Startseite Shear strength behavior of organic soils treated with fly ash and fly ash-based geopolymer
Artikel Open Access

Shear strength behavior of organic soils treated with fly ash and fly ash-based geopolymer

  • Sarah K. Ameen EMAIL logo , Ahmed H. Abdulkareem und Nabeel S. Mahmood
Veröffentlicht/Copyright: 3. Mai 2023
Artikel downloaden (PDF)
Veröffentlichen auch Sie bei De Gruyter Brill
Manuskript einreichen Informationen für Autor*innen
Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Materials
Aus der Zeitschrift Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Materials Band 32 Heft 1

Abstract

Organic soil is a problematic soil that needs to be treated before construction because of the low shear strength and high compressibility. Using by-product materials, such as fly ash (FA), to improve soils is a cost-effective and sustainable procedure. Because treatment with FA may lead to reduce shear strength, a FA-based geopolymer was used with a cohesive organic soil to substitute the reduction in strength. A series of unconfined compressive strength tests (UCS) were conducted on compacted specimens treated with FA and geopolymer. The geopolymer was produced by adding sodium hydroxide to activate the FA. Different levels of FA content, curing period, and temperature were applied to the specimens. The results indicate that for the FA treated specimens, the UCS decreased as the FA increased. For the geopolymer-treated specimens, as FA percentage in the geopolymer increased, the UCS increased and the axial strain at failure decreased. The optimum content of FA, in the geopolymer, was 20%, and the highest UCS was achieved at a curing period of 28 days at a temperature level of 65°C. Based on the obtained results, FA-based geopolymer can effectively be used to improve the strength of organic soils.

Keywords: organic soil; fly ash; shear strength; geopolymer stabilization

1 Introduction

Modification of problematic soils is sometimes needed during the construction of engineering projects when access to soils with appropriate geotechnical properties is limited within the sites of these projects. Problematic soils may include soft, organic, or expansive clays. Specifically, organic soils may cause engineering problems due to the low shear strength values and high compressibility [1,2]. There have been several methods to improve the engineering properties of organic soils. Some of these methods include partial replacement with engineering fill, grouting, preloading, and reinforcement. At the same time, improvement methods by using stabilizers have been effective to reduce problems that caused by the organic content in soil. Portland cement, lime, and fly ash (FA) are some stabilizing agents that have been used to improve organic soils [3,4]. It has been observed by many past studies that adding cementitious materials to organic soils leads to increase the soil shear strength and decrease the deformation and compressibility. The study of [5], for example, showed that adding lime to an organic clay by 7% improved the strength of the organic clay by nearly seven times after a curing period of 60 days.

Although cement is considered one of the most widely used materials in soil stabilization, production of cement significantly contributes to air pollution, as cement factories release thousands of tons of carbon dioxide CO2 annually into the atmosphere [6]. Therefore, the utilization of non-cement alternatives such as by-products is essential from both an economic and environmental aspects. One of the widely used, sustainable, and cost-effective additive is the FA, which is an industrial waste. Using of FA in the improvement reduces the quantity of disposal of this hazardous waste and decreases its negative effects on the environment. The determination of shear strength parameters is an essential procedure for many geotechnical applications. FA has been utilized to increase strength of many types of soil due to the pozzolanic action of the FA. As reported by [7], the results obtained from the UCS test depend on the soil properties, organic content, curing time, and FA type. The study of [8] indicated that adding FA to the organic soil by 8% led to a degree of improvement in the UCS of the treated soil up to 88%. Similar observations were also reported by [9,10] as the UCS values increased by 75% when FA was added by 25% of the soil weight. However, the observations of the aforementioned studies indicated that the UCS values increased with the percentage of FA until a certain percentage was reached, and then, the values were gradually decreased.

For some improvement methods, adding certain materials to the stabilizing agents is needed to accelerate bonding process and speed up the development of shear strength. As reported by [11], FA can be activated by using alkali solutions to construct strong bonds with the soil in a process that is called geopolymerization. FA is an excellent source of amorphous alumina and silica to produce geopolymers. The solubility of silicates starts when FA is combined with an alkaline solution. Specifically, sodium silicate (Na2SiO3) or sodium hydroxide (NaOH) can be used to activate FA and produce geopolymer binders [12]. Activators produced from mixing both Na2SiO3 and NaOH have also been used to activate the FA. The study of [13], for example, used the two aforementioned solutions to improve reclaimed asphalt pavement. Geopolymers are a three-dimensional network or mineral chains consists of inorganic polymer that is resulted from chemical reactions between alumina (Al) and silicates (Si) at a reaction temperature not more than 100°C [14]. The chemical reaction between an alkaline solution and Si–Al compounds initiates the polymerization process and leads to the development of a triple structure represented by polymeric chains (Si–O–Al–O) [15]. Geopolymerization results in the formation of cementitious bonds, which increase soil strength and decrease its compressibility. The study of [16] showed that a high and long-term strength is achieved by adding FA class F to alkaline solutions, and this strength is higher than the strength obtained from the use of ordinary Portland cement. Treatment with FA-based geopolymer can be affected by many factors such as temperature, curing time, and alkaline concentration [17]. The studies of [18,19] showed that as the temperature applied to the reaction of the geopolymerization increased, the production of geopolymer increased that led to an increase in soil durability and shear strength. The study of [20] evaluated the UCS for a geopolymer-treated coarse sand when the ratio of FA to the alkaline solution was 2.5. This study aslo evalutated the effect of curing period on developing the strength of the treated specimns. A maximum strength of 0.5 MPa was gained after 28 days. Geopolymer binder may also influence the physical properties of the treated soils. The study of [21] investigated the effect of different ratios of FA to alkaline activator of 1:1, 1.5:1, 2:1, 2.5:1, and 3:1 on geopolymer-treated clay specimens that were cured for 1 and 7 days. The results indicated that the FA-based geopolymer reduced the liquid limit and plasticity index of the treated specimens. The treated specimens also had an optimal FA to alkaline activator ratio of 1.5.

To date, emphasis has been placed on soil improvement with FA, which has a limited ability to improve the UCS, as excessive amounts of FA may lead to decrease the UCS values. Therefore, alkaline activators have been used with FA to produce geopolymer binders, which led to a significant increase in the UCS. Based on the literature that was examined, treatment of organic soils with geopolymers has not been previously evaluated. In this research, a series of UCS tests were conducted on an organic soil that was treated with FA and FA-based geopolymer to evaluate and compare the effectiveness of this treatment method. The effects of curing period and temperature on the USC of the treated specimens were also investigated. Beside the advantages of this method in the improvement of the soil geotechnical properties, utilizing FA is an environment-friendly alternative, as it contributes to the minimization of the disposal of this hazardous material.

2 Experimentation program

2.1 Materials

Organic soil was obtained from a site located west of Ramadi in Iraq. The sample was collected from 1 m depth below the ground surface. The collected sample was air dried before conducting the testing program. The organic content of the untreated soil was calculated by burning the soil at 700°C and calculating the loss in ignition according to ASTM D2974-20 [22]. The organic matter content of this soil was 21%. The classification and physical properties of the soil are listed in Table 1. In accordance to the Unified Soil Classification System, as described by the ASTM D2487-17 [23], the soil was classified as organic silt (OL). Figure 1 illustrates the grain size distribution of the soil and FA, as obtained from sieve and hydrometer analysis, according to the ASTM D422-07 [24]. Atterberg Limits were obtained according to the ASTM D4318-17 [25]. The chemical compositions of the soil are as listed in Table 2.

Table 1

The properties of the organic soil

Soil property Value
Liquid limit (%) 45
Plastic limit (%) 27
Plasticity index (%) 18
Specific gravity (G s) 1.69
Sand (%) 12
Clay size fraction, less than 0.005 mm (%) 41
Classification (USCS) OL (organic silt)
Figure 1 Gradation curves for the soil and FA samples.
Figure 1

Gradation curves for the soil and FA samples.

Table 2

Chemical composition of the study material

Chemical composition FA (%) Organic soil (%)
Silica (SiO2) 51.09 48.101
Alumina (Al2O3) 36.75 12.992
Ferric oxide (Fe2O3) 3.939 5.365
Calcium oxide (CaO) 0.3315 19.862
Potassium oxide (K2O) 3.487 1.087
Sodium oxide (Na2O) 1.12 1.34
Magnesium oxide (MgO) 1.84 8.212
Sulfur trioxide (SO3) 0.105 1.0131
Manganese oxide 0.0134 0.0752

The FA was obtained from a local vendor in Iraq and was classified as class F, in accordance with the ASTM C618-12 [26], which refers that this type has low calcium content. This type of FA is preferred in the production of geopolymer, as it produces better response in sodium based geopolymers with higher strength. The FA chemical compositions, as obtained from the XRF test, are as previously presented in Table 2, also the particle size distribution curve of FA is presented in Figure 1.

To form the geopolymer, a binder and an alkaline solution were needed. In the geopolymerization process, the FA was activated by using the solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH). Flakes of NaOH of 98% purity were used to prepare the solution. The NaOH was prepared at a concentration of 8 morality 24 h before it was used because its reaction with water is exothermic such that a cool-down period is necessary. No metal tools were used to keep and mix the solution as metals may react with the solution causing corrosion.

2.2 Methodology

A series of laboratory tests were performed to determine the influence of FA and FA-based geopolymer additives on the UCS of the organic soil. A group of specimens were prepared by using the standard compaction procedure after mixing the soil with 10, 20, and 30% of FA. Another group of specimens were prepared following the same prescribed procedure, but the alkaline solution at 8 M was added to each mixture instead of molding water. The percentages of the materials that were used for the mixtures are presented in Table 3.

Table 3

Proportions of the Mixtures

Mixture Organic Soil (%) FA Replacement (%) NaOH Molarity (M)
0% FA 100 0 0
10% FA 90 10 0
20% FA 80 20 0
30% FA 70 30 0
10% FA + NaOH 90 10 8
20% FA + NaOH 80 20 8
30% FA + NaOH 70 30 8

The standard Proctor test, as detailed in the ASTM D698-12 [27], was conducted to evaluate the maximum dry density (MDD) along with the optimum moisture content (OMC) for the untreated soil and soil–FA mixture. Pulverized soil was used to form the specimens. To achieve uniform soil composition, small rocks and dried twigs were removed from the soil sample. The soil was mixed with the corresponding FA percentage, as described in Table 3, and then water or alkali solution was added.

The specimens for the UCS tests were then prepared at the same values of MDD and OMC that were obtained from the standard Procter test. However, a smaller split mold and hammer were used to compact the specimens. The mold is 63 mm in diameter and 128 mm in height. The compacting in this mold was performed in three layers and each layer was compacted with 11 blows. The number of layers and blows was determined to achieve the same compaction effort (600 kN m/m3) of the standard Proctor test.

After extruding the specimens from the split mold, they were wrapped in nylon and placed in plastic bags to maintain the moisture. The specimens of soil–FA were cured to 7, 14, and 28 days at 25 ± 2°C (room temperature). These curing periods are selected flowing the role of cement curing, as cement treatment is a convenient admixture for soil treatment. According to [28], the minimum strength of cement is gained within 7–14 days, while most of the strength is gained within 28 days. The soil-geopolymer specimens were first placed in a drying oven at three temperature levels of 25, 45, and 65°C for 48 h, to evaluate the role of curing temperature in developing soil strength, and then cured for 7, 14, and 28 days at 25 ± 2°C. To obtain accurate results, three specimens were prepared in the laboratory for each mixture and curing period. A total number of 72 specimens were prepared for the UCS tests.

The values of the UCS for the pre-prepared specimens were determined from the unconfined compression test that was conducted according to the standard procedure of the ASTM D2166-13 [29]. The specimens were then mounted on the compression machine and an axial stress was applied at a strain rate of 0.9 mm/min (0.7%/min) that was controlled by an electronic load cell. To obtain approximate values of the elasticity modulus of the specimens, a 0.01-mm dial gauge was used in this test. Failure load, as well as load and displacement, was recorded to evaluate the ultimate strength of the test and plot the stress–strain relationships of specimens.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Compaction tests

The curves obtained from the compaction tests of the untreated soil and soil–FA mixtures are presented in Figure 2. The results indicate that as the FA content in soil increased, the MDD decreased and the OMC increased, continuously. As the FA content reached 30%, the MDD value was 52% less, and the OMC value was 26% higher than those for the specimens with 0% FA. The increase in OMC with the increase in the FA content may be attributed to the high capacity of the FA to absorb additional water that is needed for the hydration process [3]. This absorbed water will form additional pores in the soil fabric leading to reduce the MDD values. Moreover, the decrease in the MDD values is partially due to the low value of the G s of the FA, which is lower than that for the soil.

Figure 2 The effect of FA content on compaction behavior: (a) compaction curves, (b) variation of the MDD values with FA content, and (c) variation of OMC with FA.
Figure 2

The effect of FA content on compaction behavior: (a) compaction curves, (b) variation of the MDD values with FA content, and (c) variation of OMC with FA.

3.2 The UCS results

The effect of FA on the UCS of the organic soil with and without treatment was evaluated by conducting the UCS test. The UCS results of the soil–FA and soil-geopolymer are discussed in the following sections:

1) Soil–FA: The results of the UCS tests of the untreated specimens and the specimens stabilized with different contents of FA are presented in Figure 3. For the effect of FA content on the UCS, the general trend was that the UCS values increased slightly when 10% FA was added and decreased when 20 and 30% FA were added. This behavior may be in relation to the MDD that had almost similar trend, as previously described. Similar behavior has been observed by Seyrek [7].

Figure 3 The UCS values as a function of FA content and curing period.
Figure 3

The UCS values as a function of FA content and curing period.

For the effect of curing, the results showed that there was no regular change in the values of the UCS with the curing period. The poor soil improvement with the FA can be attributed to the low content of calcium oxide (CaO) in this type of FA, as previously presented in Table 2 because the interaction of CaO with some soil components produces cement compounds that are responsible for increasing the strength in the soil. Therefore, the alkali solution was used in this study to substitute the low CaO content in the FA, as discussed in the following section.

2) Soil-geopolymer: The stress–stain curves for the UCS tests of the soil-geopolymer specimens are shown in Figure 4. The values are also graphically represented in Figure 5. For the specimens cured to 28 days, as the FA content increased by 10, 20, and 30%, the UCS values increased by 7, 20, and 16 times of the UCS value for the 0% FA, respectively. Similar behavior was observed for the specimens that were cured for 14 days. For the 7 days curing, the UCS value for the 20% FA was as high as the 30% FA value. These observations indicate that the 20% FA content represents the optimum content that produced the highest UCS value. The increase that was observed in the UCS values with the increase in the percentage of FA is due to the cementation and pozzolanic interactions of FA [30]. As indicated by [31], the CaO content of soil was shown to play an important role in increasing the tetrahedral bonds between the aluminate and silicate components. The calcium silicate hydrate (C–S–H) gel, formed by the reaction between the alkaline solution and calcium may also be responsible for the high strength of calcium-based materials even at early age of treatment. However, the decrease in the UCS values after reaching the optimum FA content (20%) may be attributed the interaction of the excessive FA particles with the soil structure causing a decrease in the soil cohesion. The analysis of scanning electron microscope (SEM) was performed on the untreated soil, soil-20%FA, and soil-geopolymer. Figure 6a illustrates that the particles of the untreated soil were flaky, loose, and non-homogeneous, which is clear from the dispersed micro pores. Figure 6b shows that for soil-20% FA, the FA filled most of the voids and covered soil particles that acted as a bonding material between the soil particles. Figure 6c shows an obvious change in the soil structure due to the geopolymerization. It can be noticed that the geopolymer gel bonded soil particles together, resulting in a dense matrix and homogeneous structure. Moreover, stabilized soil showed essentially no lamellar structure, and there was an agglomeration of the geopolymer formed with varying size.

Figure 4 Stress–strain curves for the specimens with curing periods of (a) 7, (b) 14, and (c) 28 days.
Figure 4

Stress–strain curves for the specimens with curing periods of (a) 7, (b) 14, and (c) 28 days.

Figure 5 The UCS values at different curing periods.
Figure 5

The UCS values at different curing periods.

Figure 6 The SEM image: (a) untreated soil, (b) soil-20% FA, and (c) soil-geopolymer.
Figure 6

The SEM image: (a) untreated soil, (b) soil-20% FA, and (c) soil-geopolymer.

Figure 7 shows that as the FA amount was increased, the values of axial strain at failure decreased. These values were 47–68% less than the values of the untreated soil. This reduction in the strain values with the increase in FA content and curing period can be attributed to brittleness properties of the stabilized soil that was gained from the geopolymer. The results that were previously shown in Figure 5, except for the 10% FA, indicate that the UCS values increased when curing time was increased. For the specimens with 20% FA and 30% FA, the UCS values increased by 93 and 53%, respectively, as the curing period was increased from 7 to 28 days. The observed results highlight the significant effect of curing on the geopolymer stabilized soils. The results of the specimens that were papered at the optimum FA content (20%) and exposed to three levels of temperature of 25, 45, and 65°C are presented in Figure 8. The UCS values increased with the increased level of temperature. The increase in the UCS values was in the range from 46 to 68% as the temperature increased from 25 to 65°C indicating that there was a direct proportion between temperature and strength. This behavior can be attributed to the increased rate of dissolution and condensation of alumina silicate, which increased the strength of the geopolymer.

Figure 7 The effect of FA-based geopolymer, with different FA contents, on the axial strain at failure.
Figure 7

The effect of FA-based geopolymer, with different FA contents, on the axial strain at failure.

Figure 8 The effect of temperature on UCS of the soil stabilized with FA-based geopolymer.
Figure 8

The effect of temperature on UCS of the soil stabilized with FA-based geopolymer.

4 Conclusions

In this study, improvement of the undrained shear strength of a cohesive organic soil that was treated with FA and FA-based geopolymer was evaluated by conducting UCS tests. Different levels of FA contents, curing period, and temperature were applied to evaluate their effects on the treatment. Based on the analysis of the observations from the testing program, the following conclusions can be drawn:

  1. Adding FA to the organic soil led to decrease the MDD and increase the OMC. As the FA content reached 30%, the MDD value was 52% less and the OMC value was 26% higher than those for the specimens with 0% FA.

  2. When FA was added, the general trend was a decrease in the UCS values while no clear relationship between the UCS values and curing period was observed.

  3. The results obtained from the UCS tests that were conducted on the geopolymer-treated specimens showed a substantial increase in the strength of the soil as the FA content in the geopolymer increased up to 20% FA and then the values decreased beyond this content, which represented the optimum content of the improvement.

  4. The values of the axial strain at failure were 47–68% less than the values of the untreated soil, which indicates a significant influence of the geopolymer additive on this parameter.

  5. The optimum stabilization of the organic soil was achieved when the specimens were cured for 28 days. The gain in strength was 93 and 53% higher as the curing period was increased from 7 to 28 days.

  6. A direct proportion was obtained between the UCS and temperature, as the highest value of the UCS of 3.5 MPa was obtained at 65°C.

  7. The best performance of the treated specimens was obtained when the FA-based geopolymer was used, which may indicate a potential use of this type of material in the treatment of cohesive organic soils.

  8. Further research is recommended to evaluate the long-term stability and durability of the geopolymer-treated specimens.

  1. Funding information: The authors state no funding involved.

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this article and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

References

[1] Abdulkareem AH, Eyada SO, Mahmood NS. Improvement of a subgrade soil by using EarthZyme and cement kiln dust waste. Arch Civ Eng. 2021;67(2):10–22.10.24425/ace.2021.137183Suche in Google Scholar

[2] Sharma NK, Swain S, Sahoo UC. Stabilization of a clayey soil with fly ash and lime: a micro level investigation. Geotech Geol Eng. 2012;30(5):1197–205.10.1007/s10706-012-9532-3Suche in Google Scholar

[3] Tastan EO, Edil TB, Benson CH, Aydilek AH. Stabilization of organic soils with fly ash. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng. 2011;137(9):819–33.10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000502Suche in Google Scholar

[4] Vasudevan TV, Jaya V. Influence of organic content on fly ash stabilization of clay. Ground improvement techniques and geosynthetics. Singapore: Springer; 2019. p. 95–103.10.1007/978-981-13-0559-7_11Suche in Google Scholar

[5] Sakr MA, Shahin MA, Metwally YM. Utilization of lime for stabilizing soft clay soil of high organic content. Geotech Geol Eng. 2009;27(1):105–13.10.1007/s10706-008-9215-2Suche in Google Scholar

[6] Worrell E, Price L, Martin N, Hendriks C, Meida LO. Carbon dioxide emissions from the global cement industry. Annu Rev Energy Environ. 2001;26(1):303–29.10.1146/annurev.energy.26.1.303Suche in Google Scholar

[7] Seyrek E. Engineering behavior of clay soils stabilized with class C and class F fly ashes. Sci Eng Compos Mater. 2018;25(2):273–87.10.1515/secm-2016-0084Suche in Google Scholar

[8] Santos F, Li L, Li Y, Amini F. Geotechnical properties of fly ash and soil mixtures for use in highway embankments. World of Coal Ash (WOCA) Conference. 2011 May 9–12; Denver (CO), USA.Suche in Google Scholar

[9] Davidovits J. Geopolymers: Ceramic-like inorganic polymers. J Ceram Sci Technol. 2017;8(3):335–50.Suche in Google Scholar

[10] Kaniraj SR, Havanagi VG. Compressive strength of cement stabilized fly ash-soil mixtures. Cem Concr Res. 1999;29(5):673–7.10.1016/S0008-8846(99)00018-6Suche in Google Scholar

[11] Fletcher RA, Mackenzie KJD, Nicholson CL, Shimada S. The Composition range of aluminosilicate polymers. J Eur Ceram Soc. 2005;25(9):1471–7.10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2004.06.001Suche in Google Scholar

[12] Davidovits J. Chemistry of geopolymeric systems, terminology. Geopolymer. 1999;99(292):9–39.Suche in Google Scholar

[13] Kwad NF, Abdulkareem AH, Ahmed TM. The effect of fly ash based geopolymer on the strength of problematic subgrade soil with high CaO content. In: Raab C, editor. Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Maintenance and Rehabilitation of Pavements—Mairepav 9; 2020 Jul 1–3; Zurich, Switzerland. Springer, 2020.Suche in Google Scholar

[14] Rios S, Cristelo N, Viana da Fonseca A, Ferreira C. Structural performance of alkali-activated soil ash versus soil cement. J Mater Civ Eng. 2016;28(2):115–25.10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001398Suche in Google Scholar

[15] Gasteiger HA, Frederick WJ, Streisel RC. Solubility of aluminosilicates in alkaline solutions and equilibrium model. Ind Eng Chem Res. 1992;31(4):1183–90.10.1021/ie00004a031Suche in Google Scholar

[16] Palomo A, Grutzeck M, Blanco M. Alkali-activated fly ashes: A cement for the future. Cem Concr Res. 1999;29(8):1323–9.10.1016/S0008-8846(98)00243-9Suche in Google Scholar

[17] Abdullah H, Shahin MA, Walske M. Review of fly-ash-based geopolymers for soil stabilisation with special reference to clay. Geosciences. 2020;10(7):2–16.10.3390/geosciences10070249Suche in Google Scholar

[18] Lizcano M. Effects of water content and alumino-silicate sources on the structure and properties of geopolymers [dissertation]. College Station (TX): Texas A&M University; 2012.Suche in Google Scholar

[19] Palomo Á, Kavalerova E, Fernández-Jiménez A, Krivenko P, García-Lodeiro I, Maltseva O. A review on alkaline activation: New analytical perspectives. Mater Constr. 2014;64(315):1–24.10.3989/mc.2014.00314Suche in Google Scholar

[20] Abdullah MS, Ahmad F. Effect of alkaline activator to fly ash ratio for geopolymer stabilized soil. MATEC Web Conf. 2017;97:01012.10.1051/matecconf/20179701012Suche in Google Scholar

[21] Abdila SR, Abdullah MM, Ahmad R, Rahim SZ, Rychta M, Wnuk I, et al. Evaluation on the mechanical properties of ground granulated blast slag (GGBS) and fly ash stabilized soil via geopolymer process. Materials. 2021;14(11):2833.10.3390/ma14112833Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[22] ASTM D2974. Standard test methods for determining the water (Moisture) content, ash content, and organic material of peat and other organic soils. West Conshohocken (PA), USA: ASTM International; 2020. www.astm.org.Suche in Google Scholar

[23] ASTM D2487. Standard practice for classification of soils for engineering purposes (Unified Soil Classification System). West Conshohocken (PA), USA: ASTM International; 2017. www.astm.org.Suche in Google Scholar

[24] ASTM D422. Standard test method for particle-size analysis of soils. West Conshohocken (PA), USA: ASTM International; 2007. www.astm.org.Suche in Google Scholar

[25] ASTM D4318. Standard test methods for liquid limit, plastic limit, and plasticity index of soils. West Conshohocken (PA), USA: ASTM International; 2017. www.astm.org.Suche in Google Scholar

[26] ASTM C618 ASTM. Standard specification for coal fly ash and raw or calcined natural pozzolan for use in concrete. West Conshohocken (PA), USA: ASTM International; 2012. www.astm.org.Suche in Google Scholar

[27] ASTM D698. Standard test methods for laboratory compaction characteristics of soil using standard effort (12 400 ft-lbf/ft3 (600 kN-m/m3)). West Conshohocken (PA), USA: ASTM International; 2012. www.astm.org.Suche in Google Scholar

[28] Gebler SH, Jones CL, Brogna D, Cabrera J, Cornell JN, II, DR et al. Guide to curing concrete. ACI Committee 308R-01, Farmington Hills (MI), USA: American Concrete Institute; 2001. p. 487–95.Suche in Google Scholar

[29] ASTM D2166. Standard test method for unconfined compressive strength of cohesive soil. West Conshohocken (PA), USA: ASTM International; 2013. www.astm.org.Suche in Google Scholar

[30] Shirkhanloo S, Najafi M, Kaushal V, Rajabi M. A comparative study on the effect of class C and class F fly ashes on geotechnical properties of high-plasticity clay. Civ Eng. 2021;2(4):1009–18.10.3390/civileng2040054Suche in Google Scholar

[31] Cristelo N, Glendinning S, Fernandes L, Pinto AT. Effect of calcium content on soil stabilisation with alkaline activation. Constr Build Mater 2012;29(1):167–74.10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.10.049Suche in Google Scholar
Received: 2022-04-09
Revised: 2022-08-23
Accepted: 2022-10-10
Published Online: 2023-05-03

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Artikel in diesem Heft

  1. Research Articles
  2. The mechanical properties of lightweight (volcanic pumice) concrete containing fibers with exposure to high temperatures
  3. Experimental investigation on the influence of partially stabilised nano-ZrO2 on the properties of prepared clay-based refractory mortar
  4. Investigation of cycloaliphatic amine-cured bisphenol-A epoxy resin under quenching treatment and the effect on its carbon fiber composite lamination strength
  5. Influence on compressive and tensile strength properties of fiber-reinforced concrete using polypropylene, jute, and coir fiber
  6. Estimation of uniaxial compressive and indirect tensile strengths of intact rock from Schmidt hammer rebound number
  7. Effect of calcined diatomaceous earth, polypropylene fiber, and glass fiber on the mechanical properties of ultra-high-performance fiber-reinforced concrete
  8. Analysis of the tensile and bending strengths of the joints of “Gigantochloa apus” bamboo composite laminated boards with epoxy resin matrix
  9. Performance analysis of subgrade in asphaltic rail track design and Indonesia’s existing ballasted track
  10. Utilization of hybrid fibers in different types of concrete and their activity
  11. Validated three-dimensional finite element modeling for static behavior of RC tapered columns
  12. Mechanical properties and durability of ultra-high-performance concrete with calcined diatomaceous earth as cement replacement
  13. Characterization of rutting resistance of warm-modified asphalt mixtures tested in a dynamic shear rheometer
  14. Microstructural characteristics and mechanical properties of rotary friction-welded dissimilar AISI 431 steel/AISI 1018 steel joints
  15. Wear performance analysis of B4C and graphene particles reinforced Al–Cu alloy based composites using Taguchi method
  16. Connective and magnetic effects in a curved wavy channel with nanoparticles under different waveforms
  17. Development of AHP-embedded Deng’s hybrid MCDM model in micro-EDM using carbon-coated electrode
  18. Characterization of wear and fatigue behavior of aluminum piston alloy using alumina nanoparticles
  19. Evaluation of mechanical properties of fiber-reinforced syntactic foam thermoset composites: A robust artificial intelligence modeling approach for improved accuracy with little datasets
  20. Assessment of the beam configuration effects on designed beam–column connection structures using FE methodology based on experimental benchmarking
  21. Influence of graphene coating in electrical discharge machining with an aluminum electrode
  22. A novel fiberglass-reinforced polyurethane elastomer as the core sandwich material of the ship–plate system
  23. Seismic monitoring of strength in stabilized foundations by P-wave reflection and downhole geophysical logging for drill borehole core
  24. Blood flow analysis in narrow channel with activation energy and nonlinear thermal radiation
  25. Investigation of machining characterization of solar material on WEDM process through response surface methodology
  26. High-temperature oxidation and hot corrosion behavior of the Inconel 738LC coating with and without Al2O3-CNTs
  27. Influence of flexoelectric effect on the bending rigidity of a Timoshenko graphene-reinforced nanorod
  28. An analysis of longitudinal residual stresses in EN AW-5083 alloy strips as a function of cold-rolling process parameters
  29. Assessment of the OTEC cold water pipe design under bending loading: A benchmarking and parametric study using finite element approach
  30. A theoretical study of mechanical source in a hygrothermoelastic medium with an overlying non-viscous fluid
  31. An atomistic study on the strain rate and temperature dependences of the plastic deformation Cu–Au core–shell nanowires: On the role of dislocations
  32. Effect of lightweight expanded clay aggregate as partial replacement of coarse aggregate on the mechanical properties of fire-exposed concrete
  33. Utilization of nanoparticles and waste materials in cement mortars
  34. Investigation of the ability of steel plate shear walls against designed cyclic loadings: Benchmarking and parametric study
  35. Effect of truck and train loading on permanent deformation and fatigue cracking behavior of asphalt concrete in flexible pavement highway and asphaltic overlayment track
  36. The impact of zirconia nanoparticles on the mechanical characteristics of 7075 aluminum alloy
  37. Investigation of the performance of integrated intelligent models to predict the roughness of Ti6Al4V end-milled surface with uncoated cutting tool
  38. Low-temperature relaxation of various samarium phosphate glasses
  39. Disposal of demolished waste as partial fine aggregate replacement in roller-compacted concrete
  40. Review Articles
  41. Assessment of eggshell-based material as a green-composite filler: Project milestones and future potential as an engineering material
  42. Effect of post-processing treatments on mechanical performance of cold spray coating – an overview
  43. Internal curing of ultra-high-performance concrete: A comprehensive overview
  44. Special Issue: Sustainability and Development in Civil Engineering - Part II
  45. Behavior of circular skirted footing on gypseous soil subjected to water infiltration
  46. Numerical analysis of slopes treated by nano-materials
  47. Soil–water characteristic curve of unsaturated collapsible soils
  48. A new sand raining technique to reconstitute large sand specimens
  49. Groundwater flow modeling and hydraulic assessment of Al-Ruhbah region, Iraq
  50. Proposing an inflatable rubber dam on the Tidal Shatt Al-Arab River, Southern Iraq
  51. Sustainable high-strength lightweight concrete with pumice stone and sugar molasses
  52. Transient response and performance of prestressed concrete deep T-beams with large web openings under impact loading
  53. Shear transfer strength estimation of concrete elements using generalized artificial neural network models
  54. Simulation and assessment of water supply network for specified districts at Najaf Governorate
  55. Comparison between cement and chemically improved sandy soil by column models using low-pressure injection laboratory setup
  56. Alteration of physicochemical properties of tap water passing through different intensities of magnetic field
  57. Numerical analysis of reinforced concrete beams subjected to impact loads
  58. The peristaltic flow for Carreau fluid through an elastic channel
  59. Efficiency of CFRP torsional strengthening technique for L-shaped spandrel reinforced concrete beams
  60. Numerical modeling of connected piled raft foundation under seismic loading in layered soils
  61. Predicting the performance of retaining structure under seismic loads by PLAXIS software
  62. Effect of surcharge load location on the behavior of cantilever retaining wall
  63. Shear strength behavior of organic soils treated with fly ash and fly ash-based geopolymer
  64. Dynamic response of a two-story steel structure subjected to earthquake excitation by using deterministic and nondeterministic approaches
  65. Nonlinear-finite-element analysis of reactive powder concrete columns subjected to eccentric compressive load
  66. An experimental study of the effect of lateral static load on cyclic response of pile group in sandy soil
https://doi.org/10.1515/jmbm-2022-0264
Schlagwörter für diesen Artikel
organic soil; fly ash; shear strength; geopolymer stabilization
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Artikel in diesem Heft

  1. Research Articles
  2. The mechanical properties of lightweight (volcanic pumice) concrete containing fibers with exposure to high temperatures
  3. Experimental investigation on the influence of partially stabilised nano-ZrO2 on the properties of prepared clay-based refractory mortar
  4. Investigation of cycloaliphatic amine-cured bisphenol-A epoxy resin under quenching treatment and the effect on its carbon fiber composite lamination strength
  5. Influence on compressive and tensile strength properties of fiber-reinforced concrete using polypropylene, jute, and coir fiber
  6. Estimation of uniaxial compressive and indirect tensile strengths of intact rock from Schmidt hammer rebound number
  7. Effect of calcined diatomaceous earth, polypropylene fiber, and glass fiber on the mechanical properties of ultra-high-performance fiber-reinforced concrete
  8. Analysis of the tensile and bending strengths of the joints of “Gigantochloa apus” bamboo composite laminated boards with epoxy resin matrix
  9. Performance analysis of subgrade in asphaltic rail track design and Indonesia’s existing ballasted track
  10. Utilization of hybrid fibers in different types of concrete and their activity
  11. Validated three-dimensional finite element modeling for static behavior of RC tapered columns
  12. Mechanical properties and durability of ultra-high-performance concrete with calcined diatomaceous earth as cement replacement
  13. Characterization of rutting resistance of warm-modified asphalt mixtures tested in a dynamic shear rheometer
  14. Microstructural characteristics and mechanical properties of rotary friction-welded dissimilar AISI 431 steel/AISI 1018 steel joints
  15. Wear performance analysis of B4C and graphene particles reinforced Al–Cu alloy based composites using Taguchi method
  16. Connective and magnetic effects in a curved wavy channel with nanoparticles under different waveforms
  17. Development of AHP-embedded Deng’s hybrid MCDM model in micro-EDM using carbon-coated electrode
  18. Characterization of wear and fatigue behavior of aluminum piston alloy using alumina nanoparticles
  19. Evaluation of mechanical properties of fiber-reinforced syntactic foam thermoset composites: A robust artificial intelligence modeling approach for improved accuracy with little datasets
  20. Assessment of the beam configuration effects on designed beam–column connection structures using FE methodology based on experimental benchmarking
  21. Influence of graphene coating in electrical discharge machining with an aluminum electrode
  22. A novel fiberglass-reinforced polyurethane elastomer as the core sandwich material of the ship–plate system
  23. Seismic monitoring of strength in stabilized foundations by P-wave reflection and downhole geophysical logging for drill borehole core
  24. Blood flow analysis in narrow channel with activation energy and nonlinear thermal radiation
  25. Investigation of machining characterization of solar material on WEDM process through response surface methodology
  26. High-temperature oxidation and hot corrosion behavior of the Inconel 738LC coating with and without Al2O3-CNTs
  27. Influence of flexoelectric effect on the bending rigidity of a Timoshenko graphene-reinforced nanorod
  28. An analysis of longitudinal residual stresses in EN AW-5083 alloy strips as a function of cold-rolling process parameters
  29. Assessment of the OTEC cold water pipe design under bending loading: A benchmarking and parametric study using finite element approach
  30. A theoretical study of mechanical source in a hygrothermoelastic medium with an overlying non-viscous fluid
  31. An atomistic study on the strain rate and temperature dependences of the plastic deformation Cu–Au core–shell nanowires: On the role of dislocations
  32. Effect of lightweight expanded clay aggregate as partial replacement of coarse aggregate on the mechanical properties of fire-exposed concrete
  33. Utilization of nanoparticles and waste materials in cement mortars
  34. Investigation of the ability of steel plate shear walls against designed cyclic loadings: Benchmarking and parametric study
  35. Effect of truck and train loading on permanent deformation and fatigue cracking behavior of asphalt concrete in flexible pavement highway and asphaltic overlayment track
  36. The impact of zirconia nanoparticles on the mechanical characteristics of 7075 aluminum alloy
  37. Investigation of the performance of integrated intelligent models to predict the roughness of Ti6Al4V end-milled surface with uncoated cutting tool
  38. Low-temperature relaxation of various samarium phosphate glasses
  39. Disposal of demolished waste as partial fine aggregate replacement in roller-compacted concrete
  40. Review Articles
  41. Assessment of eggshell-based material as a green-composite filler: Project milestones and future potential as an engineering material
  42. Effect of post-processing treatments on mechanical performance of cold spray coating – an overview
  43. Internal curing of ultra-high-performance concrete: A comprehensive overview
  44. Special Issue: Sustainability and Development in Civil Engineering - Part II
  45. Behavior of circular skirted footing on gypseous soil subjected to water infiltration
  46. Numerical analysis of slopes treated by nano-materials
  47. Soil–water characteristic curve of unsaturated collapsible soils
  48. A new sand raining technique to reconstitute large sand specimens
  49. Groundwater flow modeling and hydraulic assessment of Al-Ruhbah region, Iraq
  50. Proposing an inflatable rubber dam on the Tidal Shatt Al-Arab River, Southern Iraq
  51. Sustainable high-strength lightweight concrete with pumice stone and sugar molasses
  52. Transient response and performance of prestressed concrete deep T-beams with large web openings under impact loading
  53. Shear transfer strength estimation of concrete elements using generalized artificial neural network models
  54. Simulation and assessment of water supply network for specified districts at Najaf Governorate
  55. Comparison between cement and chemically improved sandy soil by column models using low-pressure injection laboratory setup
  56. Alteration of physicochemical properties of tap water passing through different intensities of magnetic field
  57. Numerical analysis of reinforced concrete beams subjected to impact loads
  58. The peristaltic flow for Carreau fluid through an elastic channel
  59. Efficiency of CFRP torsional strengthening technique for L-shaped spandrel reinforced concrete beams
  60. Numerical modeling of connected piled raft foundation under seismic loading in layered soils
  61. Predicting the performance of retaining structure under seismic loads by PLAXIS software
  62. Effect of surcharge load location on the behavior of cantilever retaining wall
  63. Shear strength behavior of organic soils treated with fly ash and fly ash-based geopolymer
  64. Dynamic response of a two-story steel structure subjected to earthquake excitation by using deterministic and nondeterministic approaches
  65. Nonlinear-finite-element analysis of reactive powder concrete columns subjected to eccentric compressive load
  66. An experimental study of the effect of lateral static load on cyclic response of pile group in sandy soil
Jetzt anmelden und 20% sparen
Institutioneller Zugang
Wie funktioniert Authentifizierung?
Haben Sie eine Idee, wie wir unsere Website verbessern können?
Bitte schreiben Sie uns.
© 2025 De Gruyter Brill
Heruntergeladen am 21.10.2025 von https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/jmbm-2022-0264/html
Button zum nach oben scrollen