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Microstructural characteristics and mechanical properties of rotary friction-welded dissimilar AISI 431 steel/AISI 1018 steel joints

  • Dhamothara kannan Thirumalaikkannan EMAIL logo , Sivaraj Paramasivam , Balasubramanian Visvalingam , Tushar Sonar , Mikhail Ivanov and Seeman Murugaesan
Published/Copyright: March 18, 2023
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Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Materials
From the journal Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Materials Volume 32 Issue 1

Abstract

The main objective of this study was to analyze the microstructural characteristics and strength performance of dissimilar AISI 431 steel/AISI 1018 steel joints developed using rotary friction welding. The microstructural characteristics of different regions of dissimilar rod-to-plate joints were analyzed using optical microscopy. The tensile properties and microhardness of dissimilar rod-to-plate joints were evaluated to assess the joint performance. The microhardness distribution across the cross-sectional region of dissimilar rod-to-plate joints was recorded and correlated with the tensile failure. Scanning electron microscopy was used to analyze the fractured region of dissimilar rod-to-plate tensile specimens. Results showed that the dissimilar AISI 431 steel/AISI 1018 steel joints steel exhibited a tensile strength of 650 MPa, a yield strength of 452 MPa, and a % elongation of 18%. The microhardness of the weld interface (WI) was higher up to 515 HV0.5. The grain growth and resulting lower hardness in heat-affected zone (HAZ) are mainly responsible for the failure of the joints in HAZ only. The superior tensile properties and greater interface hardness of dissimilar AISI 431 steel/AISI 1018 steel joints are correlated with the evolution of finer grain microstructure in the WI zone.

Keywords: rotary friction welding; AISI 431 steel; AISI 1018 steel; microstructure; tensile properties; hardness

1 Introduction

Dissimilar metal joining offers the benefits of utilizing the mechanical properties of different metals to meet engineering specifications. The main purpose of joining different metal grades is to achieve the combination of good mechanical properties of different metals such as high strength, low specific weight, good corrosion resistance, and low cost [1]. As a result, dissimilar metal welding have gained significant attention in recent years. It is mainly focused on significant reduction of weight and cost in both vehicle components and structures. AISI 1018 is a low-carbon steel (LCS) containing less than 0.2% carbon and manganese content of up to 2%. Its lower carbon content makes it more malleable and ductile than other grades of steel. It finds its applications in automotive industries for automotive frames and body as it possesses high formability, good weldability, and high modulus of elasticity, and is of low cost [2]. AISI 431 is a 4XXX series martensitic stainless steel (MSS) with high chromium (Cr) and lower carbon (C) content of up to 17.0 and 0.2%, respectively. It exhibits higher tensile strength (TS), good corrosion resistance, and hardenability. It is used in the aerospace and automotive industry for fasteners, nuts and bolts, pumps and propeller shafts, etc. [3].

The joining of the AISI 431 steel rod to the AISI 1018 plate is of significant importance in applications such as pump hub and shaft, hydraulic jack, transmission output shaft, and piston rod. The joining of dissimilar steels by fusion welding is difficult due to the problems such as solidification cracking, wider heat-affected zone (HAZ), the evolution of detrimental phases in the weld metal, and distortion of the welded dissimilar rod-to-plate joint, which significantly deteriorates the strength performance of joints [4]. To overcome these problems, rotary friction welding (RFW) is employed to join AISI 431 steel rod to AISI 1018 plate. RFW is a solid-state material-joining process, which involves the coalescence of two joining surfaces using frictional heat generated by rotating one workpiece relative to another under the action of axial compressive force [5]. The frictional heat generated between two joining surfaces of metal plasticizes the interface region. The plasticized material is displaced from the interface due to the action of axial compressive force. This expels the oxide layer, impurities, and other contaminants from the joining surface, thereby promoting sound welded joint [6]. The peak temperature in RFW is lower than in fusion welding, which reduces intermetallic evolution and allows a range of dissimilar materials to be welded [7]. Figure 1 shows the schematic of the RFW process [8].

Figure 1 Schematic representation of RFW.
Figure 1

Schematic representation of RFW.

The research work on friction welding, so far, is mainly reported on dissimilar joining of AISI 304/AISI 4140 steel [9], Al alloy/steel [10,11], AA6061 alloy/AISI 1018 steel [12], AA 2219 alloy/AISI 304 steel [13], different grades of carbon steel [14], AISI 304/AISI 1060 steel [15], AISI 304/AISI 1045 steel [16], AISI 316L/AISI 1045 steel [17], AA 1050 alloy/AISI 304 steel [18], armor steel/medium-carbon steel [19], Ti/stainless steel [20], Inconel 718/SM45C steel [21], and AISI 1020/AISI 1018 steel [22,23,24]. There is a lack of studies on RFW to develop dissimilar rod-to-plate joints of AISI 431/AISI 1018 steel [25]. So, the main objective of this study is to analyze microstructural characteristics, strength, and weld interface (WI) hardness of dissimilar rod-to-plate joints of AISI 431/AISI 1018 steel developed using RFW.

2 Experimental procedure

2.1 Materials and dissimilar rod-to-plate joint fabrication

The dissimilar metals used in this work are AISI 1018 LCS plates with dimensions of 32 mm × 32 mm × 15 mm and AISI 431 MSS rods with dimensions of 120 mm in length and 12 mm in diameter. The chemical composition and mechanical properties of base metal are listed in Tables 1 and 2.

Table 1

Chemical composition (wt%) of AISI 1018 steel plate and AISI 431 steel rod

Material Cr Mn C Mo Si S P Ni Fe
AISI 1018 0.129 0.617 0.172 0.024 0.194 0.021 0.048 0.124 Bal
AISI 431 15.29 0.946 0.193 0.154 0.365 0.027 0.038 1.300 Bal
Table 2

Mechanical properties of AISI 1018 steel plate and AISI 431 steel rod

Material TS (MPa) Yield strength (MPa) EL (%) Hardness (HV0.5)
AISI 1018 440 341 15 150
AISI 431 770 490 20 270

The dissimilar rod-to-plate joints of AISI 431/AISI 1018 steel were developed using the semi-automatic RFW machine (Manufacturer: RV machine tools; Model: FWB30; Capacity: 3 Tonnes), as shown in Figure 2. The AISI 431 steel rod and AISI 1018 steel plates were joined in the dissimilar rod-to-plate joint configuration, as shown in Figure 3. A special fixture was developed to hold the AISI 1018 steel plates in the rotating chuck of the RFW machine, as shown in Figure 4. The RFW parameters used to develop dissimilar rod-to-plate joints are reported in Table 3. The photograph of AISI 431 steel rods and AISI 1018 steel plates is shown in Figure 5. The photograph of fabricated dissimilar rod-to-plate joints is shown in Figure 6.

Figure 2 Photograph of the RFW machine used to develop rod-to-plate joints.
Figure 2

Photograph of the RFW machine used to develop rod-to-plate joints.

Figure 3 Dimensions of rod-to-plate joint configuration.
Figure 3

Dimensions of rod-to-plate joint configuration.

Figure 4 Photograph of fixture developed to hold the AISI 1018 plates.
Figure 4

Photograph of fixture developed to hold the AISI 1018 plates.

Table 3

Optimized RFW parameters used to develop rod-to-plate joint

Rotational speed (rps) Forging pressure (MPa/s) Forging time (s) Friction pressure (MPa/s) Friction time (s)
26.6 7.14 7 7.14 7
Figure 5 Photograph of unwelded (a) AISI 1018 steel plates and (b) AISI 431 steel rods.
Figure 5

Photograph of unwelded (a) AISI 1018 steel plates and (b) AISI 431 steel rods.

Figure 6 Photograph of rod-to-plate joints of AISI 431 steel–AISI 1018 steel.
Figure 6

Photograph of rod-to-plate joints of AISI 431 steel–AISI 1018 steel.

2.2 Microstructure

The cross-section of joints was mirror-polished and etched using a standard reagent for 30 s. The macrostructure of dissimilar rod-to-plate joints was recorded using a stereozoom microscope (Manufacturer: Carl Zeiss, German; Model: STEMI105). The microstructure of WI was analyzed using an optical microscope (Manufacturer: MEJI, Japan; model: MIL-7100). The fractured surfaces were analyzed using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) (Manufacturer: JEOL, Japan; Model: 5610 LV) to evaluate the failure mode of dissimilar rod-to-plate joints.

2.3 Mechanical properties

The miniature tensile specimens were cut using the ASTM standard of E8M-05, as shown in Figure 7. The miniature tensile specimens were sliced to 1 mm thickness without any curved surfaces using CNC wire-cut EDM machine (Manufacturer: Ratnaparkhi; Model: 4050 NXG). A servo-controlled UTM (Manufacturer: Tinius Olsen; Model: H50KL; capacity: 50 kN) was used to evaluate the joint strength. The miniature tensile specimens of dissimilar rod-to-plate joints were loaded at the rate of 1.5 kN/min. The Vickers microhardness testing was done on the mirror-polished cross-section of rod-to-plate joints by the Vickers microhardness testing machine (Manufacturer: SHIMADZU, Japan; Model: HMV-T1). The indentation load of 0.5 kg and the dwell time of 10 s were used as per ASTM E347 standard to evaluate the microhardness distribution across the cross-section of dissimilar rod-to-plate joint. The microhardness results were correlated with tensile failure of rod-to-plate joints.

Figure 7 (a) Miniature tensile specimen dimensions and (b) specimen extraction.
Figure 7

(a) Miniature tensile specimen dimensions and (b) specimen extraction.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Macrostructure and microstructure

Figure 8 shows the macrostructure of the dissimilar rod-to-plate joint. It revealed the formation of a flash on the rod side of joints. The flash formation is higher on the rod side of AISI 431 steel compared to that on the plate side of AISI 1018 steel. It is due to the smaller joining area of the rod in contact with the larger joining area of the plate. The higher forging pressure was applied to stationary AISI 431 steel, which is also responsible for higher flash formation on the rod side of joints. All dissimilar rod-to-plate joints were observed to be sound without the defects of porosity, cracking, and joint penetration. The satisfactory bond occurred at the WI. The macrograph showed four distinct zones: fully deformed zone (FDZ), partially deformed zone (PDZ), HAZ, and parent metal (PM). The frictional heat and plastic deformation at the joining interface result in thermal gradient and formation of distinct zones in the welded joint. The FDZ exhibited wider width due to the mixing of different materials and the application of forging pressure to extrude the material on the rod side in the form of a flash at higher temperature. The HAZ of the plate side of the joint is wider compared to that of the rod side of the joint due to the higher thermal conductivity of AISI 1018 steel compared to AISI 431 steel. According to the Schaeffler diagram, the chromium equivalent (Creq) and nickel (Nieq) equivalent of AISI 431 steel were calculated as 16.005 and 7.563, respectively. Based on the percentage of C req and Nieq, AISI 431 steel exhibits martensite phases with 20% retained austenite.

Figure 8 Cross-sectional macrostructure of rod-to-plate joint.
Figure 8

Cross-sectional macrostructure of rod-to-plate joint.

The microstructure of base metals is shown in Figure 9. The microstructure of AISI 1018 steel is composed of equiaxed ferrite with an average grain size of 12 µm and small colonies of pearlite. The presence of a plate-like martensite structure was observed in AISI 431 steel. The XRD profiles of the AISI 1018 steel plate, AISI 431 steel rod, and dissimilar rod-to-plate joints are shown in Figure 10. The XRD pattern of the sample was taken from FDZ of the dissimilar rod-to-plate joint. The unwelded AISI 1018 steel and AISI 431 steel primarily consist of ferrite. The WI showed the evolution of ferrite and retained austenite phases. The retained austenite and ferrite phases at the WI of dissimilar rod-to-plate joints are due to the rapid rate of cooling rate associated with RFW. The austenite phase evolves near the ferrite grain boundaries and within the grain. The absence of other phases, such as carbides in the dissimilar rod-to-plate joint, is due to their low weight percentage and tiny size, or the welding procedure did not allow sufficient time for carbide formation. The optical micrographs of different regions of the dissimilar rod-to-plate joint are shown in Figure 11. The joining surfaces of AISI 1018 and AISI 431 steel are bonded with each other due to severe plastic deformation. The FDZ showed the evolution of acicular martensite and retained austenite. It is mainly due to the dynamic recrystallization and rapid cooling at room temperature. Dynamic recrystallization causes the refinement of grains in the weld center when the frictional pressure and the forging pressure are employed to join metal surfaces. The PDZ is the region where microstructural changes started to take place. It shows the partial refinement of grains due to less dynamic recrystallization owing to less frictional heat input and pressure. The PDZ of the AISI 431 steel rod showed the evolution of intragranular martensite. The intragranular martensite was formed due to the increase in temperature above the austenitizing temperature of 800°C during welding. The PDZ of the AISI 1018 steel plate revealed the evolution of finer ferrite and coarse pearlite at grain boundaries. The size of the pearlite was coarser owing to the higher rate of cooling during self-quenching at room temperature after welding. It becomes finer toward the direction of WI due to the deformation of grains. The HAZ of the AISI 431 steel rod showed the evolution of elongated grains in a direction toward the WI. It is attributed to an increase in heat flow and pressure over the grains from HAZ to WI, leading to grain elongation (EL) and deformation. The HAZ of the AISI 1018 steel plate shows coarser ferrite and fewer pearlite colonies. It is due to less deformation during welding.

Figure 9 Optical microstructure of PM: (a) AISI 1018 steel and (b) AISI 431 steel.
Figure 9

Optical microstructure of PM: (a) AISI 1018 steel and (b) AISI 431 steel.

Figure 10 XRD patterns of AISI 1018 steel, AISI 431 steel, and dissimilar rod-to-plate joint.
Figure 10

XRD patterns of AISI 1018 steel, AISI 431 steel, and dissimilar rod-to-plate joint.

Figure 11 Optical microstructures of different regions of rod-to-plate joint: (a) weld interface, (b) FDZ, (c) PDZ of AISI 431 steel rod, (d) PDZ of AISI 1018 steel plate, (e) HAZ of AISI 431 steel rod, and (f) HAZ of AISI 1018 steel plate.
Figure 11

Optical microstructures of different regions of rod-to-plate joint: (a) weld interface, (b) FDZ, (c) PDZ of AISI 431 steel rod, (d) PDZ of AISI 1018 steel plate, (e) HAZ of AISI 431 steel rod, and (f) HAZ of AISI 1018 steel plate.

3.2 Tensile properties

Figure 12 shows the photographs of miniature tensile samples (before and after testing). The tensile properties of dissimilar rod-to-plate joints are reported in Table 4. The miniature tensile specimens failed from HAZ to the plate side during tensile loading. The dissimilar rod-to-plate joints of AISI 431/AISI 1018 steel exhibited a TS of 650 MPa, a yield strength (YS) of 452 MPa, and a % EL of 18%. The tensile properties of dissimilar rod-to-plate joints are greater than those of the AISI 1018 steel. The dissimilar rod-to-plate joints showed 47.72, 32.55, and 20% improvement in TS, YS, and % EL compared to the base metal (AISI 1018 steel) plate. It showed 15.58, 7.75, and 10% reduction in TS, YS, and % EL of rod-to-plate joints compared to base metal (AISI 431 steel) rod. The superior tensile properties of dissimilar rod-to-plate joints are due to the evolution of finer grain microstructure in WI. The dynamic recrystallization causes the refinement of grains in weld center when the frictional pressure and forging pressure are employed to join metal surfaces. The dynamic recrystallization of grains is evolved by optimum frictional heating and plastic deformation of WI.

Figure 12 Fractured miniature tensile specimens: (a) before testing and (b) after testing.
Figure 12

Fractured miniature tensile specimens: (a) before testing and (b) after testing.

Table 4

Tensile properties of dissimilar rod-to-plate joint

TS (MPa) YS (MPa) EL in 6 mm gauge length (%) Location of failure
650 452 18 HAZ on plate side

3.3 Fractured surface analysis

The fractured surfaces of tensile samples were subjected to SEM analysis, which reveals the mixed mode of failure (both ductile and brittle). Figure 13 shows the SEM fractographs of PM (AISI 431 steel and AISI 1018 steel) and dissimilar rod-to-plate joint specimens at lower and higher magnifications. The fractured surfaces of PMs are characterized by the ductile failure mode, revealing the formation of dimples and microvoids. The fractured surfaces of dissimilar rod-to-plate joints also disclosed the evolution of finer and deeper dimples, revealing ductile failure mode. The fractured tensile surface revealed three distinct regions: peripheral region, center region, and concourse region. The mechanism of fracture depends on central region. The central region exhibits more dimples. In the peripheral region, river pattern of dimples with quasi-cleavage was noticed. It disclosed the appearance of cleavage facet regions, fewer dimples, and tearing ridges. The concourse region is less dimpled with quasi-cleavage characteristics.

Figure 13 SEM fractograph of tensile specimens: (a) and (b) center region, (c) and (d) peripheral region, and (e) and (f) concourse region.
Figure 13

SEM fractograph of tensile specimens: (a) and (b) center region, (c) and (d) peripheral region, and (e) and (f) concourse region.

3.4 Microhardness

The microhardness was measured at the cross-section of the dissimilar rod-to-plate joint. The hardness distribution of different zones of dissimilar rod-to-plate joints is shown in Figure 14. The greater hardness of 515 HV0.5 was observed at the WI due to the evolution of finer acicular martensitic structure. The hardness decreased gradually from WI to other zones such as PDZ, HAZ, and base metal. It is attributed to the difference in microstructural characteristics of FDZ, PDZ, HAZ, and base metal. The hardness of the PDZ of the AISI 431 steel rod varies from 490 HV0.5 to 514 HV0.5, whereas the hardness of the PDZ of the AISI 1018 steel plate ranges from 210 HV0.5 to 514 HV0.5. It is due to the greater plastic deformation on the AISI 431 rod side compared to the AISI 1018 plate side of joints. The HAZ region of dissimilar rod-to-plate joints revealed lower hardness compared to FDZ and PDZ regions. The HAZ hardness on the rod side of the joint varies from 347 HV0.5 to 490 HV0.5, whereas the HAZ hardness on the plate side of the joint varies from 160 HV0.5 to 200 HV0.5. The HAZ on the plate side of joint experiences more coarsening of grains compared to HAZ on the rod side of joint. The lower hardness observed in the plate side of joint is mainly responsible for the tensile failure of dissimilar rod-to-plate joints. The hardness of PDZ on MSS rod side was higher than that of the LCS plate side due to the presence intragranular martensitic structure. Similarly, the hardness of HAZ on the MSS rod side is greater than on the LCS plate side due to the evolution of elongated grains and comparatively lower grain coarsening. The WI is 47% harder than the base metal rod.

Figure 14 Microhardness distribution of dissimilar rod-to-plate joint cross-section.
Figure 14

Microhardness distribution of dissimilar rod-to-plate joint cross-section.

4 Conclusions

  1. The dissimilar rod-to-plate joints of AISI 431/AISI 1018 steel were developed using RFW without the problems of porosity, intermetallic formation, and solidification cracking encountered in fusion welding.

  2. The FDZ showed the evolution of finer acicular martensite and retained austenite. It is mainly due to the dynamic recrystallization and rapid cooling at room temperature.

  3. The dissimilar rod-to-plate joints of AISI 431/AISI 1018 steel exhibited greater TS of 650 MPA, YS of 452 MPa, and % EL of 18%. It showed 47.72, 32.55, and 20% improvement in TS, YS, and % EL compared to the base metal plate.

  4. The enhancement in tensile properties and hardness of dissimilar rod-to-plate joints is attributed to the evolution of finer grain microstructure in WI.

  5. The microhardness of WI was greater up to 515 HV0.5 due to the evolution of fully recrystallized grains of finer acicular martensite. The grain growth and resulting lower hardness in HAZ are mainly responsible for the failure of the joints in HAZ only.

  1. Funding information: The authors declare that no funding is received to carry out this study.

  2. Author contributions: All the authors have contributed in the concept, experiment, testing, analysis, and manuscript writing.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this article.

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Received: 2022-08-08
Revised: 2022-10-16
Accepted: 2022-11-29
Published Online: 2023-03-18

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/jmbm-2022-0273
Keywords for this article
rotary friction welding; AISI 431 steel; AISI 1018 steel; microstructure; tensile properties; hardness
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

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