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Soil–water characteristic curve of unsaturated collapsible soils

  • Qasim A. Al-Obaidi EMAIL logo and Tom Schanz
Published/Copyright: January 11, 2023
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Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Materials
From the journal Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Materials Volume 32 Issue 1

Abstract

Collapsible soils are almost found in unsaturated states and involved significant engineering problems. Geotechnical challenges of such soils are represented by the hydro-mechanical behaviour during wetting–drying cycles due to the humidity and climate conditions. The main objective of this paper is to investigate the soil–water characteristic curve (SWCC) of unsaturated collapsible soils. In this study, three types of collapsible soils were investigated such as natural soils of sandy gypseous, silty loess, and artificial soil of gypsum–sand mixture. Determination of soil–water characteristic curve represented by wetting and drying paths has been done using a combination of the axis-translation technique (i.e. pressure plate device) and vapour equilibrium technique (i.e. salts solution desiccators) to cover a wide range of applied suction. The test results show that the air-entry value for all soils occurs at a very low suction range. At the boundary effect zone, the coarse grain size of the soil mass cannot hold the water molecules in the pore space, even with a low value of imposed suction. Moreover, the amount of hysteresis varied based on the geological formation and homogeneity of the soil fabric. Furthermore, SWCC has been interpreted by insignificant volume change and a slight reduction in void ratio, especially at high applied suction.

Keywords: suction; unsaturated; loess; gypseous; axis-translation; vapour equilibrium; collapse

1 Introduction

In recent decades, many geotechnical problems such as collapse deformation and foundation failure were observed. Deformation of the engineering constructions is commonly occurred when carried out on collapsible soil layers, especially in unsaturated conditions [1]. The collapse deformation can be expected in single or multi-step wetting process. Soil wetting due to the reduction in suction pressure leads to particle softening, dissolution of cementing bonds, and hydro-mechanical changes within the soil skeleton [2,3].

Soil suction is a general term that is commonly associated with unsaturated soil mechanics and may be used when referring to matric suction, osmotic suction, or total suction [4,5]. Thus, the relationship between the suction types can be formulated as follows:

(1) ψ t = ( u a − u w ) + π ,

where ψ t is the total suction, ( u a − u w ) is the matric suction, u a is the pore-air pressure, u w is the pore-water pressure, and π = osmotic suction.

To study and solve the air and water flow problems and to analyse seepage, shear strength, and volume change behaviour involving unsaturated and saturated soils, the soil–water characteristic curve (SWCC) is required [5,6]. The SWCC is the denotation of the water content or degree of saturation of the soil corresponding to the soil suction [6,7]. A combination of two methods must be utilized to determine the SWCC because there is no unique technique or device that can cover the entire range of unsaturated soil suction values [6]. The most common laboratory technique is the axis-translation technique (ATT), which utilizes the porous ceramic disks in a pressure plate apparatus. This method can cover matric suction range equal to the maximum air-entry value of the ceramic disk of 1500 kPa. However, a controlled relative humidity environment (i.e. vapour equilibrium technique (VET)) is used to apply total suction up to more than 250000 kPa depending on the type and concentration of salt solutions used [2,6,8].

In general, the SWCC commonly consists of the drying path and the wetting path. To determine the drying path, the applied suction is increased incrementally on the initially fully saturated sample under zero net vertical stress. The volume and the amount of water in the saturated sample are slightly decreased as the suction increases until the air-entry value suction ( ψ aev ) is reached (i.e. the saturation zone). And they significantly decrease along a drying path (i.e. transition zone) until the residual suction ( ψ res ) is reached. After that, the increases in applied suction cause negligible variation in the water content of the soil sample (i.e. the residual zone). Furthermore, the wetting path is a process in which the water content of the soil increases incrementally with a decrease in the applied suction on an initially oven-dried sample. The gap between the drying and wetting paths of SWCC is denoted by hysteresis, and they indicate that there is no single or unique SWCC [5]. Moreover, to establish reliable analysis for the SWCC, the best fit for the data sets is required [9,10].

2 Material, equipment, and techniques

2.1 Soil

Three types of soils were used: Gypseous sand soil of (70%) gypsum content from Al-Ramadi city, Iraq (GI); Loess silt soil from Dresden region, Germany (LG); and artificial sample of (70%) gypsum–(30%) Silber sand mixture (70G30S) [1,3]. The summary of the geotechnical properties of the soil samples is shown in Table 1.

Table 1

Summary of the geotechnical properties of the soil samples

Property Gypseous soil GI Mixed soil 70G30S Loess soil LG Standard
Atterberg’s limits: LL, PL, PI (%) NP NP 28.2, 16.8, 11.4 ASTM D4318
Specific gravity (Gs) 2.35 2.4 2.63 ASTM D854
In place dry density (g/cm3) 1.3 — 1.6 ASTM D2937
Standard compaction test ASTM D1557
 Max.dry density (g/cm3) 1.7 1.69 1.74
 Opt. moisture content (%) 8.0 12.9 16.4
Natural void ratio, e o 0.81 — 0.64
Cu 11.58 19.4 — ASTM D422
Cc 0.33 0.16 —
Passing sieve (75 µ) (%) 22.1 35.5 98
Initial suction ψ o (kPa) 139280 198016 111311 Chilled-Mirror [11]
Collapse potential I c (%) 9.3 11.1 5.4 ASTM D5333 [1,2]

2.2 Equipment and techniques

Two techniques were used during the determination of SWCC to cover wide range of imposed suction. The first technique is the axis-translation technique (ATT) using pressure plate apparatus, and the second is the vapour equilibrium technique (VET) using constant relative humidity desiccators with salt solutions.

2.2.1 Pressure plate apparatus

Pressure plate apparatus with ATT technique is used to determine parts of the drying and wetting paths of SWCC by applying matric suction range less than 1500 kPa as shown in Figure 1. The soil specimen was prepared in a Plexiglas plastic ring with a diameter of 50 mm and a height of 15 mm.

Figure 1 Pressure plate apparatus with axis-translation technique (ATT): (a) device set up; (b) schematic plot.
Figure 1

Pressure plate apparatus with axis-translation technique (ATT): (a) device set up; (b) schematic plot.

Three types of saturated and air-flushed ceramic disks with different air-entry values ( AEV ) were used in this test (i.e. 100, 500, and 1500 kPa) based on applied suction. The pressure plate is connected to an air pressure regulator for applying air pressure and to high accuracy burette of a volume equal to 25 cm3 and a resolution of 0.05 cm3 for applying water pressure on the soil specimens (Figure 1).

2.2.2 Constant relative humidity desiccators

The constant relative humidity desiccators with the VET technique are utilized for continuing the determination of the rest parts of the drying and wetting paths of the SWCC. Many large and leak-proof desiccators containing different concentrations of salt solutions were used to apply total suction range >2000 kPa on the soil specimens, as shown in Figure 2. The actual total suction based on the relative humidity of the salt solutions was measured at the beginning and the end of the test using the chilled-mirror hygrometer technique [11]. The isolated chamber of constant temperature (22 ± 0.5°C) is used to conduct the test.

Figure 2 Constant relative humidity desiccators with vapour equilibrium technique (VET): (a) desiccators set up; (b) schematic plot.
Figure 2

Constant relative humidity desiccators with vapour equilibrium technique (VET): (a) desiccators set up; (b) schematic plot.

3 Best-fit laboratory data for the SWCC

3.1 Van Genuchten (1980)–Mualem (1976) model

Van Genuchten [12] proposed a mathematical function which connected the soil suction and the water content as demonstrated in Eq. (2). In order to unify (n and m) parameters in a single variable, Van Genuchten (1980) used Mualem's (1976) relationship between (n and m) as shown in Eq. (3):

(2) θ n = 1 [ 1 + ( a m ψ ) n ] m ,

(3) m = 1 − 1 n ,

where θ n is the normalized water content or the effective degree of saturation; ψ is the applied suction (kPa); a is the fitting parameter equal to the inverse of air-entry value (1/kPa); n is the fitting parameter equal to rate of water extraction from the soil after exceeding the air-entry value: m is the fitting parameter that are primarily related to residual water content conditions.

3.2 Fredlund and Xing (1994) model

The Fredlund and Xing [10] SWCC equation which expressed in Eqs. (4) or (8) is used the correction factor C ( ψ ) in the Eq. (7) to direct the SWCC at water content equal to zero to a soil suction of 106 kPa.

(4) θ = C ( ψ ) θ s { ln ⁡ [ e + ( ψ / a ) n ] } m ,

or

(5) w ( ψ ) = C ( ψ ) w s { ln ⁡ [ e + ( ψ / a ) n ] } m ,

(6) θ = w ( ψ ) w s ,

(7) C ( ψ ) = 1 − ln 1 + ψ ψ r ln ⁡ 1 + 10 6 ψ r .

If the SWCC is required to fit only between saturated conditions and residual conditions, another form of Eq. (6) can be used to obtain best fit for the experimental data as follows:

(8) θ = θ r + C ( ψ ) θ s − θ r { ln ⁡ [ c + ( ψ / a ) n ] } m ,

where θ is the volumetric water content corresponding to the selected soil suction; θ s is the saturated volumetric water content; c is 2.71828, irrational constant; ψ r is the soil suction corresponding to the residual volumetric water content θ r .

The fitting parameters (a, m, and n) used to obtain the best fit for SWCC as well as the standard regression (R 2) are illustrated in Table 2.

Table 2

Fitting parameters for drying and wetting paths of SWCCs of GI, 70G30S, and LG soils

Model Van Genuchten (1980)–Mualem (1976) Fredlund and Xing (1994)
Parameter a m n R 2 a m n R 2
GI
 Drying-w 0.55 0.26 1.35 0.990 5.5 1.2 1.2 0.974
 Drying-Sr 0.3 0.31 1.44 0.980 4.5 1.0 1.4 0.984
 Wetting-w 0.7 0.26 1.35 0.902 3.0 0.58 5.0 0.982
 Wetting-Sr 0.7 0.26 1.35 0.903 3.0 0.58 5.0 0.981
70G30S
 Drying-w 0.15 0.35 1.55 0.994 13.0 1.75 1.0 0.996
 Drying-Sr 0.12 0.35 1.54 0.993 20.0 1.85 1.0 0.993
 Wetting-w 0.45 0.37 1.58 0.985 3.5 0.85 4.0 0.993
 Wetting-Sr 0.45 0.37 1.58 0.985 3.5 0.85 4.0 0.993
LG
 Drying-w 0.042 0.26 1.35 0.993 50 1.1 1.0 0.994
 Drying-Sr 0.032 0.25 1.33 0.990 50 1.0 0.9 0.992
 Wetting-w 0.4 0.17 1.21 0.981 4.0 0.43 1.9 0.994
 Wetting-Sr 0.4 0.17 1.21 0.987 5.0 0.5 1.7 0.993

4 Results and discussion

Figure 3 shows the variation of void ratio with applied suction in SWCC test-Drying path results for GI, 70G30S, and LG soil samples, while Figures 4–9 and Table 3 demonstrate the results of gravimetric water content versus suction and degree of saturation versus suction, respectively (i.e. SWCCs). Figures 10–12 indicate the verification of experimental data with predicted data.

Figure 3 Variation of void ratio with applied suction in SWCC test-drying path results for GI, 70G30S, and LG soil samples.
Figure 3

Variation of void ratio with applied suction in SWCC test-drying path results for GI, 70G30S, and LG soil samples.

Figure 4 Soil–water characteristic curve, gravimetric water content versus suction for GI soil.
Figure 4

Soil–water characteristic curve, gravimetric water content versus suction for GI soil.

Figure 5 Soil–water characteristic curve, gravimetric water content versus suction for 70G30Ssoil.
Figure 5

Soil–water characteristic curve, gravimetric water content versus suction for 70G30Ssoil.

Figure 6 Soil–water characteristic curve, gravimetric water content versus suction for LG soil.
Figure 6

Soil–water characteristic curve, gravimetric water content versus suction for LG soil.

Figure 7 Soil–water characteristic curve (SWCC), degree of saturation versus suction for GI soil.
Figure 7

Soil–water characteristic curve (SWCC), degree of saturation versus suction for GI soil.

Figure 8 Soil–water characteristic SWCC, degree of saturation versus suction for 70G30S soil.
Figure 8

Soil–water characteristic SWCC, degree of saturation versus suction for 70G30S soil.

Figure 9 Soil–water characteristic curve (SWCC), degree of saturation versus suction for LG soil.
Figure 9

Soil–water characteristic curve (SWCC), degree of saturation versus suction for LG soil.

Table 3

Initial suction, air entry value and residual suction of SWCC

Soil sample Initial suction ( ψ o ) (kPa) Air entry value ( AEV ) (kPa) Residual suction ( ψ r ) (kPa)
GI 139280 2 70
70G30S 198016 4 250
LG 111311 15 2000
Figure 10 Verification of experimental with predicted data of SWCC: (left) gravimetric water content (w) results and (right) degree of saturation (Sr) results for GI soil.
Figure 10

Verification of experimental with predicted data of SWCC: (left) gravimetric water content (w) results and (right) degree of saturation (Sr) results for GI soil.

Figure 11 Verification of experimental with predicted data of SWCC: (left) gravimetric water content (w) results and (right) degree of saturation (Sr) results for 70G30S soil.
Figure 11

Verification of experimental with predicted data of SWCC: (left) gravimetric water content (w) results and (right) degree of saturation (Sr) results for 70G30S soil.

Figure 12 Verification of experimental with predicted data of SWCC: (left) gravimetric water content (w) results and (right) degree of saturation (Sr) results for LG soil.
Figure 12

Verification of experimental with predicted data of SWCC: (left) gravimetric water content (w) results and (right) degree of saturation (Sr) results for LG soil.

From Figure 3, it can be noticed that the SWCC has been interpreted by insignificant volume change throughout the test, especially at high applied suction. However, slight reduction in void ratio is observed during the drying path when for suction values lower than 1500 kPa. This behaviour can be attributed to shrinkage of the soil mass due to an increase in the rate of desorption as well as increasing suction application.

From the SWCCs of both GI (Figures 4 and 6) and 70G30S (Figures 5 and 8) soils, it can be observed that the air-entry value AEV and residual suction value ψ r fall within a relatively low range of suction values. Moreover, the AEV and ψ r for GI soil obtained from the SWCC drying path were 2 and 70 kPa respectively, while the AEV and ψ r for 70G30S soil were 4 and 250 kPa respectively. From these results, it can be concluded that the soil structure in the boundary effect zone could not hold the water molecules in the pore space due to its relatively coarse grain size distribution even with a low value of imposed suction. This behaviour can be attributed to the high permeability of the soil structure produced by the existence of the sand grains in addition to the weak interparticle tension forces of the metastable soil structure.

By comparing the SWCCs for both GI (Figures 4 and 6) and 70G30S (Figures 5 and 8) soils, the transition zone of 70G30S soil was greater and flatter than the transition zone of GI soil, where the residual suction of 70G30S soil exceeded the residual suction of GI soil by approximately five times. However, the gypsum cementing structure showed considerable hysteresis on its SWCC with a clear increase in the magnitude of hysteresis for 70G30S soil. This behaviour can be related to the type and the difference in geological formation and homogeneity of soil fabric and gypsum bonds.

For LG soil, the AEV and ψ r were 15 and 2000 kPa respectively, where the residual suction value occurred at a high suction range (Figures 6 and 9; Table 3). Hysteresis between the drying and wetting curves was also recorded in the SWCC of LG soil but with a lower than for GI and 70G30S soils. The low permeability, consistency, and homogeneity of the silt fabric can explain this behaviour.

In general, hysteresis in SWCCs for all soil specimens exists. This can be related to two reasons: first, the difference in the contact angles and/or open end pores because of cementing bonds dissolution. This action occurred when withdrawing the soil–water interface during drying and when proceeding during wetting, such as in Gypseous soils (GI and 70G30S). Second, the non-uniformity formation of the individual trapped air and pores media causes an ‘ink bottle’ effect phenomenon [13] such as in Loess soil (LG).

It is worth mentioning that the slope of the SWCCs of the three samples at boundary effect zone is not straight. They show a slight desaturation where the capillary suction in this range is less than the AEV . This behaviour can be attributed to that the air at this stage has not yet completely penetrated the soil pores. So the observed slight desaturation is not due to air/water replacement in the pore system of soil mass, but due to the increase of the capillary force application (i.e. suction pressure) towards the AEV caused successive loss of amount water in soil mass.

On the other hand, the drying path of SWCCs for all samples showed also a curvature shape after the residual condition even with a high range of applied suction as in LG soil (Figures 6 and 9). Significant moisture in the microscope level of soil structure is the reason behind this behaviour.

Figures 10–12 show the verification results of experimental data with the predicted data of the SWCCs. Regression analysis for the experimental results using the Van Genuchten (1980)–Mualem (1976) and Fredlund and Xing models reveal the high accuracy of these results in comparison with the predicted data of the SWCCs (Table 2).

The Fredlund and Xing [10] model provided reliable closeness of fit with experimental data sets and more flexibility, particularly at the residual zone of the wetting part at the point of the inflection of the SWCC as confirmed by many researchers such as [5,14].

5 Conclusions

  1. The SWCC has been interpreted by insignificant volume change especially at high applied suction. However, a slight reduction in the void ratio during the drying path is observed. The shrinkage of the soil mass has occurred as a result of increasing the rate of desorption simultaneously with increasing suction application.

  2. The air-entry value for all soils occurs at a low suction range. The residual suction value for gypseous soils occurs at low suction while for loess soil occurs at a relatively high suction range.

  3. At the boundary effect zone, the coarse grain size of the soil mass cannot hold the water molecules in the pore space, even with a low value of imposed suction due to the high permeability and weak interparticle tension forces of the metastable soil.

  4. The hysteresis in SWCC is presented for the three soil samples. The amount of hysteresis varied based on the geological formation and homogeneity of the soil fabric.

  5. Hysteresis in SWCCs caused by the differences in the contact angles; open end pores at the withdrawing and proceeding of soil–water interface as in Gypseous soils. And/or to the non-uniformity of the individual pores and trapped air as in Loess soil.

  6. The slope of the SWCCs at the boundary effect zone for the three soil samples is not straight and shows a slight desaturation where the capillary suction in this range is less than the air entry value.

  7. At the boundary effect zone, the air has not yet completely penetrated into the soil pores. The observed slight desaturation is due to the increase in the applied capillary force (i.e. suction pressure) towards the air-entry value. It caused successive loss of water within the soil mass.

  8. Significant moisture in the microscope level of soil structure is the reason behind the curvature of the drying path of SWCC after the residual condition.

Acknowledgements

I hereby would like to express my gratitude and appreciation to the Chair of Soil Mechanics, Foundation Engineering and Environmental Engineering, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Bochum, Germany and German Academic Exchange Service DAAD for their support and cooperation.

  1. Funding information: The authors state no funding involved.

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2022-04-20
Revised: 2022-04-30
Accepted: 2022-05-06
Published Online: 2023-01-11

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/jmbm-2022-0210
Keywords for this article
suction; unsaturated; loess; gypseous; axis-translation; vapour equilibrium; collapse
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  13. Characterization of rutting resistance of warm-modified asphalt mixtures tested in a dynamic shear rheometer
  14. Microstructural characteristics and mechanical properties of rotary friction-welded dissimilar AISI 431 steel/AISI 1018 steel joints
  15. Wear performance analysis of B4C and graphene particles reinforced Al–Cu alloy based composites using Taguchi method
  16. Connective and magnetic effects in a curved wavy channel with nanoparticles under different waveforms
  17. Development of AHP-embedded Deng’s hybrid MCDM model in micro-EDM using carbon-coated electrode
  18. Characterization of wear and fatigue behavior of aluminum piston alloy using alumina nanoparticles
  19. Evaluation of mechanical properties of fiber-reinforced syntactic foam thermoset composites: A robust artificial intelligence modeling approach for improved accuracy with little datasets
  20. Assessment of the beam configuration effects on designed beam–column connection structures using FE methodology based on experimental benchmarking
  21. Influence of graphene coating in electrical discharge machining with an aluminum electrode
  22. A novel fiberglass-reinforced polyurethane elastomer as the core sandwich material of the ship–plate system
  23. Seismic monitoring of strength in stabilized foundations by P-wave reflection and downhole geophysical logging for drill borehole core
  24. Blood flow analysis in narrow channel with activation energy and nonlinear thermal radiation
  25. Investigation of machining characterization of solar material on WEDM process through response surface methodology
  26. High-temperature oxidation and hot corrosion behavior of the Inconel 738LC coating with and without Al2O3-CNTs
  27. Influence of flexoelectric effect on the bending rigidity of a Timoshenko graphene-reinforced nanorod
  28. An analysis of longitudinal residual stresses in EN AW-5083 alloy strips as a function of cold-rolling process parameters
  29. Assessment of the OTEC cold water pipe design under bending loading: A benchmarking and parametric study using finite element approach
  30. A theoretical study of mechanical source in a hygrothermoelastic medium with an overlying non-viscous fluid
  31. An atomistic study on the strain rate and temperature dependences of the plastic deformation Cu–Au core–shell nanowires: On the role of dislocations
  32. Effect of lightweight expanded clay aggregate as partial replacement of coarse aggregate on the mechanical properties of fire-exposed concrete
  33. Utilization of nanoparticles and waste materials in cement mortars
  34. Investigation of the ability of steel plate shear walls against designed cyclic loadings: Benchmarking and parametric study
  35. Effect of truck and train loading on permanent deformation and fatigue cracking behavior of asphalt concrete in flexible pavement highway and asphaltic overlayment track
  36. The impact of zirconia nanoparticles on the mechanical characteristics of 7075 aluminum alloy
  37. Investigation of the performance of integrated intelligent models to predict the roughness of Ti6Al4V end-milled surface with uncoated cutting tool
  38. Low-temperature relaxation of various samarium phosphate glasses
  39. Disposal of demolished waste as partial fine aggregate replacement in roller-compacted concrete
  40. Review Articles
  41. Assessment of eggshell-based material as a green-composite filler: Project milestones and future potential as an engineering material
  42. Effect of post-processing treatments on mechanical performance of cold spray coating – an overview
  43. Internal curing of ultra-high-performance concrete: A comprehensive overview
  44. Special Issue: Sustainability and Development in Civil Engineering - Part II
  45. Behavior of circular skirted footing on gypseous soil subjected to water infiltration
  46. Numerical analysis of slopes treated by nano-materials
  47. Soil–water characteristic curve of unsaturated collapsible soils
  48. A new sand raining technique to reconstitute large sand specimens
  49. Groundwater flow modeling and hydraulic assessment of Al-Ruhbah region, Iraq
  50. Proposing an inflatable rubber dam on the Tidal Shatt Al-Arab River, Southern Iraq
  51. Sustainable high-strength lightweight concrete with pumice stone and sugar molasses
  52. Transient response and performance of prestressed concrete deep T-beams with large web openings under impact loading
  53. Shear transfer strength estimation of concrete elements using generalized artificial neural network models
  54. Simulation and assessment of water supply network for specified districts at Najaf Governorate
  55. Comparison between cement and chemically improved sandy soil by column models using low-pressure injection laboratory setup
  56. Alteration of physicochemical properties of tap water passing through different intensities of magnetic field
  57. Numerical analysis of reinforced concrete beams subjected to impact loads
  58. The peristaltic flow for Carreau fluid through an elastic channel
  59. Efficiency of CFRP torsional strengthening technique for L-shaped spandrel reinforced concrete beams
  60. Numerical modeling of connected piled raft foundation under seismic loading in layered soils
  61. Predicting the performance of retaining structure under seismic loads by PLAXIS software
  62. Effect of surcharge load location on the behavior of cantilever retaining wall
  63. Shear strength behavior of organic soils treated with fly ash and fly ash-based geopolymer
  64. Dynamic response of a two-story steel structure subjected to earthquake excitation by using deterministic and nondeterministic approaches
  65. Nonlinear-finite-element analysis of reactive powder concrete columns subjected to eccentric compressive load
  66. An experimental study of the effect of lateral static load on cyclic response of pile group in sandy soil
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