in these areas not only improves work efficiency but also instills a strong sense of confidence in managing the often precarious balance between professional and personal obligations (Rutledge, 2020).
Female managers’ professional journey, however, is not limited to enrollment challenges. They face a slew of stressors, ranging from pressing research demands to looming work deadlines to the plethora of expectations from various stakeholders (Mathews, Khumalo, & Dlamini, 2022). Among these difficulties, the issue of promotional opportunities, or the lack thereof, is a major source of concern. Both those who advance and those who do not face unique challenges in environments where such opportunities are scarce. For the former, limited promotional opportunities may require them to constantly validate their elevated positions, resulting in extended working hours and increased responsibilities, often at the expense of personal time. Those who are not promoted, on the other hand, may experience feelings of professional stagnation, further straining their work–life balance. While promotions are generally regarded as indicators of professional success, the complex dynamics of such environments can occasionally make them sources of increased stress, affecting work–life balance. This highlights the importance of a more supportive and transparent promotional system that not only provides growth but also ensures that growth does not come at the expense of personal well-being. Promotional opportunities, as noted by Allen et al. (2021), can indeed motivate individuals to excel in their roles. However, it is critical that these opportunities are equitable and do not exacerbate work–life conflicts (Blithe & Elliott, 2020). As a result, prioritizing effective stress management strategies is critical in achieving a harmonious balance between work and personal life.
Organizational culture encompasses the values, beliefs, and behavioral guidelines of an organization (Akanji, Mordi, Ituma, Adisa, & Ajonbadi, 2020b). A work–life balance supportive HEIs culture encourages flexible work arrangements and respects the personal needs of teachers, allowing them to better balance work and family (Jais & Suat, 2022). At the same time, policies and resources formulated by the Ministry of Education can help female managers better manage the conflict between work and family demands (Daraba, Wirawan, Salam, & Faisal, 2021). These policies and measures include flexible work hours, providing reasonable vacation policies and parental leave and offering work-time flexibility, among others (Magnusson, 2021). Such work flexibility helps reduce work stress, enabling female managers to balance their careers and family life more effectively (Ren & Caudle, 2020).
4.3 Culture and Social Norms
The cultural and social norms were identified as the third most important factor related to work–life balance. This study highlights the widespread gender discrimination that women encounter in their professional advancement. According to Casad et al. (2021), female managers face various structural disadvantages, such as wage disparities and limited opportunities for career advancement, which can be demoralizing. The incompatibility between women’s personal and professional lives is implied when personal roles, such as childbirth or familial responsibilities, are perceived as penalties in professional settings. Systemic biases pose a risk of discouraging talented women from pursuing higher positions, thereby perpetuating the male-dominated culture within these institutions.
Traditional social norms continue to perpetuate gender disparities, even in changing times. O’Connell and McKinnon (2021) emphasize that the prevailing societal expectations place a heavier burden on women in academia to fulfill familial responsibilities. This can unintentionally hinder their professional ambitions and steer them towards less preferred roles. The reinforcement of traditional roles in societal consciousness creates a self-perpetuating cycle that poses a significant barrier. The stereotype that women are less capable of managing academic workloads due to their familial responsibilities reinforces gender discrimination and the existing male-dominated paradigm.
These findings have important implications for academia and society as a whole. An environment that fails to promote and support its female professionals may miss out on the valuable and diverse perspectives that women contribute to academic discourse. Furthermore, if these established norms are not questioned, the gender disparities in higher education and society as a whole may continue to exist. This results in two negative outcomes: the ongoing marginalization of women and the underutilization of human potential in academia. To address this issue, it is crucial for institutions to implement structural reforms. This may include policies promoting work–life balance, gender-neutral parental leave, and initiatives such as unconscious bias training and women-focused mentorship programs.
4.4 Health Factors
Health factors were determined as the fourth most important factor related to work–life balance. Maintaining good physical health contributes to the vitality and efficiency of female managers in balancing work and family life (Adnan, Muda, Wan Jusoh, & Yusoff, 2022). Health issues can result in frequent leaves of absence or extended medical leaves, which can disrupt work plans and the stability of the teaching team (Soomro et al., 2023). Mental health is closely related to the emotions, feelings, and cognitive state of female managers (Wu, Zhang, Zhu, & Jiang, 2021). If their mental health is unstable, they may have difficulty concentrating, lack positive work motivation, or experience negative emotions such as anxiety and depression (Luna, 2022). This can lead to imbalances in their work–life balance, making it challenging for them to cope effectively with work challenges, ultimately affecting family relationships and work performance (Restrepo & Lemos, 2021).
Emotional imbalance is caused by conflicts between managing work stress and family responsibilities (Heras Recuero & Osca Segovia, 2021). Female managers facing busy work tasks and family roles in higher education often experience emotional instability, fatigue, low moods, anxiety, and stress (Anjum, 2021). These emotional issues can lead to fatigue and low moods at work, affecting communication and understanding at both work and home, as well as overall life quality and work performance (Bonaccio, Lapierre, & O’Reilly, 2019). Health imbalance occurs when female managers neglect their personal lives and health while pursuing their career development (Gull, Asghar, Bashir, Liu, & Xiong, 2023). Overcommitment to work leads to a lack of rest and relaxation, impacting their physical and mental health (Bresee, 2019). Meanwhile, the pressure of family responsibilities prevents them from fully focusing on career development, resulting in missed opportunities for promotion and professional growth (Huo & Jiang, 2023).
4.5 Self-Management and Personal Skills
Self-management and personal skills were determined as the fifth most important factor related to work–life balance. The personal skills and management abilities of female managers directly influence their performance and work efficiency (Liu, Liu, Jiao, He, & Liu, 2023). When managing, female managers often apply their experience in educating children to guide employees in a way that encourages their autonomy and fosters creativity (Maher, 2022). This approach not only promotes the achievement of HEI goals but also encourages the personal growth of teachers (Ruan, Cai, & Stensaker, 2023). Having good personal skills, especially in management and leadership, enables them to better handle work tasks and responsibilities, effectively lead teams, solve problems, and make wise decisions (Zahid, 2021).
Self-management means learning to manage one’s emotions and behaviors, as well as making reasonable arrangements and adjustments to work and personal life (Hirschi, Zacher, & Shockley, 2022). Through effective self-management, female managers can better handle work challenges and pressures, reduce the likelihood of emotional imbalances, and maintain a positive mindset (Livingston, 2023). At the same time, proper time allocation enables them to better balance work and personal life, ensuring equilibrium between the two and avoiding overcommitting to work, which may lead to an imbalanced life (Bella, 2023).
4.6 Support and Satisfaction
“Support and satisfaction” emerged as the sixth most important dimension in our comprehensive assessment of the factors influencing work–life balance for female managers in China. Social support refers to the care, assistance, and backing that female executives receive from a variety of sources, including family, peers, colleagues, and organizational bodies in both their professional and personal lives (Oludayo & Omonijo, 2020). This type of support is critical, especially in situations where female executives must balance work and family responsibilities. A strong positive social support system acts as a reservoir of resources and assistance, providing female managers with the tools they need to navigate the challenges they face, mitigate work-related stressors, and reduce the overall burdens of life (Foy, Dwyer, Nafarrete, Hammoud, & Rockett, 2019).
Life satisfaction, on the other hand, is a more introspective measure that reflects female managers’ self-assessment and judgment of the quality of their lives (Bernarto et al., 2020). High levels of life satisfaction boost intrinsic motivation and an overall positive outlook. This internal drive enables them to confront and overcome both work and life adversities (Akosile & Ekemen, 2022). Nonetheless, despite their undeniable importance, these themes rank lower than other dimensions, possibly due to China’s deeply embedded cultural and societal constructs. Because of the emphasis on traditional roles and responsibilities, as well as the pressures of a rapidly urbanizing economy, tangible factors such as work environment or family demands may overshadow intangible elements such as support and satisfaction. The dynamic highlights the complex interplay of socio-cultural factors and their implications for work–life balance among Chinese female executives. As societal paradigms shift, it is critical to constantly re-evaluate and comprehend the evolving hierarchies of these influencing factors.
5 Conclusions
Through a meticulous exploration via the Delphi research method spanning two rounds, this study unveiled the pivotal determinants that shape the work–life balance of female managers in Chinese HEIs. These determinants span across six integral dimensions, with family factors standing out as the principal influencer. This is set against the backdrop of China’s extensive cultural framework, which is marked by deeply rooted stereotypes and gender norms. The research starkly illuminates the persistent gender discrimination that women grapple with in academia, further intensified by a predominantly male-centric cultural ambiance.
In light of the importance of family-centric elements, there’s an undeniable call for both governmental and institutional measures. However, instead of focusing solely on introducing a family-friendly culture, there is a profound need to pivot toward cultivating a gender-friendly culture. This would involve the introduction of policies such as flexible work hours, remote working capabilities, inclusive parental leaves, and robust family and gender support initiatives. Such actions would not merely counterbalance the disparities faced by women, but would also actively recognize, validate, and celebrate their diverse identities and roles.
More profoundly, it is essential to tackle the overarching cultural and societal norms, especially the ingrained gender biases and conventional paradigms that persist. Institutions bear the responsibility to pioneer efforts that challenge, deconstruct, and reshape these entrenched beliefs, thereby nurturing a more egalitarian and inclusive environment. By weaving together strategies addressing work factors, health variables, personal skills development, and comprehensive institutional support, we can envision a significant paradigm shift. Such a shift aims to bolster the professional acumen and holistic well-being of these female managers, forging a pathway toward a higher education sector that is not only aware of gender disparities but actively works toward obliterating them.
This research has some limitations that need to be acknowledged. First, the sample size was relatively small, consisting of only 40 female managers from specific HEIs, which restricts the generalizability of the survey results to other schools or companies. Second, there might be significant differences among female managers in HEIs regarding age, educational background, and positions, which could lead to varying impacts on work–life balance, further affecting the representativeness of the research results. Future research could collaborate with experts from other countries to compare the work–life balance of female managers in different countries or regions, revealing commonalities and differences, and drawing upon successful experiences from other countries as references for Chinese policies and measures. Researchers can compare the survey questionnaires and measurement methods used in different studies to identify widely accepted dimensions and determine specific unique issues for Chinese female managers. Future research can also adopt longitudinal studies to track the same group at multiple time points, obtaining more stable and reliable data, thus enhancing the credibility and effectiveness of research results. Through these measures, future research will gain a more comprehensive and objective understanding of the work–life balance of Chinese female managers, providing support and suggestions for developing more targeted policies and measures.
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Funding information: This research received no specific grant from any funding agency, commercial or nonprofit sectors.
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Author contributions: All authors listed have made a substantial, direct, and intellectual contribution to the work and approved it for publication.
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Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.
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Data availability statement: The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the corresponding author.
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- The Relationship between Epistemological Beliefs and Assessment Conceptions among Pre-Service Teachers
- Review Articles
- Fostering Creativity in Higher Education Institution: A Systematic Review (2018–2022)
- The Effects of Online Continuing Education for Healthcare Professionals: A Systematic Scoping Review
- The Impact of Job Satisfaction on Teacher Mental Health: A Call to Action for Educational Policymakers
- Developing Multilingual Competence in Future Educators: Approaches, Challenges, and Best Practices
- Using Virtual Reality to Enhance Twenty-First-Century Skills in Elementary School Students: A Systematic Literature Review
- State-of-the-Art of STEAM Education in Science Classrooms: A Systematic Literature Review
- Integration of Project-Based Learning in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics to Improve Students’ Biology Practical Skills in Higher Education: A Systematic Review
- Teaching Work and Inequality in Argentina: Heterogeneity and Dynamism in Educational Research
- Case Study
- Teachers’ Perceptions of a Chatbot’s Role in School-based Professional Learning
