Home Education Unveiling Connections between Stress, Anxiety, Depression, and Delinquency Proneness: Analysing the General Strain Theory
Article Open Access

Unveiling Connections between Stress, Anxiety, Depression, and Delinquency Proneness: Analysing the General Strain Theory

  • Poonam Punia EMAIL logo , Swati Jangra and Manju Phor
Published/Copyright: August 13, 2024
Download Article (PDF)
Open Education Studies
From the journal Open Education Studies Volume 6 Issue 1

Abstract

Background/objective

The present study explored the correlation between different types of stress (acute and chronic) and the influence of their negative emotional manifestations on delinquent tendencies in adolescent students. Within the framework of the general strain theory, the study aims to analyse the intermediary role of depression in the relationship between anxiety and stress. This study investigated the relationship between stress, anxiety, depression, and delinquency proneness in adolescent school students in Sonepat, India.

Methods and materials

The present study utilised the descriptive survey method. Data were collected using standardised questionnaires based on self-reporting. Anxiety depression and stress scale and delinquency proneness scale were used to collect data from a sample of 200 students aged between 14 and 18 years from various schools in the district.

Results

The comparison (using independent t-test) revealed that levels of anxiety (t = −1.683, p = 0.094), depression (t = −0.196, p = 0.845), and delinquency proneness (t = −1.348, p = 0.179) were not significantly different between males and females, with the exception of stress (t = −2.929, p = 0.004). Furthermore, results of the Pearson product-moment correlation indicated a significant positive association between stress, anxiety, depression, and delinquency proneness. Regression analysis results showed that stress, anxiety, and depression have a significant effect on delinquency proneness (F(3, 196) = 28.2, p < 0.001). It further indicated that stress, anxiety, and depression cause 29.1% variation in delinquency proneness. In addition, results of mediation analysis showed that depression mediates the relationship between anxiety and delinquency proneness (accounts for 82.1% mediation). Furthermore, depression also mediates the relationship between stress and delinquency proneness (accounts for 74.5% mediation).

Conclusions

The results support the general strain theory, which posits that strain (anxiety and stress) can lead to delinquency proneness, which is mediated by depression. Research shows that delinquency proneness, depression, and stress are prevalent among adolescents. To prevent juvenile delinquency, effective intervention programs should focus on equipping young people with interpersonal skills and coping strategies.

Keywords: stress; anxiety; depression; delinquency proneness; adolescents; mediation effect

1 Introduction

Adolescence is typically considered to begin at the onset of puberty and ends with attaining physiological or psychological maturity (Blakemore, Burnett, & Dahl, 2010). It is considered a transition period between childhood and adulthood (Kapur, 2015). According to UNICEF (2021), India has 20.5% of the world’s adolescent population or over 243 million young people. According to medical research and clinical experience, an increasing number of adolescents are experiencing mental and emotional problems (Aboobaker, Jangam, Sagar, Amaresha, & Jose, 2019; Mohammadyfar, Azizpour, Najafi, & Nooripour, 2017; Walls, Chapple, & Johnson, 2007). However, there are a variety of reasons why adolescents experience stress during this period. In recent years, advances in diagnosis, epidemiological research, and evolutionary psychology have improved our understanding of stress, anxiety, and depression (Nooripour et al., 2021, 2022). All these psychological distresses are common in the lives of adolescents. Mental distress, in turn, can interfere with one’s ability to hold a job or complete school, limit participation in social and family activities, and reduce productivity (Hosseinian, Nooripour, & Afrooz, 2019). These psychological distresses even cause many other problems such as use of alcohol, drugs, smoking, increase in youth violence, and educational failure (Hosseinian et al., 2019). Notably, most adolescents during this time period experience various types of stressors, which can manifest as anxiety, aggression, anger, and stress, leading to negative feelings and emotions (Hosseinian et al., 2019; Nooripour et al., 2021, 2022; You & Lim, 2015).

Negative emotions resulting from the adversity of life events foster delinquent behaviour among adolescents (Solakoglu et al., 2018). Delinquent behaviour is unacceptable antisocial behaviour. However, very few researchers have examined its plausible related factors among adolescent students. General strain theory (GST) suggests that adolescents who experience strain and negative emotions are at an increased risk for delinquent behaviour among them. These negative emotions, such as depression, result from different forms of strain (stress, anxiety) (Kim & Han, 2021). At the same time, other strains are produced as a consequence of life expectations and actual achievement. GST claims that strain (anxiety, anger, aggression, and other painful conditions) may not directly result in criminal behaviour among adolescents (Agnew, 1985). However, the strain could have triggered some intervening variable, which can be represented as an adverse effect, feelings of disgust, sadness, discomfort, depression, or other negative emotions that further result in delinquent or deviant behaviour among adolescents (Leas & Mellor, 2000). Strain could act as a precursor to intermediary variables, manifesting as adverse effects or negative emotions like disgust, sadness, and depression that ultimately lead to delinquent or deviant behaviours among adolescents (Wang et al., 2015). All these unpleasant events or situations are the result of a negative emotional state that occurs as a result of experiencing strain (Peck, 2013), and coping strategies are required to ease internal pressure to deal with these unpleasant emotions. In GST, Agnew delineates three main strain-producing situations: (1) failure to attain positively valued goals, (2) elimination of positively valued stimuli, and (3) exposure to negative stimuli that may lead to unethical responses (Agnew & White, 1992). Such aversive and painful events or conditions are believed to trigger negative emotions ranging from rage to aggression, anger, and depression, which leads to delinquent behaviour as a means of coping with those adverse and negative emotions (Agnew, 2012).

According to GST, individuals may engage in delinquent behaviour as an adaptation strategy to negative emotions caused by strain (Wortley, Mazerolle, & Rombouts, 2008). Therefore, delinquent behaviour is thought to be a coping strategy for dealing with adverse events or conditions. Delinquency is not an easy idea to outline due to its multifaceted characteristics. Antisocial behaviour involves the violation of societal laws while defines delinquency as behaviour that contravenes societal norms. A delinquent individual lacks a strong sense of moral judgment, and a propensity for action characterises their mental state without consideration for or deliberate obstruction of the well-being of others (Woodmansey, 1971).

A certain level of strain is crucial for individuals to maintain activity, attentiveness, and stimulation. The role of strain in an organism is essential for its adaptation to the environment and is an intrinsic aspect of life (Connor-Smith, Compas, Wadsworth, Thomsen, & Saltzman, 2000). Research by the American Psychological Association (APA) in 2013 revealed that 83% of adolescent students perceived school as a significant source of stress. Additionally, a subsequent survey by the APA in 2018 highlighted that adolescents aged 15–21 express concerns over various issues such as gun violence, school shootings, increasing suicidal tendencies, environmental challenges, mistreatment of immigrants, and incidents of sexual assault, among others. For adolescents, worry can manifest in diverse forms, including physical symptoms like sweaty palms, a racing heart, dry mouth during presentations, and anxieties about the future, which are indicative of anxiety (Garber & Weersing, 2010; Nooripour et al., 2021). Anxiety has been found to have adverse effects on students’ academic, psychological, and intellectual development (Essau, Conradt, & Petermann, 2000). According to the American Psychiatric Association (1994), anxiety is characterised by a strong negative emotional state, physical signs of tension, and an apprehensive outlook towards potential future threats or disasters. As adolescents transition into a stage of increased responsibility and contemplation of their future, many experience significant levels of academic anxiety (Deb, Strodl, & Sun, 2015). The GST posits that individuals facing strain in social relationships are more prone to engaging in delinquent behaviours (Brezina, 2016).

Furthermore, according to the secondary assumption of GST, individuals under stress may turn to delinquency as a coping mechanism that provides adaptive and problem-solving functions (Brezina, 1996). During adolescence, stress, anxiety, and depression can surface in the form of conflicts with parents, mood fluctuations, and risky behaviours. Previous literature underscores that issues of stress, anxiety, and depression among adolescents may stem not only from academic pressures but also from familial or societal factors (LeBeau et al., 2010).

A thorough literature review shows that adolescent students undergo significant physical and psychological changes characterised by a lack of inner security resulting from unhealthy relationships with their parents and society. This lack of inner security promotes anxiety, depression, and stress symptoms in young people. During adolescence, depression (Fanti, Colins, & Andershed, 2019), stress, and anxiety (e.g., Beyers & Loeber, 2003; Fanti & Henrich, 2010) contribute to an increase in delinquent behaviours. These factors are associated with a heightened risk of suicidal tendencies, homicidal thoughts, drug or tobacco use, and other substance abuse within this demographic (Hosseinian et al., 2019). When people suffer from stress and depression, they experience discomfort and reduced interest in their academic and professional activities (Nooripour et al., 2024; Schwartz & Schwartz, 1993). People suffering from depression often have difficulty carrying out routine activities and experience great sadness and a feeling of detachment from the world that seems to lack joy. Everything seems meaningless and leaves a pervasive feeling of emptiness and the belief that only negative events lie ahead.

People with depression often display anger, fear, and aggression towards others (Wetzel, 1994). They may also engage in illegal and antisocial behaviour, drug abuse, excessive alcohol consumption, poor dietary habits, and various other unlawful activities (Franko, Striegel-Moore, Thompson, Schreiber, & Daniels, 2005; Haarasilta, Marttunen, Kaprio, & Aro, 2004). These circumstances combine to contribute to increased levels of stress among adolescent students, who often encounter terms such as depression, sadness, and stress that impact their physical and mental well-being. Adverse life events can worsen cognitive functioning (Mohammadyfar et al., 2017), behavioural problems, and hyperactivity (Flouri & Panourgia, 2011a,b). Mental illness has a profound impact as it affects people from diverse backgrounds and imposes significant financial, social, economic, and societal burdens on those affected and their families. Agnew argues that stress can influence deviant or delinquent behaviour depending on social circumstances. Research suggests an increase in feelings of anxiety, stress, and depression among school-aged adolescents in India (Kumar & Akoijam, 2017; Sandal et al., 2017).

The literature highlights a gap in the existing literature regarding the nuanced knowledge about the relationship between different types of stress (acute and continuous), negative emotional manifestations (such as tension and depression), and criminal tendencies in adolescent university students. While the perspective examines the relationship between stress, anxiety, despair, and crime within the framework of a general stress theory, it suggests the possibility of similar research into mediating mechanisms in order to comprehensively elucidate complex relationships. GST suggests that a person’s emotional responses to challenging life events are critical to behavioural development (Agnew, 1992). It also notes that prolonged exposure to situations can lead people to engage in criminal activities. This current study is based on the idea that negative emotions resulting from adversity contribute to adolescent behaviour. The aim is to use existing research to examine how anxiety, depression, and stress affect crime tendencies. First, the study will compare the levels of stress, anxiety, depression, and delinquency tendencies among students based on their gender. Following this comparison, researchers will examine the connections between delinquency tendencies and feelings of anxiety, stress, and depression. In addition to the above objectives, researchers formulated some research questions to assess the influence of anxiety, stress, and depression on delinquency proneness.

Moreover, the researchers have tried to conduct a detailed analysis to understand how anxiety, depression, and stress act as the main drivers of delinquency proneness. This hypothesised model is based on previous literature, where adverse life events that affect delinquent behaviour are mediated by depression (Xie et al., 2019). In this research work, it is assumed that anxiety and stress are correlated with delinquency proneness but through the mediating role of depression (Figure 1). In other words, anxiety and stress among adolescents manifest psychological and behavioural problems, leading to delinquency proneness among them. Research questions based on the current study are discussed as follows:

Figure 1 Hypothesised model.
Figure 1

Hypothesised model.

RQ1: To what extent do anxiety, depression, and stress reflect on delinquency proneness?

RQ2: Does depression act as a mediator in the relationship between anxiety and delinquency proneness?

RQ2: Does depression act as a mediator in the relationship between stress and delinquency proneness?

2 Method

2.1 Participants and Design

The research collected data through a structured survey of adolescent students to understand their experiences, perceptions, and behaviours. Specifically, the study targeted 200 adolescent students in grades 9 and 10 at four schools in Sonepat district. These schools comprised a mix of private and government institutions and offered diverse educational environments. Participants in the study were between the ages of 14 and 18 and spanned the critical period of adolescence, which was characterised by significant physical, cognitive, and social–emotional development. There were 118 men and 82 women among the students surveyed, which reflects a relatively balanced gender distribution within the sample. The selection of schools from private and public sectors ensured a broader socio-economic range and potentially captured differences in demographics, cultural backgrounds, and educational resources.

Using the survey method, researchers systematically collected information. The structured nature of the survey facilitated the collection of quantitative data and enabled statistical analyses to identify patterns, correlations, and trends across various variables.

2.2 Material

In order to capture the range of strains occurring during adolescence, researchers incorporate the anxiety depression and stress scale (ADSS) to measure negative emotions such as stress, anxiety, and depression among adolescents (Singh & Bhatnagar, 2016). This ADSS was developed by Bhatnagar et al. in the year 2011 to measure anxiety, depression, and stress between the age group of 14 and 70 years. This scale comprised 48 items divided into 3 subscales such as anxiety subscale (19 items), depression subscale (15 items), and stress subscale (14 items). Before using the scale, its reliability was calculated using Cronbach’s alpha (0.81) and the Spearman–Brown coefficient (0.89). Along with this, Cornbach’s alpha values for the subscales, i.e. anxiety (0.76), depression (0.75), and stress (0.61), were also estimated. The Spearman–Brown coefficient for these subscales was measured; it comes out to be 0.86, 0.86, and 0.76, respectively, further confirming the scale’s reliability. The delinquency proneness scale was used to measure adolescents’ delinquent behaviour or criminal attitude. Chopra and Kaur constructed this scale in 2013 to measure the involvement in delinquent and criminal behaviour among Indian adolescents of the 14–18 age group. This scale is based on the self-report method of measuring delinquency proneness. It measured various acts related to delinquency among adolescents, such as truancy from school and home, shoplifting, bullying, stealing at home and school, drinking, smoking, gambling, taking part in fights, damaging parked vehicles, dealing in stolen goods, getting expelled from school, pranking calls, and sex abuse. It contains 60 items and comprises 2 dimensions: the delinquency proneness scale and the lie scale. Out of the total number of items, 54 belong to the delinquency proneness scale, and 6 belong to the lie scale taken from Eyscenck’s Personality Questionnaire (Eaves & Eysenck, 1975). Reliability of the delinquency proneness scale was estimated using Cronbach’s alpha, which comes out to be 0.80.

2.3 Procedure for Data Collection

In compliance with ethical standards, the research protocol included several measures, such as obtaining ethical approval from the schools before collecting data. Informed consent procedures were carefully implemented to ensure adolescent students’ autonomy and voluntary participation. Before conducting the survey, researchers provided participants and their guardians with detailed information about the purpose of the study and procedures. This information was presented in a clear and understandable manner so that participants could make informed decisions about their participation in the study. Rapport was formed with the participants to collect the data for the present study. The participants were briefed about the purpose of this study. Once the informed consent was taken from them, they were given the standardised questionnaire to fill – ADSS and delinquency proneness scale. The confidentiality of each of the participants was ensured. The researcher ensured that the participants had answered all the questions.

3 Results

Before conducting data analysis, the data were cleaned for missing values and extreme values. Results presented in Figure 2 show the level of anxiety among adolescent students. It shows that approximately 38 and 35% of the adolescent students have average and above-average level of anxiety. Few adolescent students, about 18 and 10%, have high and below-average anxiety levels. However, there are very few adolescent students, with approximately 4% having extremely high level of anxiety. The result from Figure 3 depicts the level of depression in adolescent students. It shows that approximately 58% of the adolescent students are having an average level of depression. Few adolescent students, approximately 20%, have above and below-average depression. Only 10% of the adolescent students have a high level of depression. Results from Figure 4 demonstrate the level of stress among adolescent students. It indicates that approximately 59% of the adolescent students have average and approximately 18% have above-average stress levels. Few adolescent students, approximately 10 and 9%, have below-average and high levels of stress. Only 8% of the adolescent students lie at low level of stress. Figure 5 shows the level of delinquency proneness among adolescent students. It indicates that approximately 80% of the adolescent students have moderate delinquency proneness. In contrast, approximately 20% of these adolescent students lie at low delinquency proneness.

Figure 2 Frequency distribution of the anxiety level among adolescent students.
Figure 2

Frequency distribution of the anxiety level among adolescent students.

Figure 3 Frequency distribution of the depression level among adolescent students.
Figure 3

Frequency distribution of the depression level among adolescent students.

Figure 4 Frequency distribution of the stress level among adolescent students.
Figure 4

Frequency distribution of the stress level among adolescent students.

Figure 5 Frequency distribution of delinquency proneness among adolescent students.
Figure 5

Frequency distribution of delinquency proneness among adolescent students.

Furthermore, results from Table 1 show the descriptive statistics of the 200 students; males comprised 59% (118), while females were 41% (82). All variables were analysed and determined to be within acceptable normality criteria, allowing for routine analysis and fit.

Table 1

Comparison of delinquency proneness, anxiety, depression, and stress among adolescents based on gender (independent sample t-test)

Variable Group N Kolmogorov–Smirnov Mean Median SD t-Value p-Value Effect size
Delinquency proneness F 82 0.141 70.10 69.50 4.69 −1.348 0.179 0.193
M 118 0.143 71.16 69.50 5.98
Anxiety F 82 0.97 9.62 10.00 3.05 1.683 0.094 0.247
M 118 0.114 8.73 9.00 4.08
Depression F 82 0.115 6.29 6.00 3.11 −0.196 0.845 0.028
M 118 0.125 6.40 6.00 4.14
Stress F 82 0.196 7.80 7.00 2.68 2.929 0.004 0.42
M 118 0.187 6.62 7.00 2.91

In order to compare stress, anxiety, depression, and delinquency proneness in adolescents on the basis of gender, an independent sample t-test was performed. Study results from Table 1 indicate that delinquency proneness in female (M = 70.10, SD = 4.69) and male (M = 71.16, SD = 5.98) adolescent students do not differ significantly (t = −1.348, p = 0.179). Furthermore, results also revealed that anxiety levels in male (M = 8.73, SD = 4.08) and female (M = 9.62, SD = 3.05) adolescent students also do not differ significantly (t = −1.683, p = 0.094). Depression level in male (M = 6.40, SD = 4.14) and female (M = 6.29, SD = 3.11) adolescent students show similar trend (t = −0.196, p = 0.845). However, stress levels in male (M = 6.62, SD = 2.91) and female (M = 7.80, SD = 2.68) exhibit significant differences (t = −2.929, p = 0.004) among adolescent students. Results also show that female adolescents have higher stress levels than male adolescents.

Furthermore, Pearson product-moment correlation was carried out to explore the research hypotheses H1, H2, H3, H4, and H5. The result presented in Table 2 indicates that delinquency proneness is positively correlated with anxiety (r = 0.32, p < 0.001) and stress (r = 0.332, p < 0.001) among adolescent students. This suggests that anxious behaviour and stress among adolescent students lead to an increase in delinquency proneness behaviour. At the same time, depression is also significantly correlated with stress (r = 0.493, p < 0.001) and anxiety (r = 0.588, p < 0.001). It also revealed that stress and anxiety positively affect depression among adolescent students.

Table 2

Relationship between delinquency proneness, stress, anxiety, and depression among adolescents (Person product moment correlation)

Variable 1 2 3 4
Delinquency proneness 1
Anxiety 0.362*** 1
Depression 0.544*** 0.588*** 1
Stress 0.332*** 0.658*** 0.493*** 1

Note. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.

RQ1: To what extent do anxiety, depression, and stress reflect on delinquency proneness?

To explore RQ1, asking how much delinquency proneness variance can be explained by anxiety, depression, and stress, regression analysis was conducted. Results of regression analysis from Table 3 depict that anxiety, depression, and stress are the significant predictors of delinquency proneness (F(3, 196) = 28.2, p < 0.001) among adolescents. The result further indicates that a 29.1% variation in delinquency proneness is due to anxiety, depression, and stress. Moreover, the t-value for each variable revealed that out of the three variables (i.e. anxiety (t = 0.272, p = 0.786), stress (t = 0.91, p = 0.364), and depression (t = 6.587, p < 0.001)) depression comes out to be the most significant predictor of delinquency proneness.

Table 3

Regression analysis

Predictor Estimate Standardised Beta SE t-value p-value
R = 0.549, R 2 = 0.301, adjusted R 2 = 0.291, F(3,196) = 28.2, p < 0.001
Constant 64.7971 0.948 68.353 <0.001
Anxiety 0.0349 0.0235 0.129 0.272 0.786
Depression 0.7258 0.4938 0.110 6.587 <0.001
Stress 0.1404 0.0733 0.154 0.910 0.364

RQ2: Does depression act as a mediator in the relationship between anxiety and delinquency proneness?

A mediation analysis was performed to investigate whether depression acts as a mediator for the association between anxiety and delinquency proneness. In the first step, anxiety was taken as an independent variable to perform regression analysis as it was a predictor of delinquent behaviour in previous research. However, in the second step, when depression was added during hierarchical regression, the effect of anxiety on delinquency proneness became insignificant. The results (Table 4) revealed that the total effect of anxiety on delinquency proneness was significant (B = 0.537, Z = 5.495, p < 0.001). However, with the inclusion of the mediating variable depression, the impact of anxiety on delinquency proneness became insignificant (B = 0.096, Z = 0.885, p = 0.376) (Table 5). The indirect effect of anxiety on delinquency proneness through depression was found significant (B = 0.441, Z = 5.732, p < 0.001). This shows that depression fully mediates the relationship between anxiety and delinquency proneness. In addition, depression accounts for 82.1% mediation effect between anxiety and delinquency proneness (Figure 6, Table 4).

Table 4

Mediation effect of depression between the relationship of anxiety and delinquency proneness

Mediation Estimates
Effect Label Estimate SE Z p % Mediation
Indirect a × b 0.4410 0.0769 5.732 <0.001 82.1
Direct C 0.0961 0.1086 0.885 0.376 17.9
Total c + a × b 0.5371 0.0977 5.495 <0.001 100.0
Figure 6 Mediation effect of depression on the relationship between anxiety and delinquency proneness in adolescent student.
Figure 6

Mediation effect of depression on the relationship between anxiety and delinquency proneness in adolescent student.

Table 5

Path estimates

Path estimates Label Estimate SE Z P
Anxiety → Depression A 0.5934 0.0577 10.286 < 0.001
Depression → Delinquency proneness B 0.7432 0.1077 6.903 < 0.001
Anxiety → Delinquency proneness C 0.0961 0.1086 0.885 0.376

RQ3: Does depression act as a mediator for the association between stress and delinquency proneness?

Furthermore, mediation analysis was also performed to investigate whether depression acts as a mediator for the association of stress and delinquency proneness. In the first step, stress was added to perform regression analysis as it is also a predictor of delinquent behaviour in previous research. In the second step, when depression was added, the effect of stress on delinquency proneness became insignificant. The results (Table 6) revealed that the total effect of stress on delinquency proneness was significant (B = 0.636, Z = 4.98, p < 0.001). However, with the inclusion of the mediating variable depression, the impact of stress on delinquency proneness became insignificant (B = 0.162, Z = 1.25, p = 0.212) (Table 7). The indirect effect of stress on delinquency proneness through depression was found to be significant (B = 0.474, Z = 5.43, p < 0.001). This shows that depression fully mediates the relationship between stress and delinquency proneness. In addition, depression accounts for 74.5% mediation effect between stress and delinquency proneness (Figure 7, Table 6).

Table 6

Mediation estimates of depression between the relationship of stress and delinquency proneness

Mediation estimates 95% Confidence interval
Effect Label Estimate SE Lower Upper Z P % Mediation
Indirect a × b 0.474 0.0873 0.3029 0.645 5.43 < 0.001 74.5
Direct C 0.162 0.1302 −0.0928 0.418 1.25 0.212 25.5
Total c + a × b 0.636 0.1278 0.3857 0.887 4.98 <0.001 100.0
Figure 7 Mediation effect of depression in the relationship between stress and delinquency proneness.
Figure 7

Mediation effect of depression in the relationship between stress and delinquency proneness.

Table 7

Path estimates

95% Confidence interval
Path estimates Label Estimate SE Lower Upper Z P
Stress → Depression A 0.642 0.0802 0.4850 0.800 8.01 < 0.001
Depression → Deliquency proneness B 0.738 0.0999 0.5422 0.934 7.39 <0.001
Stress → Deliquency proneness C 0.162 0.1302 −0.0928 0.418 1.25 0.212

4 Discussion

The present study is centred on exploring the interplay among anxiety, stress, depression, and delinquency proneness. The results indicate a significant correlation between the predictor variables (anxiety, stress, and depression) and delinquency proneness, consistent with prior research (Chen, 2021; de Coster & Zito, 2010; Fung, 2021). Furthermore, the study findings resonate with earlier literature, indicating that negative emotions play a crucial role in predicting delinquent behaviour among youth (Flouri & Panourgia, 2011b; Kort-Butler, 2009). The research provides support for the GST within the Indian context, demonstrating that adolescent students experiencing various strains (anxiety, stress, and depression) are more susceptible to delinquent or antisocial behaviour. Five key findings emerged from the study: (1) stress levels vary between male and female adolescent students; (2) delinquency proneness is positively associated with anxiety, stress, and depression; (3) depression correlates positively with stress and anxiety; (4) delinquency proneness can be elucidated by anxiety, stress, and depression; and (5) the influence of anxiety and stress on delinquency proneness is mediated by depression.

The present study revealed no significant gender disparities in reporting anxiety, depression, and delinquency proneness, except for stress among adolescents. Findings from Bhasin, Sharma, and Saini (2009) regarding anxiety are consistent with the current study, although they contradict some previous research studies that compared anxiety levels between male and female adolescent students (de Coster & Zito, 2010; Jayashree, Mithra, Nair, Unnikrishnan, & Pai, 2018; Mishra, Srivastava, Tiwary, & Kumar, 2018). Similar incongruences were observed in the past few studies on gender differences in delinquent behaviour. Existing literature suggested that males exhibit a higher propensity for engaging in delinquent behaviour compared to females (de Coster & Zito, 2010; Fung, 2021; Licitra-Kleckler & Waas, 2016; Piquero & Sealock, 2006). Contrary to previous research, the current study found that female adolescent students reported higher stress levels than males (Choulagai & Professor, 2018; Hosseinian et al., 2022; Licitra-Kleckler & Waas, 2016; Shamsuddin et al., 2013). The discrepancies in results across studies could potentially be attributed to cultural variations in gender dynamics. Additionally, prior research also suggested that gender, age group, and education of an individual influence the intensity of stress (Nooripour et al., 2024).

The hypothesised model was tested and validated based on the collected data, affirming the role of strains (anxiety and stress) in shaping delinquency proneness. The study also confirmed that negative emotions, such as depression, mediate stress, and anxiety’s impact on delinquency proneness. Numerous previous studies reinforce the current study’s results, indicating a strong association between anxiety, depression, stress issues, and delinquent behaviour (Atadokht & Gharagozloo, 2018; Bao, Haas, & Pi, 2004; Hoffmann & Cerbone, 1999; Kort-Butler, 2009). Additionally, the study adds to the existing body of research by showcasing the mediation role of depression in the relationship between strains like anxiety and stress and delinquency proneness among adolescents in the Indian context.

In alignment with the GST, the study findings suggest that heightened strain levels (elevated anxiety and stress) correspond to increased delinquency proneness. Conversely, the literature presents conflicting perspectives, with some studies proposing that more anxious-depressed symptoms are associated with reduced delinquent behaviour among adolescents (Habersaat et al., 2020). The study introduces a comprehensive mediation model, illustrating how anxiety and stress can lead to depression, thus intensifying delinquency proneness among adolescents. While several research studies support this mediating effect of depression, others indicate that anxiety and depression independently impact delinquent behaviour without mediation or moderation effects (Habersaat et al., 2020). Bao et al. (2004) have highlighted the mediating role of anger, anxiety, and depression in the relationship between interpersonal strain and minor offence. Glassner (2020) emphasised the mediating role of depressive symptoms in the relationship between bullying and delinquency in the case of females. Present study results highlight the role of depression in mediating the relationship between various strains and deviant behaviour among adolescents, as observed in behaviours such as drug use, homicide, or self-derogation. Ultimately, the study contributes to the body of knowledge by elucidating how anxiety, stress, and negative emotions interplay with delinquency proneness among adolescents.

This study addresses the complex interplay of stress, anxiety, depression, and delinquency among adolescent students, with particular emphasis on the Indian cultural context. Based on the GST, which is of great importance to the socio-cultural fabric of India, the research attempts to shed light on how stresses faced by young people contribute to criminal behaviour. In the Indian context, where societal expectations, academic pressures, and family responsibilities often weigh heavily on adolescents, it is crucial to understand the impact of stress, anxiety, and depression. GST serves as a theoretical framework and suggests that when adolescents face stress, whether from academic challenges, peer pressure, or family conflict, they may resort to criminal behaviour as a coping mechanism. An important aspect of this study is to examine how anxiety and stress intersect with crime susceptibility, which may be mediated by depression. In Indian culture, mental health issues such as anxiety and depression are often stigmatised, leading youth to internalise these emotions instead of seeking support. As a result, these negative emotions can manifest themselves in behaviours that are considered criminal, such as substance abuse or aggression, as adolescents struggle to cope with their inner turmoil. By examining these dynamics in the Indian context, the study aims to shed light on the nuanced pathways through which stress influences adolescent behaviour. This contributes to the theoretical understanding of GST and has practical implications for interventions and support systems tailored to India’s unique socio-cultural landscape. By addressing the root causes of juvenile delinquency in the Indian context, this research ultimately aims to promote the well-being and resilience of young people grappling with the complexities of adolescence. The research utilised hierarchical regression analysis to verify the proposed model, and results indicated that anxiety and stress contribute to delinquency proneness among adolescent students through the mediation of depression. These findings address the specific mechanisms by which negative emotions connect strain to criminal outcomes. Importantly, our results align with the core tenets of the GST mediating model in the context of a non-Western culture, building upon existing research in American and Chinese school samples and reinforcing the theory’s validity and broad applicability.

The present study is limited to self-report measures, which may produce biased results. Although the present study supports earlier findings, delinquent behaviour among adolescents is still not understood, and the involvement of family dynamics must be considered for future research.

Recommendations for future research also include utilising larger datasets and incorporating additional variables (i.e. aggression, impulsiveness) for a more comprehensive understanding of the impact of strain and psychosocial factors on delinquent behaviour through diverse research methodologies such as observations and interviews. The study underscores the need for effective intervention programs in schools, homes, and communities, as a significant number of adolescents exhibit high levels of stress, anxiety, depression, and delinquency proneness. Intervention programs should focus on equipping young people with interpersonal skills and coping strategies to manage negative emotions effectively. It is suggested that mindfulness training programme should be implemented for adolescents to reduce negative emotions as such intervention strategies and programmes are lacking. With the help of these programmes, adolescents can be trained to manage their emotions to reduce psychological distress.

5 Conclusion

GST provides the foundational basis for this research by positing that strain experienced by adolescents can lead to delinquent behaviour. The principal theoretical contribution of this study is to examine the relationship between stress, anxiety, depression, and delinquency proneness among adolescent students within the framework of GST in Indian context. It is theorised that anxiety and stress are correlated with delinquency proneness and are potentially mediated by depression, which arises as negative emotions in response to various forms of strains such as stress and anxiety.

Educators will find the insights from this study valuable, as it emphasises the importance of teaching adolescents to cope with anxiety, stress, and depression to mitigate their adverse impacts and prevent juvenile delinquency.

Furthermore, the study highlights the necessity of addressing psychological distress and its implications. Providing support to youths facing psychological challenges can help prevent delinquency among the stressed youth population in India. Early detection and intervention to alleviate symptoms of adolescent anxiety, stress, and depression are crucial for safeguarding their future well-being.

  1. Funding information: No financial support was obtained for conducting this research.

  2. Author contributions: Dr. Poonam Punia: Planned, analysed and finalized the study. Swati Jangra: Collected data and write the manuscript. Manju Phor: Wrote the manuscript and analysed the data.

  3. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

References

Aboobaker, S., Jangam, K. V., Sagar, K. J. V., Amaresha, A. C., & Jose, A. (2019). Predictors of emotional and behavioural problems among Indian adolescents: A clinic-based study. Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 39, 104–109. doi: 10.1016/j.ajp.2018.12.002.Search in Google Scholar

Agnew, R. (1985). A revised strain theory of delinquency. Social Forces, 64(1), 151–167. doi: 10.1093/sf/64.1.151.Search in Google Scholar

Agnew, R. (1992). Foundation for a general strain theory of crime and delinquency. Criminology, 30(1), 47–88. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.1992.tb01093.x.Search in Google Scholar

Agnew, R. (2012). Reflection on “a revised strain theory of delinquency.” Social Forces, 91(1), 33–38. doi: 10.1093/sf/sos117.Search in Google Scholar

Agnew, R., & White, H. R. (1992). An empirical test of general strain theory. Criminology, 30(4), 475–500. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.1992.tb01113.x.Search in Google Scholar

American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC.Search in Google Scholar

Atadokht, A., & Gharagozloo, N. (2018). The role of depression, anxiety and stress in predicting positive and negative attitudes toward delinquency in male students. Journal of School Psychology, 7(2), 115–130. doi: 10.22098/JSP.2018.696.Search in Google Scholar

Bao, W. N., Haas, A., & Pi, Y. (2004). Life Strain, negative emotions, and delinquency: An empirical test of General Strain Theory in the People’s Republic of China. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 48(3), 281–297. doi: 10.1177/0306624X03258686.Search in Google Scholar

Beyers, J. M., & Loeber, R. (2003). Untangling developmental relations between depressed mood and delinquency in male adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31(3), 247–266. doi: 10.1023/A:1023225428957.Search in Google Scholar

Bhasin, S. K., Sharma, R., & Saini, N. K. (2009). Depression, anxiety and stress among adolescent students belonging to affluent families: A school-based study. The Indian Journal of Pediatrics, 77(2), 161–165. doi: 10.1007/S12098-009-0260-5.Search in Google Scholar

Bhatnagar, P., Singh, M., Pandey, M., & Sandhya, A. (2011). Manual for Anxiety, Depression and Stress Scale. National Psychological Corporation.Search in Google Scholar

Blakemore, S. J., Burnett, S., & Dahl, R. E. (2010). The role of puberty in the developing adolescent brain. Human Brain Mapping, 31(6), 926–933. doi: 10.1002/HBM.21052.Search in Google Scholar

Brezina, T. (1996). Adapting to strain: An examination of delinquent coping responses. Criminology, 34(1), 39–60. doi: 10.1111/J.1745-9125.1996.TB01194.X.Search in Google Scholar

Brezina, T. (2016). Teenage violence toward parents as an adaptation to family strain: Evidence from a national survey of male adolescents. Youth & Society, 30(4), 416–444. doi: 10.1177/0044118X99030004002.Search in Google Scholar

Chen, X. (2021). Strain, school type, and delinquent behaviour among migrant adolescents in China. Asian Journal of Criminology, 16(4), 357–376. doi: 10.1007/s11417-021-09342-7.Search in Google Scholar

Chopra, R., & Kaur, S. (2013). Manual for Delinquency Proneness Scale. Jagson Scientific Industries.Search in Google Scholar

Choulagai, B. P., & Professor, A. (2018). Stress, anxiety, and depression among adolescent students of public schools in Kathmandu. In search.ebscohost.com. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&profile=ehost&scope=site&authtype=crawler&jrnl=19932979&AN=137139357&h=RBf0FQdkulwW8GLlW2ZrIXIpLT6DnyNxJMV898TCt9u8f2rbDCWV94WBIkiuT4XrawIOo%2FkJ0kTB08ZuZhQ2Fg%3D%3D&crl=c.Search in Google Scholar

Connor-Smith, J. K., Compas, B. E., Wadsworth, M. E., Thomsen, A. H., & Saltzman, H. (2000). Responses to stress in adolescence: Measurement of coping and involuntary stress responses. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68(6), 976–992. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.68.6.976.Search in Google Scholar

de Coster, S., & Zito, R. C. (2010). Gender and general strain theory: The gendering of emotional experiences and expressions. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 26(2), 224–245. doi: 10.1177/1043986209359853.Search in Google Scholar

Deb, S., Strodl, E., & Sun, J. (2015). Academic stress, parental pressure, anxiety and mental health among indian high school students. International Journal of Psychology and Behavioural Sciences, 2015(1), 26–34. doi: 10.5923/j.ijpbs.20150501.04.Search in Google Scholar

Eaves, L., & Eysenck, H. (1975). The nature of extraversion: A genetical analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32(1), 102–112. doi: 10.1037/h0076862.Search in Google Scholar

Essau, C. A., Conradt, J., & Petermann, F. (2000). Frequency, comorbidity, and psychosocial impairment of specific phobia in adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 29(2), 221–231. doi: 10.1207/S15374424jccp2902_8.Search in Google Scholar

Fanti, K. A., & Henrich, C. C. (2010). Trajectories of pure and co-occurring internalising and externalising problems from age 2 to age 12: Findings from the national institute of child health and human development study of early child care. Developmental Psychology, 46(5), 1159–1175. doi: 10.1037/a0020659.Search in Google Scholar

Fanti, K. A., Colins, O. F., & Andershed, H. (2019). Unraveling the longitudinal reciprocal associations between anxiety, delinquency, and Depression from early to middle adolescence. Journal of Criminal Justice, 62, 29–34. doi: 10.1016/J.JCRIMJUS.2018.09.004.Search in Google Scholar

Flouri, E., & Panourgia, C. (2011a). Adverse life events and emotional and behavioural problems in adolescence: The role of non-verbal cognitive ability and negative cognitive errors. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39(5), 695–709. doi: 10.1007/s10802-011-9514-6.Search in Google Scholar

Flouri, E., & Panourgia, C. (2011b). Gender differences in the pathway from adverse life events to adolescent emotional and behavioural problems via negative cognitive errors. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 29(2), 234–252. doi: 10.1348/0261-510X.002002.Search in Google Scholar

Franko, D. L., Bean, J., Tamer, R., Dohm, F. A., Schreiber, G., Striegel-Moore, R. H., … Daniels, S. R. (2005). Psychosocial and health consequences of adolescent Depression in black and white young adult women. Health Psychology, 24(6), 586–593. doi: 10.1037/0278-6133.24.6.586.Search in Google Scholar

Franko, D. L., Striegel-Moore, R. H., Thompson, D., Schreiber, G. B., & Daniels, S. R. (2005). Does adolescent depression predict obesity in black and white young adult women? Psychological Medicine, 35(10), 1505–1513. doi: 10.1017/S0033291705005386.Search in Google Scholar

Fung, A. L. C. (2021). The significance of family structure in internalising (anxious/depressed) and externalising (aggressive/delinquent) problems among chinese adolescents. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16(6), 2403–2418. doi: 10.1007/S11482-021-09923-9.Search in Google Scholar

Garber, J., & Weersing, V. R. (2010). Comorbidity of Anxiety and depression in youth: Implications for treatment and prevention. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 17(4), 293–306. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2850.2010.01221.x.Search in Google Scholar

Glassner, S. D. (2020). Bullying victimisation and delinquent involvement: An application of general strain theory. Children and Youth Services Review, 116, 105099.10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105099Search in Google Scholar

Haarasilta, L. M., Marttunen, M. J., Kaprio, J. A., & Aro, H. M. (2004). Correlates of depression in a representative nationwide sample of adolescents (15-19 years) and young adults (20–24 years). European Journal of Public Health, 14(3), 280–285. doi: 10.1093/eurpub/14.3.280.Search in Google Scholar

Habersaat, S., Boonmann, C., Schmeck, K., Stéphan, P., Francescotti, E., Fegert, J. M., … Urben, S. (2020). Gender differences in the relationship between strain, negative emotions and delinquent behaviours in institutionalised juveniles. Deviant Behaviour, 41(9), 1113–1124. doi: 10.1080/01639625.2019.1596549.Search in Google Scholar

Hoffmann, J. P., & Cerbone, F. G. (1999). Stressful life events and delinquency escalation in early adolescence. Criminology, 37(2), 343–374. doi: 10.1111/J.1745-9125.1999.TB00489.X.Search in Google Scholar

Hosseinian, S., Nooripour, R., & Afrooz, G. A. (2019). Effect of mindfulness-based training on aggression and empathy of adolescents at the juvenile correction and rehabilitation center. Journal of Research and Health, 9(6), 505–515. doi: 10.32598/jrh.9.6.505.Search in Google Scholar

Jayashree, K., Mithra, P., Nair, M. K. C., Unnikrishnan, B., & Pai, K. (2018). Depression and anxiety disorders among schoolgoing adolescents in an urban area of south india. Indian Journal of Community Medicine: Official Publication of Indian Association of Preventive & Social Medicine, 43(Suppl 1), S28. doi: 10.4103/IJCM.IJCM_209_18.Search in Google Scholar

Kapur, S. (2015). Treatment and effectiveness of health and family welfare telespot messages on television view project ICT and andragogy: Experiments in India view project Shikha Kapur Jamia Millia Islamia Adolescence: The Stage of Transition. Horizons of Holistic Education, 2. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285299181.Search in Google Scholar

Kim, S., & Han, Y. (2021). Associations between Parental maltreatment and online behaviour among young adolescents. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 30(11), 2782–2791. doi: 10.1007/S10826-021-02059-2.Search in Google Scholar

Kort-Butler, L. A. (2009). Coping styles and sex differences in depressive symptoms and delinquent behaviour. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38(1), 122–136. doi: 10.1007/s10964-008-9291-x.Search in Google Scholar

Kumar, K. S., & Akoijam, B. S. (2017). Depression, anxiety and stress among higher secondary school students of Imphal, Manipur. Indian Journal of Community Medicine: Official Publication of Indian Association of Preventive & Social Medicine, 42(2), 94. doi: 10.4103/IJCM.IJCM_266_15.Search in Google Scholar

Leas, L., & Mellor, D. (2000). Prediction of Delinquency: The role of depression, risk-taking, and parental attachment. Behaviour Change, 17(3), 155–166. doi: 10.1375/BECH.17.3.155.Search in Google Scholar

LeBeau, R. T., Glenn, D., Liao, B., Wittchen, H. U., Beesdo-Baum, K., Ollendick, T., & Craske, M. G. (2010). Specific phobia: A review of DSM-IV specific phobia and preliminary recommendations for DSM-V. Depression and Anxiety, 27(2), 148–167. doi: 10.1002/DA.20655.Search in Google Scholar

Licitra-Kleckler, D. M., & Waas, G. A. (2016). Perceived social support among high-stress adolescents: The role of peers and family. Journal of Adolescent Research, 8(4), 381–402. doi: 10.1177/074355489384003.Search in Google Scholar

Mishra, S. K., Srivastava, M., Tiwary, N. K., & Kumar, A. (2018). Prevalence of depression and anxiety among children in rural and suburban areas of Eastern Uttar Pradesh: A cross-sectional study. Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care, 7(1), 21. doi: 10.4103/JFMPC.JFMPC_248_17.Search in Google Scholar

Mohammadyfar, M. A., Azizpour, M., Najafi, M., & Nooripour, R. (2017). Comparison of audio-visual short-term and active memory in multiple sclerosis patients and non-patients regarding their depression, stress and anxiety level. Nordic Psychology, 70(2), 115–128. doi: 10.1080/19012276.2017.1362989.Search in Google Scholar

Nooripour, R., Ghanbari, N., Hosseinian, S., Hassani-Abharian, P., Dobkins, K., & Maadal, A. (2021). Effectiveness of mindfulness-based cognitive rehabilitation in reducing stress among hard of hearing adolescent girls. International Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 15(2), 87–93. doi: 10.30491/IJBS.2021.253241.1400.Search in Google Scholar

Nooripour, R., Ghanbari, N., Radwin, L. E., Hosseinian, S., Hassani-Abharian, P., Hosseinbor, M., … Ilanloo, H. (2022). Development and validation of COVID-19 stress scale (CSS) in an Iranian non-clinical population. Zahedan Journal of Research in Medical Sciences, 24(3), 1–9. doi: 10.5812/zjrms-118719.Search in Google Scholar

Nooripour, R., Ilanloo, H., Naveshki, M., Naveshki, S., Amiri Majd, M., Sikström, S., & Jafari, F. (2024). Evaluation of COVID-19 stress in university students according to their socio-demographic characteristics based on machine learning algorithms. Practice in Clinical Psychology, 12(1), 1–12. doi: 10.32598/jpcp.12.1.288.9.Search in Google Scholar

Peck, J. H. (2013). Examining race and ethnicity in the context of general strain theory, depression, and delinquency. Deviant Behavior, 34(9), 706–726.10.1080/01639625.2012.759050Search in Google Scholar

Piquero, N. L., & Sealock, M. D. (2006). Generalising general strain theory: An examination of an offending population. Justice Quarterly, 17(3), 449–484. doi: 10.1080/07418820000094631.Search in Google Scholar

Sandal, R., Goel, N., Sharma, M., Bakshi, R., Singh, N., & Kumar, D. (2017). Prevalence of depression, anxiety and stress among school going adolescent in Chandigarh. Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care, 6(2), 405. doi: 10.4103/2249-4863.219988.Search in Google Scholar

Schwartz, A., & Schwartz, R. (1993). Depression: Theories & treatments. New York: Columbia University Press.Search in Google Scholar

Shamsuddin, K., Fadzil, F., Ismail, W. S. W., Shah, S. A., Omar, K., Muhammad, N. A., … Mahadevan, R. (2013). Correlates of depression, anxiety and stress among Malaysian university students. Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 6(4), 318–323. doi: 10.1016/j.ajp.2013.01.014.Search in Google Scholar

Singh, M., & Bhatnagar, P. (2016). Anxiety depression stress scale (ADSS): A factor analytic study. International Journal of Indian Psychology, 3(2), 52–65. doi: 10.25215/0302.007.Search in Google Scholar

Solakoglu, O., Driver, N., & Belshaw, S. H. (2018). The effect of sexual abuse on deviant behaviours among Turkish adolescents: The mediating role of emotions. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 62(1), 24–49. doi: 10.1177/0306624X16642810.Search in Google Scholar

UNICEF. (2021). Adolescent development and participation. United Nations Children’s Fund. https://www.unicef.org/adolescence.Search in Google Scholar

Walls, M. L., Chapple, C. L., & Johnson, K. D. (2007). Strain, emotion, and suicide among American Indian youth. Deviant Behavior, 28(3), 219–246. doi: 10.1080/01639620701233100.Search in Google Scholar

Wang, Y. Y., Jiang, N. Z., Cheung, E. F. C., Sun, H. W., & Chan, R. C. K. (2015). Role of depression severity and impulsivity in the relationship between hopelessness and suicidal ideation in patients with major depressive disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 183, 83–89. doi: 10.1016/J.JAD.2015.05.001.Search in Google Scholar

Wetzel, J. W. (1994). Depression. Social Work in Health Care, 19(3–4), 85–108. doi: 10.1300/J010V19N03_05.Search in Google Scholar

Woodmansey, A. C. (1971). Understanding delinquency. British Journal of Criminology, 11(2), 155–166. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.bjc.a046296.Search in Google Scholar

Wortley, R., Mazerolle, L., & Rombouts, S. (2008). Environmental criminology and crime analysis. https://api.taylorfrancis.com/content/books/mono/download?identifierName=doi&identifierValue=10.4324/9781315709826&type=googlepdf.Search in Google Scholar

Xie, J.-Q., Zimmerman, M. A., Rost, D. H., Yin, X. Q., & Wang, J. L. (2019). Stressful life events and problematic smartphone usage among Chinese boarding-school adolescents: A moderated mediation model of peer support and depressive symptoms. Addiction Research & Theory, 28(6), 493–500. doi: 10.1080/16066359.2019.1692824.Search in Google Scholar

You, S., & Lim, S. A. (2015). Development pathways from abusive parenting to delinquency: The mediating role of Depression and aggression. Child Abuse & Neglect, 46, 152–162. doi: 10.1016/J.CHIABU.2015.05.009.Search in Google Scholar
Received: 2023-06-27
Revised: 2024-04-04
Accepted: 2024-04-23
Published Online: 2024-08-13

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Special Issue: Building Bridges in STEAM Education in the 21st Century - Part II
  2. The Flipped Classroom Optimized Through Gamification and Team-Based Learning
  3. Method and New Doctorate Graduates in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics of the European Innovation Scoreboard as a Measure of Innovation Management in Subdisciplines of Management and Quality Studies
  4. Impact of Gamified Problem Sheets in Seppo on Self-Regulation Skills
  5. Special Issue: Disruptive Innovations in Education - Part I
  6. School-Based Education Program to Solve Bullying Cases in Primary Schools
  7. The Project Trauma-Informed Practice for Workers in Public Service Settings: New Strategies for the Same Old Objective
  8. Regular Articles
  9. Limits of Metacognitive Prompts for Confidence Judgments in an Interactive Learning Environment
  10. “Why are These Problems Still Unresolved?” Those Pending Problems, and Neglected Contradictions in Online Classroom in the Post-COVID-19 Era
  11. Potential Elitism in Selection to Bilingual Studies: A Case Study in Higher Education
  12. Predicting Time to Graduation of Open University Students: An Educational Data Mining Study
  13. Risks in Identifying Gifted Students in Mathematics: Case Studies
  14. Technology Integration in Teacher Education Practices in Two Southern African Universities
  15. Comparing Emergency Remote Learning with Traditional Learning in Primary Education: Primary School Student Perspectives
  16. Pedagogical Technologies and Cognitive Development in Secondary Education
  17. Sense of Belonging as a Predictor of Intentions to Drop Out Among Black and White Distance Learning Students at a South African University
  18. Gender Sensitivity of Teacher Education Curricula in the Republic of Croatia
  19. A Case Study of Biology Teaching Practices in Croatian Primary Schools
  20. The Impact of “Scratch” on Student Engagement and Academic Performance in Primary Schools
  21. Examining the Structural Relationships Between Pre-Service Science Teachers’ Intention to Teach and Perceptions of the Nature of Science and Attitudes
  22. Validation of the Undesirable Behavior Strategies Questionnaire: Physical Educators’ Strategies within the Classroom Ecology
  23. Economics Education, Decision-Making, and Entrepreneurial Intention: A Mediation Analysis of Financial Literacy
  24. Deconstructing Teacher Engagement Techniques for Pre-service Teachers through Explicitly Teaching and Applying “Noticing” in Video Observations
  25. Influencing Factors of Work–Life Balance Among Female Managers in Chinese Higher Education Institutions: A Delphi Study
  26. Examining the Interrelationships Among Curiosity, Creativity, and Academic Motivation Using Students in High Schools: A Multivariate Analysis Approach
  27. Teaching Research Methodologies in Education: Teachers’ Pedagogical Practices in Portugal
  28. Normrank Correlations for Testing Associations and for Use in Latent Variable Models
  29. “The More, the Merrier; the More Ideas, the Better Feeling”: Examining the Role of Creativity in Regulating Emotions among EFL Teachers
  30. Principals’ Demographic Qualities and the Misuse of School Material Capital in Secondary Schools
  31. Enhancing DevOps Engineering Education Through System-Based Learning Approach
  32. Uncertain Causality Analysis of Critical Success Factors of Special Education Mathematics Teaching
  33. Novel Totto-Chan by Tetsuko Kuroyanagi: A Study of Philosophy of Progressivism and Humanism and Relevance to the Merdeka Curriculum in Indonesia
  34. Global Education and Critical Thinking: A Necessary Symbiosis to Educate for Critical Global Citizenship
  35. The Mediating Effect of Optimism and Resourcefulness on the Relationship between Hardiness and Cyber Delinquent Among Adolescent Students
  36. Enhancing Social Skills Development in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: An Evaluation of the “Power of Camp Inclusion” Program
  37. The Influence of Student Learning, Student Expectation and Quality of Instructor on Student Perceived Satisfaction and Student Academic Performance: Under Online, Hybrid and Physical Classrooms
  38. Household Size and Access to Education in Rural Burundi: The Case of Mutaho Commune
  39. The Impact of the Madrasati Platform Experience on Acquiring Mathematical Concepts and Improving Learning Motivation from the Point of View of Mathematics Teachers
  40. The Ideal Path: Acquiring Education and Gaining Respect for Parents from the Perspective of Arab-Bedouin Students
  41. Exploring Mentor Teachers’ Experiences and Practices in Japan: Formative Intervention for Self-Directed Development of Novice Teachers
  42. Research Trends and Patterns on Emotional Intelligence in Education: A Bibliometric and Knowledge Mapping During 2012–2021
  43. Openness to Change and Academic Freedom in Jordanian Universities
  44. Digital Methods to Promote Inclusive and Effective Learning in Schools: A Mixed Methods Research Study
  45. Translation Competence in Translator Training Programs at Saudi Universities: Empirical Study
  46. Self-directed Learning Behavior among Communication Arts Students in a HyFlex Learning Environment at a Government University in Thailand
  47. Unveiling Connections between Stress, Anxiety, Depression, and Delinquency Proneness: Analysing the General Strain Theory
  48. The Expression of Gratitude in English and Arabic Doctoral Dissertation Acknowledgements
  49. Subtexts of Most Read Articles on Social Sciences Citation Index: Trends in Educational Issues
  50. Experiences of Adult Learners Engaged in Blended Learning beyond COVID-19 in Ghana
  51. The Influence of STEM-Based Digital Learning on 6C Skills of Elementary School Students
  52. Gender and Family Stereotypes in a Photograph: Research Using the Eye-Tracking Method
  53. ChatGPT in Teaching Linear Algebra: Strides Forward, Steps to Go
  54. Partnership Quality, Student’s Satisfaction, and Loyalty: A Study at Higher Education Legal Entities in Indonesia
  55. SEA’s Science Teacher Voices Through the Modified World Café
  56. Construction of Entrepreneurship Coaching Index: Based on a Survey of Art Design Students in Higher Vocational Colleges in Guangdong, China
  57. The Effect of Audio-Assisted Reading on Incidental Learning of Present Perfect by EFL Learners
  58. Comprehensive Approach to Training English Communicative Competence in Chemistry
  59. The Collaboration of Teaching at The Right Level Approach with Problem-Based Learning Model
  60. Effectiveness of a Pop-Up Story-Based Program for Developing Environmental Awareness and Sustainability Concepts among First-Grade Elementary Students
  61. Effect of Computer Simulation Integrated with Jigsaw Learning Strategy on Students’ Attitudes towards Learning Chemistry
  62. Unveiling the Distinctive Impact of Vocational Schools Link and Match Collaboration with Industries for Holistic Workforce Readiness
  63. Students’ Perceptions of PBL Usefulness
  64. Assessing the Outcomes of Digital Soil Science Curricula for Agricultural Undergraduates in the Global South
  65. The Relationship between Epistemological Beliefs and Assessment Conceptions among Pre-Service Teachers
  66. Review Articles
  67. Fostering Creativity in Higher Education Institution: A Systematic Review (2018–2022)
  68. The Effects of Online Continuing Education for Healthcare Professionals: A Systematic Scoping Review
  69. The Impact of Job Satisfaction on Teacher Mental Health: A Call to Action for Educational Policymakers
  70. Developing Multilingual Competence in Future Educators: Approaches, Challenges, and Best Practices
  71. Using Virtual Reality to Enhance Twenty-First-Century Skills in Elementary School Students: A Systematic Literature Review
  72. State-of-the-Art of STEAM Education in Science Classrooms: A Systematic Literature Review
  73. Integration of Project-Based Learning in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics to Improve Students’ Biology Practical Skills in Higher Education: A Systematic Review
  74. Teaching Work and Inequality in Argentina: Heterogeneity and Dynamism in Educational Research
  75. Case Study
  76. Teachers’ Perceptions of a Chatbot’s Role in School-based Professional Learning
https://doi.org/10.1515/edu-2024-0013
Keywords for this article
stress; anxiety; depression; delinquency proneness; adolescents; mediation effect
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Special Issue: Building Bridges in STEAM Education in the 21st Century - Part II
  2. The Flipped Classroom Optimized Through Gamification and Team-Based Learning
  3. Method and New Doctorate Graduates in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics of the European Innovation Scoreboard as a Measure of Innovation Management in Subdisciplines of Management and Quality Studies
  4. Impact of Gamified Problem Sheets in Seppo on Self-Regulation Skills
  5. Special Issue: Disruptive Innovations in Education - Part I
  6. School-Based Education Program to Solve Bullying Cases in Primary Schools
  7. The Project Trauma-Informed Practice for Workers in Public Service Settings: New Strategies for the Same Old Objective
  8. Regular Articles
  9. Limits of Metacognitive Prompts for Confidence Judgments in an Interactive Learning Environment
  10. “Why are These Problems Still Unresolved?” Those Pending Problems, and Neglected Contradictions in Online Classroom in the Post-COVID-19 Era
  11. Potential Elitism in Selection to Bilingual Studies: A Case Study in Higher Education
  12. Predicting Time to Graduation of Open University Students: An Educational Data Mining Study
  13. Risks in Identifying Gifted Students in Mathematics: Case Studies
  14. Technology Integration in Teacher Education Practices in Two Southern African Universities
  15. Comparing Emergency Remote Learning with Traditional Learning in Primary Education: Primary School Student Perspectives
  16. Pedagogical Technologies and Cognitive Development in Secondary Education
  17. Sense of Belonging as a Predictor of Intentions to Drop Out Among Black and White Distance Learning Students at a South African University
  18. Gender Sensitivity of Teacher Education Curricula in the Republic of Croatia
  19. A Case Study of Biology Teaching Practices in Croatian Primary Schools
  20. The Impact of “Scratch” on Student Engagement and Academic Performance in Primary Schools
  21. Examining the Structural Relationships Between Pre-Service Science Teachers’ Intention to Teach and Perceptions of the Nature of Science and Attitudes
  22. Validation of the Undesirable Behavior Strategies Questionnaire: Physical Educators’ Strategies within the Classroom Ecology
  23. Economics Education, Decision-Making, and Entrepreneurial Intention: A Mediation Analysis of Financial Literacy
  24. Deconstructing Teacher Engagement Techniques for Pre-service Teachers through Explicitly Teaching and Applying “Noticing” in Video Observations
  25. Influencing Factors of Work–Life Balance Among Female Managers in Chinese Higher Education Institutions: A Delphi Study
  26. Examining the Interrelationships Among Curiosity, Creativity, and Academic Motivation Using Students in High Schools: A Multivariate Analysis Approach
  27. Teaching Research Methodologies in Education: Teachers’ Pedagogical Practices in Portugal
  28. Normrank Correlations for Testing Associations and for Use in Latent Variable Models
  29. “The More, the Merrier; the More Ideas, the Better Feeling”: Examining the Role of Creativity in Regulating Emotions among EFL Teachers
  30. Principals’ Demographic Qualities and the Misuse of School Material Capital in Secondary Schools
  31. Enhancing DevOps Engineering Education Through System-Based Learning Approach
  32. Uncertain Causality Analysis of Critical Success Factors of Special Education Mathematics Teaching
  33. Novel Totto-Chan by Tetsuko Kuroyanagi: A Study of Philosophy of Progressivism and Humanism and Relevance to the Merdeka Curriculum in Indonesia
  34. Global Education and Critical Thinking: A Necessary Symbiosis to Educate for Critical Global Citizenship
  35. The Mediating Effect of Optimism and Resourcefulness on the Relationship between Hardiness and Cyber Delinquent Among Adolescent Students
  36. Enhancing Social Skills Development in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: An Evaluation of the “Power of Camp Inclusion” Program
  37. The Influence of Student Learning, Student Expectation and Quality of Instructor on Student Perceived Satisfaction and Student Academic Performance: Under Online, Hybrid and Physical Classrooms
  38. Household Size and Access to Education in Rural Burundi: The Case of Mutaho Commune
  39. The Impact of the Madrasati Platform Experience on Acquiring Mathematical Concepts and Improving Learning Motivation from the Point of View of Mathematics Teachers
  40. The Ideal Path: Acquiring Education and Gaining Respect for Parents from the Perspective of Arab-Bedouin Students
  41. Exploring Mentor Teachers’ Experiences and Practices in Japan: Formative Intervention for Self-Directed Development of Novice Teachers
  42. Research Trends and Patterns on Emotional Intelligence in Education: A Bibliometric and Knowledge Mapping During 2012–2021
  43. Openness to Change and Academic Freedom in Jordanian Universities
  44. Digital Methods to Promote Inclusive and Effective Learning in Schools: A Mixed Methods Research Study
  45. Translation Competence in Translator Training Programs at Saudi Universities: Empirical Study
  46. Self-directed Learning Behavior among Communication Arts Students in a HyFlex Learning Environment at a Government University in Thailand
  47. Unveiling Connections between Stress, Anxiety, Depression, and Delinquency Proneness: Analysing the General Strain Theory
  48. The Expression of Gratitude in English and Arabic Doctoral Dissertation Acknowledgements
  49. Subtexts of Most Read Articles on Social Sciences Citation Index: Trends in Educational Issues
  50. Experiences of Adult Learners Engaged in Blended Learning beyond COVID-19 in Ghana
  51. The Influence of STEM-Based Digital Learning on 6C Skills of Elementary School Students
  52. Gender and Family Stereotypes in a Photograph: Research Using the Eye-Tracking Method
  53. ChatGPT in Teaching Linear Algebra: Strides Forward, Steps to Go
  54. Partnership Quality, Student’s Satisfaction, and Loyalty: A Study at Higher Education Legal Entities in Indonesia
  55. SEA’s Science Teacher Voices Through the Modified World Café
  56. Construction of Entrepreneurship Coaching Index: Based on a Survey of Art Design Students in Higher Vocational Colleges in Guangdong, China
  57. The Effect of Audio-Assisted Reading on Incidental Learning of Present Perfect by EFL Learners
  58. Comprehensive Approach to Training English Communicative Competence in Chemistry
  59. The Collaboration of Teaching at The Right Level Approach with Problem-Based Learning Model
  60. Effectiveness of a Pop-Up Story-Based Program for Developing Environmental Awareness and Sustainability Concepts among First-Grade Elementary Students
  61. Effect of Computer Simulation Integrated with Jigsaw Learning Strategy on Students’ Attitudes towards Learning Chemistry
  62. Unveiling the Distinctive Impact of Vocational Schools Link and Match Collaboration with Industries for Holistic Workforce Readiness
  63. Students’ Perceptions of PBL Usefulness
  64. Assessing the Outcomes of Digital Soil Science Curricula for Agricultural Undergraduates in the Global South
  65. The Relationship between Epistemological Beliefs and Assessment Conceptions among Pre-Service Teachers
  66. Review Articles
  67. Fostering Creativity in Higher Education Institution: A Systematic Review (2018–2022)
  68. The Effects of Online Continuing Education for Healthcare Professionals: A Systematic Scoping Review
  69. The Impact of Job Satisfaction on Teacher Mental Health: A Call to Action for Educational Policymakers
  70. Developing Multilingual Competence in Future Educators: Approaches, Challenges, and Best Practices
  71. Using Virtual Reality to Enhance Twenty-First-Century Skills in Elementary School Students: A Systematic Literature Review
  72. State-of-the-Art of STEAM Education in Science Classrooms: A Systematic Literature Review
  73. Integration of Project-Based Learning in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics to Improve Students’ Biology Practical Skills in Higher Education: A Systematic Review
  74. Teaching Work and Inequality in Argentina: Heterogeneity and Dynamism in Educational Research
  75. Case Study
  76. Teachers’ Perceptions of a Chatbot’s Role in School-based Professional Learning
Sign up now to receive a 20% welcome discount
Institutional Access
How does access work?
Have an idea on how to improve our website?
Please write us.
© 2026 De Gruyter Brill
Downloaded on 20.1.2026 from https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/edu-2024-0013/html
Scroll to top button